SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT

DRILLING RIG EQIPMENTS (2019)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr. RAJU KUMAR
DGM (MECHANICAL)
At
OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION
IDT DEHRADUN

SUBMITTED BY
AYUSH TIWARI
SAP I.D-1000008002
BTECH, ME- A

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ------------pursuing Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical

Engineering from -----------------------, has successfully completed 1 month long
summer training in Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited, Dehradun from
27/05/19 to 25/06/19 at Institute of Drilling Technology, ONGC Dehradun under
the supervision of Mr. Raju Kumar, DGM (Mechanical), IDT. His performance
has been satisfactory and has shown keen interest to understand the subject
assigned. This document is a bonafide testimony of the training undergone and
works carried out by him in this course. He has also submitted a copy of project
report after successful completion of the training.

Date:
Mr. Raju Kumar
DGM (Mechanical)
Frontier Basin, ONGC
Dehradun

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have undergone a 1 month long summer training program at Institute of drilling
technology, ONGC, Dehradun. I am thankful to the management of ONGC for giving
me opportunity to be part of the training. The training was encouraging and certainly
it is going to help me in my future endeavours. Apart from my input the project would
not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals of the
organization. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

I am thankful to Mr. Raju Kumar DGM (Mechanical),Frontier Basin , ONGC

Dehradun who was my mentor during the training. Completion of the project was
only possible because of his guidance and constant supervision. He provided the
necessary material concerned with the project and also gave inputs based on his
personal experience.

I would like to express my gratitude towards the members of Institute of Drilling

Technology, ONGC, Dehradun for their kind co-operation and encouragement
which helped me in timely completion of the project .
 INDEX

Sr. No. Contents Page.no.

1. ONGC 1
2. Drilling Rig and its components 3
3. Types of drilling rigs 6
4. Power system 8
5. Hoisting system 9
6. Rotary system 11
7. Circulating system 14
8. Air control system 17
9. Mud pumps 18
10. Desander 21
11. Degasser 22
12. Shale shaker 23
13. Mug agitator 25
14. Power packs 26
15. Draw works 27
16. Crown Block 29
17. Travelling Block 30
18. Hook 32
19. Air winch 33
20. Rotary Table 34
21. Kelly Spinner 35
22. Swivel 37
23. Pipe Spinner 38
24. Compressor 39
27. Drilling Fluid 41
26. Drill Bit 43
27. Conclusion 46
28. References 47
 ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) is an Indian multinational oil and
gas company headquartered in Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India. It is a Public Sector
Undertaking (PSU) of the Government of India, under the administrative control of
the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. It is India's largest oil and gas exploration
and production company. It produces around 69% of India's crude oil (equivalent to
around 30% of the country's total demand) and around 62% of its natural gas.
On 31 March 2013, its market capitalization was INR 2.6 trillion (US$48.98 billion),
making it India's second largest publicly traded company. In a government survey for
FY 2011–12, it was ranked as the largest profit making PSU in India. ONGC has
been ranked 357th in the Fortune Global 500 list of the world's biggest corporations
for the year 2012.
ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by Government of India, which currently
holds a 68.94% equity stake. It is involved in exploring for and exploiting
hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins of India, and owns and operates over 11,000
kilometers of pipelines in the country. Its international subsidiary ONGC Videsh
currently has projects in 17 countries. ONGC has discovered 6 of the 7 commercially
producing Indian Basins, in the last 50 years, adding over 7.1 billion tonnes of In-
place Oil & Gas volume of hydrocarbons in Indian basins. Against a global decline of
production from matured fields, ONGC has maintained production from its
brownfields like Mumbai High, with the help of aggressive investments in various
IOR (Improved Oil Recovery) and EOR (Enhanced Oil Recovery) schemes. ONGC
has many matured fields with a current recovery factor of 25–33%.Its Reserve
Replacement Ratio for between 2005 and 2013, has been more than one. During FY
2012–13, ONGC had to share the highest ever under-recovery of INR 494.2 million
(an increase of INR 49.6 million over the previous financial year) towards the under-
recoveries of Oil Marketing Companies (IOC, BPCL and HPCL). On 1 November
2017, the Union Cabinet approved ONGC for acquiring majority 51.11 % stake in
HPCL (Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited). On Jan 30th 2018, Oil & Natural
Gas Corporation acquired the entire 51.11% stake of GOI.
Maharatna ONGC is the largest crude oil and natural gas Company in India,
contributing around 70 per cent to Indian domestic production. Crude oil is the raw

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material used by downstream companies like IOC, BPCL, and HPCL to produce
petroleum products like Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene, Naphtha, and Cooking Gas-LPG.

This largest natural gas company ranks 11th among global energy majors (Platts). It
is the only public sector Indian company to feature in Fortune’s ‘Most Admired
Energy Companies’ list. ONGC ranks 18th in ‘Oil and Gas operations’ and 183rd
overall in Forbes Global 2000. Acclaimed for its Corporate Governance practices,
Transparency International has ranked ONGC 26th among the biggest publicly
traded global giants. It is most valued and largest E&P Company in the world, and
one of the highest profit-making and dividend-paying enerprises.
ONGC has a unique distinction of being a company with in-house service capabilities
in all areas of Exploration and Production of oil & gas and related oil-field services.
Winner of the Best Employer award, this public sector enterprise has a dedicated
team of over 33,500 professionals who toil round the clock in challenging locations.
ONGC's operations include conventional exploration and production, refining and
progressive development of alternate energy sources like coal-bed methane and
shale.

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 DRILLING RIG AND ITS COMPONENTS

A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth subsurface. Drilling rigs can
be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or
natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by
one person and such are called augers. Drilling rigs can sample subsurface mineral
deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used
to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation,
tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or
trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil platforms,
commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term
"rig" therefore generally refers to the complex equipment that is used to penetrate
the surface of the Earth's crust.

Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral
exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger
rigs are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust, using
large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling mud(slurry) through the drill bit and up the
casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled.
Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or
sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote
locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews
(which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles
distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.

Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the main
method for drilling rock was muscle power of man or animal. The technique of oil
drilling through percussion or rotary drilling has its origins dating back to the ancient
Chinese Han Dynasty in 500 BC, where percussion drilling was used to extract
natural gas in the Sichuan province.The skills involved the availability of heavy iron
bits and long bamboo poles, the manufacturing of long and sturdy cables woven
from bamboo fibre, and levers. Heavy iron bits were attached to long bamboo
cables suspended from bamboo derricks and then were repeatedly raised and
dropped into a manually dug hole by having two to six men jumping on a lever.

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Han dynasty oil wells made by percussion drilling was effective but only reached 10
meters deep and 100 meters by the 10th century. A modernized variant of the
ancient Chinese drilling technique was used by American businessman Edwin
Drake to drill Pennsylvania's first oil well in 1859 using small steam engines to
power the drilling process rather than by human muscle.

In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller bits using mud circulation
were replaced by the first pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation (RC)
drills, and became essentially obsolete for most shallow drilling, and are now only
used in certain situations where rocks preclude other methods. RC drilling proved
much faster and more efficient, and continues to improve with better metallurgy,
deriving harder, more durable bits, and compressors delivering higher air pressures
at higher volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration. Diamond drilling has
remained essentially unchanged since its inception. Oil and natural gas drilling rigs
are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs but also to create holes that allow
the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil and
gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will be moved off of the well
and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for completions will be moved on
to the well to get the well on line. This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and
streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services,
i.e. completions vs. drilling.

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Simple diagram of a drilling rig and its basic operation

Simple diagram of a drilling rig and its basic operation

1.Mud tank 2. Shale shakers 3. Suction line 4.Mud pump

5.Power source 6.Hose 7. Draw-works 8. Standpipe
9. Kelly hose 10.goose-neck 11. Travelling block 12. Drill line
13.crown block 14.derrick 15.monkey board 16.drillpipe
17.setback 18. Swivel 19.kelly drive 20. Rotary table
21. drill floor 22.bell nipple 23. BOP 24.BOP
25.drill string 26. Drill bit 27.well-head 28.flow-line

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 TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS

There are many types and designs of drilling rigs, with many drilling rigs capable of
switching or combining different drilling technologies as needed. Drilling rigs can be
described using any of the following attributes:

By power used

 Mechanical — the rig uses torque converters, clutches, and transmissions

powered by its own engines, often diesel

 Electric — the major items of machinery are driven by electric motors, usually
with power generated on-site using internal combustion engines

 Hydraulic — the rig primarily uses hydraulic power

 Pneumatic — the rig is primarily powered by pressurized air

 Steam — the rig uses steam-powered engines and pumps (obsolete after
middle of 20th Century.)

By pipe used

 Cable — a cable is used to raise and drop the drill bit

 Conventional — uses metal or plastic drill pipe of varying types
 Coil tubing — uses a giant coil of tube and a downhole drilling motor
By height

(Rigs are differentiated by height based on how many connected pipe they are
able to "stand" in the derrick when needing to temporarily remove the drill pipe
from the hole. Typically this is done when changing a drill bit or when "logging"
the well.)

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  Single — can pull only single drill pipes. The presence or absence of
vertical pipe racking "fingers" varies from rig to rig.

 Double — can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of two connected
drill pipes, called a "double stand".

 Triple — can hold a stand of pipe in the derrick consisting of three connected
drill pipes, called a "triple stand".

 Quadri — can store stand of pipe in the derrick composed of four connected
drill pipes, called a "quadri stand".

By method of rotation or drilling method

 No-rotation includes direct push rigs and most service rigs

 Rotary table — rotation is achieved by turning a square or hexagonal pipe

(the "Kelly") at drill floor level.

 Top drive — rotation and circulation is done at the top of the drill string, on a
motor that moves in a track along the derrick.

 Sonic — uses primarily vibratory energy to advance the drill string

 Hammer — uses rotation and percussive force (see Down-the-hole drill)

By position of derrick

 Conventional — derrick is vertical

 Slant — derrick is slanted at a 45 degree angle to facilitate horizontal drilling

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 SUB SYSTEMS
POWER SYSTEM
Most drilling rigs are required to operate in remote locations where a power supply is
not available. They must therefore have a method of generating the electrical power
which is used to operate the systems mentioned above. The electrical power
generators are driven by diesel powered internal combustion engines (prime
movers). Electricity is then supplied to electric motors connected to the draw works,
rotary table and mud pumps. The rig may have, depending on its size and capacity,
up to 4 prime movers, delivering more than 3000 horsepower. Horsepower (hp) is an
old, but still widely used, unit of power in the drilling industry.

Older rigs used steam power and mechanical transmission systems but modern
drilling rigs use electric transmission since it enables the driller to apply power more
smoothly, thereby avoiding shock and vibration. The drawworks and the mud
pumps are the major users of power on the rig, although they are not generally
working at the same time.

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 HOISTING SYSTEM

Hoisting System is the system used on a drilling rig to perform all lifting activities on
the rig. These activities basically include the lowering and lifting of necessary
equipment in or out of the hole. This system is the main component that performs
the drilling operation by either lifting or lowering the casing or drill pipes to drill and
finally complete the well. The major components of a Hoisting System are derrick,
block & tackle system, drawworks and miscellaneous hoisting equipment like
elevators, hooks and weight indicator.

An overhead crane is a type of crane found in industrial environments. These cranes

are spread over a rectangular area by moving loads backward-forward and side-to-
side. A hoist, which is the lifting element of a crane, travels beside the bridge.
Overhead cranes, unlike construction or mobile cranes are typically utilized either in
manufacturing or in maintenance applications, in which downtime or efficiency are
critical factors. The overhead lifting solutions improve efficiency, safety and
productivity and diminish the environmental impacts. Every drilling rig is required to
have a Hoisting System that helps in either lowering or raising necessary equipment
in or out of the hole

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The Hoisting System consists of three major components:

 Derrick: This is a long steel tower used in the drilling rig to provide
vertical height which is required to raise or lower sections of pipes
into the hole. It is the most important identifiable symbol on the
drilling rig.

 Block & Tackle System: This is a system in the Hoisting System

that comprises of travelling block, crown block and the drilling line.
They are used to provide a mechanical advantage that helps in
handling large loads easily.

 Draw-works: The main operating component of the Hoisting System.

They are used to transmit power from prime movers to the hoisting
drum that lifts the casing, drilling string or tubing string. They also
transmit power to a rotary drive sprocket that helps in driving a rotary
table.

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 ROTARY SYSTEM

The rotary system is used to rotate the drillstring, and therefore the drillbit, on the
bottom of the borehole. The rotary system includes all the equipment used to
achieve bit rotation. The swivel is positioned at the top of the drillstring. It has 3
functions:
1. Supports the weight of the object
2. Permits the string to rotate
3. Allows mud to be pumped while the string is rotating

The hook of the travelling block is latched into the bail of the swivel and the kelly
hose is attached to the gooseneck of the swivel.

The kelly is the first section of pipe below the swivel. It is normally about 40′ long,
and has an outer hexagonal cross-section. It must have this hexagonal (or
sometimes square) shape to transmit rotation from the rotary table to the drillstring.
The kelly has a right hand thread connection on its lower [pin] end, and a left hand
thread connection on its upper [box] end. A short, inexpensive piece of pipe called a
kelly saver sub is used between the kelly and the first joint of drillpipe. The kelly
saver sub prevents excessive wear of the threads of the connection on the kelly, due
to continuous make-up and breakout of the kelly whilst drilling. Kelly cocks are
valves installed at either end of the kelly to isolate high pressures and prevent
backflow from the well if an influx occurs at the bottom of the well. The rotary table is
located on the drill floor and can be turned in both clockwise and anti-clockwise
directions. It is controlled from the drillers console. This rotating table has a square
recess and four post holes. A large cylindrical sleeve, called a master bushing, is
used to protect the rotary table. The torque from the rotary table is transmitted to the
kelly through the four pins on a device which runs along the length of the kelly,
known as the kelly bushing. The kelly bushing has 4 pins, which fit into the post
holes of the rotary table. When power is supplied to the rotary table torque is
transmitted from the rotating table to the kelly via the kelly bushing.

Slips are used to suspend pipe in the rotary table when making or breaking a
connection. Slips are made up of three tapered, hinged segments, which are
wrapped around the top of the drillpipe so that it can be suspended from the rotary
table when
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the top connection of the drillpipe is being screwed or unscrewed. The inside of the
slips have a serrated surface, which grips the pipe.

To unscrew (or “break”) a connection, two large wrenches (or tongs) are used. A
stand (3 lengths of drillpipe) of pipe is raised up into the derrick until the lowermost
drillpipe appears above the rotary table. The roughnecks drop the slips into the gap
between the drillpipe and master bushing in the rotary table to wedge and support
the rest of the drillstring. The breakout tongs are latched onto the pipe above the
connection and the make up tongs below the connection. With the make-up tong
held in position, the driller operates the breakout tong and breaks out the
connection.

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To make a connection the make-up tong is put above, and the breakout tong below
the connection. This time the breakout tong is fixed, and the driller pulls on the
make-up tong until the connection is tight. Although the tongs are used to break or
tighten up a connection to the required torque, other means of screwing the
connection together, prior to torquing up, are available:

1. For making up the kelly, the lower tool joint is fixed by a tong while the kelly is
rotated by a kelly spinner. The kelly spinner is a machine which is operated by
compressed air.
2. A drillpipe spinner (power tongs) may be used to make up or backoff a
connection (powered by compressed air).
3. For making up some subs or special tools (e.g. MWD subs) a chain tong is often
used.

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 CIRCULATING SYSTEM

The circulating system is used to circulate drilling fluid down through the drill string
and up the annulus, carrying the drilled cuttings from the face of the bit to surface.
The main functions of the drilling fluid will be discussed in a subsequent chapter –
Drilling Fluids. However, the two main functions of the drilling fluid are:

1. To clean the hole of cuttings made by the bit

2. To exert a hydrostatic pressure sufficient to prevent formation fluids entering the

borehole Drilling fluid (mud) is usually a mixture of water, clay, weighting material
(Barite) and chemicals. The mud is mixed and conditioned in the mud pits and then
circulated downhole by large pumps (slush pumps). The mud is pumped through the
standpipe, kelly hose, swivel, kelly and down the drillstring. At the bottom of the hole
the mud passes through the bit and then up the annulus, carrying cuttings up to
surface. On surface the mud is directed from the annulus, through the flowline (or
mud return line) and before it re-enters the mudpits the drilled cuttings are removed
from the drilling mud by the solids removal equipment. Once the drilled cuttings have
been removed from the mud it is re-circulated down the hole.

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3. The mud is therefore in a continuous circulating system. The properties of the
mud are checked continuously to ensure that the desired properties of the mud are
maintained. If the properties of the mud change then chemicals will be added to the
mud to bring the properties back to those that are required to fulfil the functions of
the fluid. These chemicals will be added whilst circulating through the mud pits or
mud with the required properties will be mixed in separate mud pits and slowly mixed
in with the circulating mud.
The discharge line from the mud pumps is connected to the standpipe – a steel pipe
mounted vertically on one leg of the derrick. A flexible rubber hose (kelly hose)
connects the top of the standpipe to the swivel via the gooseneck. The swivel will be
discussed in the section on rotary system below.
Once the mud has been circulated round the system it will contain suspended drilled
cuttings, perhaps some gas and other contaminants. These must be removed before
the mud is recycled. The mud passes over a shale shaker, which is basically a
vibrating screen. This will remove the larger particles, while allowing the residue
(underflow) to pass into settling tanks. The finer material can be removed using other
solids removal equipment. If the mud contains gas from the formation it will be
passed through a degasser which separates the gas from the liquid mud. Having
passed through all the mud processing equipment the mud is returned to the mud
tanks for recycling. There will be at least two pumps on the rig and these will be
connected by a mud manifold. When drilling large diameter hole near surface both
pumps are connected in parallel to produce high flow rates. When drilling smaller
size hole only one pump is usually necessary and the other is used as a back-up.
The advantages of using reciprocating positive displacement pumps are that they
can be used to:

1. Pump fluids containing high solids content

2. Operate over a wide range of pressures and flow rates and that they are:
1. Reliable
2. Simple to operate, and easy to maintain
The flowrate and pressure delivered by the pump depends on the size of sleeve
(liner) that is placed in the cylinders of the pumps. A liner is basically a replaceable
tube which is placed inside the cylinder to decrease the bore.

15
 Flow chart To explain flow of mud in circulatory system

Stand
pipe

Kelly
hose

swivel

Suction
Drill pipe

Mixing
hopper
Mud line return

Shale
shaker Drill

Desilter Bit

Degasser

Desander

Mud Tanks Mud Tanks

16
MUD
PUMP

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 AIR CONTROL SYSTEM

The Air Control system manages the compressor and variable speed fan controls to
maintain a constant pressure and temperature on the system with a simple interface.
This automated Compressor control system matches the volume of air created to the
volume being consumed by modulating the positioning of the inlet control valve. The
valve position is controlled by an attached cylinder. The compressor sump pressure
indicates whether the compressor needs to make more or less air to match the
consumption. The control system is capable of artificially lowering the pressure
below system demand, or lowering the volume below potential with operator
overrides. This is just a limit of the maximum volume; the actual volume is
determined by the compressor pressure set point and loading conditions. The
compressor control system monitors engine load and reduces the compressor
volume as necessary to prevent the engine from shutting down due to being
overloaded. The Air Control system is available for all new rigs with a compressor
and can be retrofitted onto older rig models.

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 CIRCULATING SYSTEM
MUD PUMPS

A mud pump (sometimes referred to as a mud drilling pump or drilling mud pump), is
a reciprocating piston/plunger pump designed to circulate drilling fluid under high
pressure (up to 7,500 psi (52,000 kPa)) down the drill string and back up the
annulus. A mud pump is an important part of the equipment used for oil well drilling.
Oilfield mud pumps are reciprocating pumps in which fluid is displaced by a piston.
Single-acting pumps displace fluid on the forward stroke only, while double-acting
pumps displace fluid on both the forward and backward strokes. Most oilfield pumps
are either double-acting duplex, with two cylinders, or single-acting triplex, with three
cylinders. A rig is typically equipped with two or three pumps so that maintenance
can be carried out on one pump without interrupting the drilling operation.

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A logging geologist must know how to calculate the volumetric output of a mud
pump in order to calculate lag time and circulation time. While the pump output is
quoted in the manufacturer’s literature and available from the driller or tool
pusher, it is not always clear what volumetric efficiency is implied by the quoted
output.

Volumetric output is expressed as a volume per stroke. A pump stroke is defined

as one revolution of the crankshaft, so that each piston of a pump moves once
in each direction during one stroke. Single-acting pumps do not displace fluid on
the backward stroke. Each pump can accommodate a range of liners of differing
inside diameters.

Smaller liners provide less volumetric output, but they are capable of operating at
higher discharge pressures. In designing a hydraulic program it is usual to select
the largest liner which will give the required discharge pressure. Unnecessary use
of smaller liners requires higher pump speeds, leading to accelerated wear and
power losses in the drive train, ultimately causing reduced mechanical efficiency.

Single-acting pumps usually operate at a volumetric efficiency of about 95 percent. If

fluid is supplied under positive pressure by supercharging pumps, the efficiency of a
single-acting pump may reach 98 percent. The volumetric output of a double-acting
pump is usually about 90 percent.

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The volumetric efficiency of a pump is not a constant. It can be affected by discharge
pressure, pump operating speed, suction line design, fluid aeration, and mechanical
wear. High discharge pressures promote leakage and compression of the fluid,
thereby reducing volumetric efficiency. High piston speeds, combined with poorly
designed suction lines, can cause knocking when fluid cannot enter the pump fast
enough to maintain a full cylinder. Knocking causes very rapid mechanical wear. The
efficiency of suction lines can be greatly reduced by solids accumulation. Solids
accumulation is sometimes indicated by a temperature difference between the top
and bottom of the suction line. Suction lines should be as large, short, and straight
as possible. Aeration of the drilling fluid causes an increase in compressibility, with a
corresponding drop in volumetric efficiency. This can sometimes be seen as a
decrease in pump pressure combined with a slight increase in pump rate.
A drop in pump efficiency which is not attributable to the above causes may be the
result of leakage past worn valves or seals, indicating that maintenance is required.
The bulk rate of fluid flow is equal to the volumetric output of the pump.

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 DESANDER

A desander is a device at the surface which removes very small particles from the
-drilling mud. Sometimes the bit creates particles so small that they fall through the
shaker and a desander is used to remove fine particles to keep them from
contaminating the drilling mud. It is a hydrocyclone device that removes large drill
solids from the whole mudsystem. The desander should be located downstream of
the shale shakers and degassers, but before the desilters or mud cleaners. A
volume of mud is pumped into the wide upper section of the hydrocylone at an angle
roughly tangent to its circumference. As the mud flows around and gradually down
the inside of the cone shape, solids are separated from the liquid by centrifugal
forces. The solids continue around and down until they exit the bottom of the
hydrocyclone and are discarded. The cleaner and lighter density liquid mud travels
up through a vortex in the center of the hydrocyclone, exits through piping at the top
of the hydrocyclone and is then routed to the mud tanks and the next mud-cleaning
device, usually a desilter.

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 DEGASSER

A degasser is a device used in drilling to remove gasses from drilling fluid which
could otherwise form bubbles. For a small amount of entrained gas in a drilling fluid,
the degasser can play a major role of removing small bubbles that a liquid film has
enveloped and entrapped. In order for it to be released and break out the air and
gas such as methane, H2S and CO2 from the mud to the surface, the drilling fluid
must pass degassing technique and it can be accomplished by the equipment
called degasser which is also a major part of a mud systems.

Types of Degasser

Vacuum Type Degasser: Vacuum Type is the most common form of degasser. It
can be horizontal, vertical or round vessel. A vacuum action is created to pull in the
gas cut mud. When the liquid enters the tank it will flow and be distributed to a layer
of internal baffle plates designed for the mud to flow in thin laminar film and is
exposed to a vacuum that forces the gas to escape and break out of the mud. The
vacuum pump moves the escaping gas from the vessel discharging it to the rig's
flare or environmental control system.

Atmospheric Degasser: This type of degasser processes mud by accelerating fluid

through a submerged pump impeller and impinging the fluid on a stationary baffles
to maximize surface and thus enable escaping gas vent to atmosphere.

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 SHALE SHAKER

Shale shakers are components of drilling equipment used in many

industries, such as coal cleaning, mining, oil and gas drilling.They are the
first phase of a solids control system on a drilling rig, and are used to
remove large solids (cuttings) from the drilling fluid ("mud").

Drilling fluids are integral to the drilling process and, among other functions, serve to
lubricate and cool the drill bit as well as convey the drilled cuttings away from the
bore hole. These fluids are a mixture of various chemicals in a water or oil based
solution and can be very expensive to make. For both environmental reasons and to
reduce the cost of drilling operations, drilling fluid losses are minimized by stripping
them away from the drilled cuttings before the cuttings are disposed of. This is done
using a multitude of specialized machines and tanks.

Shale shakers are the primary solids separation tool on a rig. After returning to the
surface of the well the used drilling fluid flows directly to the shale shakers where it
begins to be processed. Once processed by the shale shakers the drilling fluid is
deposited into the mud tanks where other solid control equipment begin to remove
the finer solids from it. The solids removed by the shale shaker are discharged out of
the discharge port into a separate holding tank where they await further treatment or
disposal.

Shale shakers are considered by most of the drilling industry to be the most
important device in the solid control system as the performance of the successive
equipment directly relates to the cleanliness of the treated drilling fluid.

24
Mudloggers usually go out and check the shakers for rock samples that have
circulated from bottom. They separate the rock from the drilling fluid and take it into
an onsite lab where they dry out the samples and label them according to depth.
They then look at the samples and analyze what kind of rock they have at a certain
depth. This helps determines what depth that type of rock was encountered.

Structure

Shale Shakers consists of the following parts

Hopper: The Hopper, commonly called the "base" serves as both a platform for the
shaker and collection pan for the fluid processed by the shaker screens, also known
as "underflow". The hopper can be ordered according to the needs of the drilling
fluid, aka "mud" system. It can come in different depths to accommodate larger
quantities of drilling fluid as well as have different ports for returning the underflow to
the mud system.

Feeder: The Feeder is essentially a collection pan for the drilling fluid before it is
processed by the shaker, it can come in many different shapes and sizes to
accommodate the needs of the mud system. The most commonly used feeder is
known as the weir feeder, the drilling fluid enters the feeder usually through a pipe
welded to the outside wall near the bottom of
the feeder tank, it fills the feeder to a predetermined point and like water flowing over
a dam the mud (drilling fluid) spills over the weir and onto the screening area of the
shaker. This method of feeding the shaker is most widely used due to its ability to
evenly distribute the mud along the entire width of the shaker allowing for maximum
use of the shaker's screening deck area.

Some feeders can be equipped with a bypass valve at the bottom of the feeder
which allows the drilling fluid to bypass the shaker basket and go directly into the
hopper and back into the mud system without being processed by the shaker
screens.
Vibrator: This is the device which applies the vibratory force and motion type to the
shaker bed. A vibrator is a specialized motor built for the purpose of vibrating

25
 MUD AGITATOR

A Mud Agitator is used in surface mud systems to suspend solids and maintain
homogeneous mixture throughout the system. A mechanical agitator is driven by
an explosion-proof motor, coupled to a gear box that drives the impeller shaft. The
impellers (turbines) transform mechanical power into fluid circulation or agitation.
The objective is to obtain a uniform suspension of all solids.

Types of agitator mounting

 Horizontally mounted agitator
 Vertically mounted agitator

Types of agitating shaft seal

 Mechanical seal
 Packing seal

Types of agitator impellers

 Radial Flow Impeller: A radial flow created by the impellers wherein
the circulation is predominantly horizontal.
 Axial Flow Impellers: A axial flow created by the impellers wherein
the circulation is predominantly axial fluid movement.

26
 POWER SYSTEMS
POWER PACKS

Diesel engines are the main source of power and is a machine rotating at very high
speed, more care should be taken for safe operations. Personal protection kits like
ear protection, exact tools etc. should always be used while attending engines.
Internal combustion engines of over 30 HP should be provided with means, other
than manual, for starting.

It should also be provided with a lock out device to ensure that the external source
of power, if started in advertently when the engine is under repair, does not result in
any danger to persons undertaking the repair.

All moving parts of the engine, which may pose danger to persons working the
vicinity e.g.; the cooling fan, shaft ends, flexible drives etc. should be provided with
suitable guards. The exhaust system of the engine should be fitted with silencer and
spark arrestors to prevent discharge of open flame and sparks from the exhausts
unless the exhaust gases are otherwise cooled and conditioned. It is a statutory
requirement for all diesel engines deployed at rigs.

27
28
 HOISTING SYSTEMS

DRAW WORKS

A draw-works is the primary hoisting machinery that is a component of a rotary

drilling rig. Its main function is to provide a means of raising and lowering the
traveling blocks. The wire-rope drilling line winds on the drawworks drum and
extends to the crown block and traveling blocks, allowing the drill string to be moved
up and down as the drum turns. The segment of drilling line from the draw-works to
the crown block is called the "fast line". The drilling line then enters the sheaves of
the crown block and it makes several passes between the crown block and traveling
block pulleys for mechanical advantage. The line then exits the last sheave on the
crown block and is fastened to a derrick leg on the other side of the rig floor. This
section of drilling line is called the "dead line".

A modern draw-works consists of five main parts: the drum, the motor(s), the
reduction gear, the brake, and the auxiliary brake. The motors can be AC or DC-
motors, or the draw-works may be connected directly to diesel engines using metal
chain-like belts. The number of gears could be one, two or three speed
combinations. The main brake, usually operated manually by a long handle, may be
friction band brake, a disc brake or a modified clutch. It serves as a parking brake
when no motion is desired. The auxiliary brake is connected to the drum, and
absorbs the energy released as heavy loads are lowered. This brake may use eddy
current rotors or water-turbine-like apparatus to convert the kinetic energy of the
moving load to heat and dissipate it.

29
Power catheads (winches) located on each side provide the means of actuating
the tongs used to couple and uncouple threaded pipe members. Outboard
catheads can be used manually with ropes for various small hoisting jobs around
the rig.

The drawworks often has a pulley drive arrangement on the front side to provide
turning power to the rotary table, although on many rigs the rotary table is
independently powered.

Drawworks can be used to hoist or lower several hundred thousand pounds of

weight and can come in AC, DC or mechanical power units. Horsepower ratings for
drawworks can also have a wide range, often ranging from 1000 HP to over 3000
HP.

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 CROWN BLOCK

A crown block is the stationary section of a block and tackle that contains a set of
pulleys or sheaves through which the drill line (wire rope) is threaded or reeved and
is opposite and above the traveling block.The combination of the traveling block,
crown block and wire rope drill line gives the ability to lift weights in the hundreds of
thousands of pounds. On larger drilling rigs, when raising and lowering the derrick,
line tensions over a million pounds are not unusual.The fixed set of pulleys (called
sheaves) located at the top of the derrick or mast, over which the drilling line is
-threaded. The companion blocks to these pulleys are the traveling blocks. By using
two sets of blocks in this fashion, great mechanical advantage is gained, enabling
the use of relatively small drilling line (3/4 to 1 1/2 in. diameter steel cable) to hoist
loads many times heavier than the cable could support as a single strand.
The assembly if the crown block is in the following manner:

31
 TRAVELLING BLOCK

A traveling block is the freely moving section of a block and tackle that contains a set
of pulleys or sheaves through which the drill line (wire rope) is threaded or reeved
and is opposite (and under) the crown block (the stationary section).The combination
of the traveling block, crown block and wire rope drill line gives the ability to lift
weights in the hundreds of thousands of pounds. On larger drilling rigs, when raising
and lowering the derrick, line tensions over a million pounds are not unusual. This
pulley system gives great mechanical advantage to the action of the wire rope drilling
line, enabling heavy loads (drillstring, casing and liners) to be lifted out of or lowered
into the wellbore. The blocks typically consist of four to six individual sheaves over
which the steel cables used to suspend the traveling black are passed. The cables
are then attached to the fixed crown block at the top of the derrick, leaving the lower
block free to move up and down the cable fall. A shock absorber and crane hook are
attached to the bottom of the traveling block and are used to suspend the drill string.

Lowering, lifting, and controlling the drill string in deep well bores generally requires
an extraordinarily robust hoist arrangement. These hoists usually consist of a
crown block mounted in a fixed position at the top of the well derrick and a traveling
block at the bottom of the fall of rope. The traveling block is a multi-sheave device,
generally featuring between four and six individual sheaves. These sheaves are flat
disks with a deep groove machined around their circumference.

32
When grouped together, as they are in the traveling block, they are collectively
referred to as a pulley.The function of the sheaves is to allow the drill line ropes to
pass through the block with minimal friction. In the case of a traveling block, four or
more sheaves are used to spread the often considerable loads carried by the block.

They also serve to increase theoverall mechanical advantage of the hoist system,
as well as a redundancy measure in the case of the rope breakages. The sheaves
are located on a central shaft as an assembly enclosed in a steel casing fitted with
a bracket on its lower surface. The bracket is used to suspend a shock absorbing
crane hook that, in turn, is used to support the designated loads. The drill string
and casings often extend for significant distances below the surface and exert
extreme loads on the drill lines. This requires that traveling blocks be rated to safely
suspend loads that often exceed 1,000,000 pounds (454,000 kg). These extreme
loads, in conjunction with the stress placed on it by the drilling process,
necessitates the use of highly robust and reliable components in the construction of
the block.

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 HOOK

The high-capacity J-shaped equipment used to hang various other equipment,

particularly the swivel and kelly, the elevator bails or topdrive units. The hook is
attached to the bottom of the traveling block and provides a way to pick up heavy
loads with the traveling block. The hook is either locked (the normal condition) or
free to rotate, so that it may be mated or decoupled with items positioned around the
rig floor, not limited to a single direction.

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 AIR WINCH

A winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in (wind up) or let out (wind out)
or otherwise adjust the "tension" of a rope or wire rope (also called "cable" or "wire
cable"). In its simplest form, it consists of a spool and attached hand crank. In larger
forms, winches stand at the heart of machines as diverse as tow trucks, steam
shovels and elevators. The spool can also be called the winch drum. More elaborate
designs have gear assemblies and can be powered by electric, hydraulic, pneumatic
or internal combustion drives. Some may include a solenoid brake and/or a
mechanical brake or ratchet and pawl device that prevents it from unwinding unless
the pawl is retracted. An air winch, sometimes known as an air hoist or air tugger, is
an air-powered version of a winch. It is commonly used for the lifting and the
suspension of materials. In the oil and gas, construction, and maritime industries, air
winches are frequently preferred to electric, diesel, and hydraulic winches because
of their durability, versatility, and safety.

Mechanical Advantage of Hoisting System

35
 ROTARY SYSTEMS

ROTARY TABLE

A rotary table is a mechanical device on a drilling rig that provides clockwise (as
viewed from above) rotational force to the drill string to facilitate the process of
drilling a borehole. Rotary speed is the number of times the rotary table makes one
full revolution in one minute (rpm).

The rotary table is also called a turntable. Most rotary tables are chain driven. These
chains resemble very large bicycle chains. The chains require constant oiling to
prevent burning and seizing. Virtually all rotary tables are equipped with a rotary
lock'. Engaging the lock can either prevent the rotary from turning in one particular
direction, or from turning at all. This is commonly used by crews in lieu of using a
second pair of tongs to makeup or break out pipes.The rotary bushings are located
at the center of the rotary table. These can generally be removed in two separate
pieces to facilitate large items, i.e. drill bits, to pass through the rotary table. The
large gap in the center of the rotary bushings is referred to as the "bowl" due to its
appearance. The bowl is where the slips are set to hold up the drill string during
connections and pipe trips as well as the point the drill string passes through the
floor into the wellbore. The rotary bushings connect to the kelly bushings to actually
induce the spin required for drilling.

Most recently manufactured rigs no longer feature rotary drives. These newer rigs
have opted for top drive technology. In top drive, the drill string is turned by
mechanisms located in the top drive that is attached to the blocks. There is no
need for the swivel because the top drive does all the necessary actions. The top
drive does not eliminate the kelly bar and the kelly bushings.

36
 KELLY SPINNER

A mechanical device for rotating the kelly. The kelly spinner is typically pneumatic.
It is a relatively low torque device, useful only for the initial makeup of threaded tool
joints. It is not strong enough for proper torque of the tool joint or for rotating the
drillstring itself. The kelly spinner has largely replaced the infamous spinning
chains, which were responsible for numerous injuries on the rig floor.

A kelly spinner, comprises of adjustable sleeve concentric with the central opening
receiving a stem of a derrick swivel, the sleeve having an outer diameter surface
with axial stops affixed thereto; a clamp disposed adjacent the sleeve outer
diameter surface in abutment with the axial stops, the clamp including a hub
member and an associated flange member for locking the sleeve to the swivel stem;
a generally cylindrical locking ring assembly disposed in an annular slot formed
between the outer diameter surface of the sleeve, the flange member and the hub
member, the ring assembly including dual axially-split ring members having
complementary axially angled surfaces; a ring gear attached to the clamp; a drive
gear mounted in rotational engagement with the ring gear and a generally cylindrical
housing having a central opening.

A kelly spinner is a well known tool for making up a joint of drill pipe by application of
a fixed amount of torque. Use of a kelly spinner can significantly reduce the time

37
required for the joint makeup operation and the potential of spark formation and lost
fingers in comparison to spinning chains previously employed.Kelly spinners
typically comprise a geared mandrel having suitable pipe connections at each end.
The mandrel is installed in the string between a derrick swivel and a kelly joint. A
motor then turns the mandrel which in turn spins the kelly joint to makeup a new
joint on the kelly opposite end.

In some circumstances, it is not desirable to insert the spinner mandrel in the drill
string due to space limitations. In such instances, the spinner mandrel can be
removed and the ring gear of the spinner is attached directly to a swivel stem. In
one commercial version, the ring gear was secured to a collar which fit around the
swivel stem. The collar was held in place by a plurality of radially spaced set screws
threaded transversely through the collar to engage the swivel stem in coaxial
alignment. Such screws have proved inadequate for preventing axial play along the
swivel stem because the spinner gear was difficult to install without radial
misalignment. Even with proper alignment during installation, the set screws were
axially offset from the ring gear and could not maintain good alignment during
operation. Run-out in the gear usually resulted in an eventual loosening of the
screws. Axial play often caused the spinner gear to slip along the stem and
disengage from an inter meshing motor pinion gear.

Consequently, there is a need in the art for a means for attaching the spinner gear
to the swivel stem which ensures radial alignment to the swivel stem and avoids
play in the axial direction.

38
 SWIVEL

A Swivel is a mechanical device used on a drilling rig that hangs directly under the
traveling block and directly above the kelly drive, that provides the ability for the
kelly (and subsequently the drill string) to rotate while allowing the traveling block to
remain in a stationary rotational position (yet allow vertical movement up and down
the derrick) while simultaneously allowing the introduction of drilling fluid into the
drill string.It is designed to allow rotation of the drillstring beneath it conveying high
volumes of high-pressure drilling mud between the rig's circulation system and the
drillstring.

39
 PIPE SPINNER

Pipe spinner used to rotate a drill pipe during connection thereof to a drill string
or during division of the drill string into individual pipes, the aim has been to
reduce the time and damage on the threaded connections (the pin-and-box
joints) in the screwing/unscrewing operations.

The spinner comprises a pair of hydraulically actuated gripping jaws each provided
with a power-driven, endless silent chain for spinning a drill pipe section into or out
of threaded engagement with a drill string and a hydraulic system for operating the
same. The spinner is operatively connected to a pair of conventional pipe tongs
having a lever arm and articulated jaws connected thereto. The tong jaws have an
open position for receiving the drill pipe section, a latch position in which the jaws
engage in non-gripping relation about the pipe and a pipe gripping position in which
the jaws grippingly engage the pipe. A hydraulic ram is mechanically connected
between the spinner and tongs and in hydraulic circuit with the spinning chain drive
to effect automatic shifting of the tongs jaws from the latched position to the pipe
gripping position.

40
 AIR CONTROL SYSTEMS
COMPRESSOR
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both
can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor
also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some
can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport
liquids.

Positive displacement compressor means a system which compresses the air by

the displacement of a mechanical linkage reducing the volume (since the
reduction in volume due to a piston in thermodynamics is considered as positive
displacement of the piston).

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either

stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric
motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to
30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically
for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW)
are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge
pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180
MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting
compressors are said
to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, and more
costly than comparable rotary units. Rotary screw compressors use two meshed
rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space.

41
These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial
applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3
horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to
moderately high pressure (>1,200 psi or 8.3 MPa).

Compressors of reciprocating and screw type are normally deployed at the Rigs.
The CFM rating of compressor is decided on pneumatic tools deployed in use at
the Rigs. Loading/Unloading of compressors depend upon the operation at the
Rig. Kelly spinner, Pipe spinner, all pneumatic clutches need compressed air to
function. So availability of compressed air at requisite pressure and volume is a
must for smooth drilling operations.

42
 AUXILLIARY EQUIPMENT
DRILLING FLUID

In geotechnical engineering, drilling fluid is used to aid the drilling of boreholes into
the earth. Often used while drilling oil and natural gaswells and on exploration drilling
rigs, drilling fluids are also used for much simpler boreholes, such as water wells.
Liquid drilling fluid is often called drilling mud. The three main categories of drilling
fluids are water-based muds (which can be dispersed and non-dispersed), non-
aqueous muds, usually called oil-based mud, and gaseous drilling fluid, in which a
wide range of gases can be used.

The main functions of drilling fluids include providing hydrostatic pressure to prevent
formation fluids from entering into the well bore, keeping the drill bit cool and clean
during drilling, carrying out drill cuttings, and suspending the drill cuttings while
drilling is paused and when the drilling assembly is brought in and out of the hole.
The drilling fluid used for a particular job is selected to avoid formation damage and
to limit corrosion.

Water-based drilling mud most commonly consists of bentonite clay (gel) with
additives such as barium sulfate (barite), calcium carbonate (chalk) or hematite.
Various thickeners are used to influence the viscosity of the fluid, e.g. xanthan gum,
guar gum, glycol, carboxymethylcellulose, polyanionic cellulose (PAC), or starch. In
turn, deflocculants are used to reduce viscosity of clay-based muds;
anionic polyelectrolytes are frequently used. Red mud was the name for a
Quebracho-based mixture, named after the color of the red tannic acid salts; it was
commonly used in the 1940s to 1950s, then was made obsolete when
lignosulfonates became available. Other components are added to provide various
specific functional characteristics as listed above. Some other common additives
include lubricants, shale inhibitors, fluid loss additives (to control loss of drilling fluids
into permeable formations). A weighting agent such as barite is added to increase
the overall density of the drilling fluid so that sufficient bottom hole pressure can be
maintained thereby preventing an unwanted influx of formation fluids

43
44
Functions of Drilling Fluid:

1. Remove cuttings from well

2. Suspend and release cuttings
3. Control formation pressures
4. Seal permeable formations
5. Maintain wellbore stability
6. Minimizing formation damage
7. Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling assembly
8. Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit
9. Ensure adequate formation evaluation
10. Control corrosion (in acceptable level)
11. Facilitate cementing and completion
12. Minimize impact on environment

45
 DRILL BIT

In the oil and gas industry, a drill bit is a tool designed to produce a generally
cylindrical hole (wellbore) in the earth’s crust by the rotary drilling method for the
discovery and extraction of hydrocarbons such as crude oil and natural gas. This
type of tool is alternately referred to as a rock bit, or simply a bit. The hole diameter
produced by drill bits is quite small, from about 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) to 30 inches (76
cm), compared to the depth of the hole, which can range from 1,000 feet (300 m) to
more than 30,000 feet (9,100 m). Subsurface formations are broken apart
mechanically by cutting elements of the bit by scraping, grinding or localized
compressive fracturing. The cuttings produced by the bit are most typically removed
from the wellbore and continuously returned to the surface by the method of direct
circulation.

Drill bits are broadly classified into two main types according to their primary
cutting mechanism. Rolling cutter bits drill largely by fracturing or crushing the
formation with "tooth"-shaped cutting elements on two or more cone-shaped
elements that roll across the face of the borehole as the bit is rotated. Fixed cutter
bits employ a set of blades with very hard cutting elements, most commonly natural
or synthetic diamond, to remove material by scraping or grinding action as the bit is
rotated.
Modern commercial rolling cutter bits usually employ three cones to contain the
cutting elements, although two cone or (rarely) four cone arrangements are
sometimes seen.These bits mainly fall into two classes depending on the
manufacture of the cutting elements or "teeth". Steel-tooth bits have cones that
have wedge-shaped teeth milled directly in the cone steel itself.
46
 Extremely hard tungsten carbide material is often applied to the surfaces of the
teeth by a welding process to improve durability. Tungsten carbide insert (TCI) bits
have shaped teeth of sintered tungsten carbide press-fit into drilled holes in the
cones. Some types of steel-tooth bits also have TCI elements in addition to the
milled teeth. The cones rotate on roller or journal bearings that are usually sealed
from the hostile down-hole drilling fluid environment by different arrangements of o-
ring or metal face seals. These bits usually also have pressure compensated grease
lubrication systems for the bearings.

The first commercially successful rolling cutter drill bit design was disclosed in U.S.
patents granted to Howard R. Hughes, Sr. on August 10, 1909, and which led to the
creation of what became the Hughes Tool Company. This bit employed two conical
steel rolling elements with milled teeth that engaged the formation, when the device
was rotated, to produce the cutting action. This design represented a significant
improvement in drilling performance over the so-called "fish tail" scraper type bits
commonly used in rotary drilling at the time, and over the next two decades, rotary
drilling with rolling cutter bits largely replaced all other drilling methods in the oilfield.
The significance of the Hughes Two-Cone Drill Bit was recognized on its 100th
anniversary when it was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Fixed cutter bits were the first type of drill bit employed in rotary drilling, and they are
mechanically much simpler than rolling cutter bits. The cutting elements do not move
relative to the bit; there is no need for bearings or lubrication. The most common
cutting element in use today is the polycrystalline diamond cutter (PDC), a sintered
tungsten carbide cylinder with one flat surface coated with a synthetic diamond
material. The cutters are arranged on the blades of the bit in a staggered pattern
with the diamond coated cutter surface facing the direction of bit rotation to provide
full coverage of the borehole bottom. Other fixed cutter bits may employ natural
industrial-grade diamonds or thermal stable polycrystalline diamond (TSP) cutting
elements.
There is also currently available, a hybrid type of bit that combines both rolling
cutter and fixed cutter elements.Regardless of type, drill bits must satisfy two
primary design goals: maximize the rate of penetration (ROP) of the formation
and provide a long service life.

47
The reason for this is a direct consequence of the rotary drilling method. Modern
oilfield drilling operations require substantial capital and operating expense. It
might cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to mobilize the equipment and
manpower resources required for drilling to the site. Once the rig is in place,
substantial daily expenses are incurred regardless of whether or not a wellbore is
actually being drilled. Obviously the faster the wellbore reaches required total
depth, the lower the overall cost. Additionally, if the bit fails or wears out, it must
be replaced by removing the perhaps several miles of the drill pipe to which it is
attached. During this time, known as a "trip", the depth of the hole is not
advanced, but much of the operating costs are still incurred. For this reason, the
effectiveness of a bit is often measured as drilling cost per foot of hole drilled,
where a lower number indicates a higher performing bit. Note that the cost of the
bit itself often is a rather small part of the overall drilling cost.

Within the last couple of decades, a third design goal has become important in some
cases. Many wells today are drilled using directional technology, where the wellbore
is intentionally directed from vertical. For bits to be used in these situations, the
ability of the bit to be more
easily "steered" during drilling has become a third, possibly driving, primary
goal of the design.

The ability of a bit design to satisfy the two primary goals is constrained by a
number of factors, most importantly the wellbore diameter. Other constraints are
dictated by its intended use: formation type (hardness, plasticity, abrasiveness) to
be drilled, operating environment at depth (temperature, pressure, corrosiveness),
the capabilities of the equipment used in the operation (rotating speed, available
weight on bit, pump horsepower) and the angle of the wellbore (vertical, directional,
horizontal). Modern drill bit designs try to balance these constraints to achieve the
primary goals.

48
 CONCLUSION

The internship at the ONGC, Dehradun was a period to cherish. Visits in the IDT
drilling rig area was very knowledgeable and learning experience. It provided me an
industrial exposure and increased my interest in drilling technology field.

The visit to ONGC Museum acquainted me with the knowledge about history of
ONGC and about the exploration of hydrocarbons.

Skilled workers of ONGC has given me enormous information about the machinery
being used.
This training gave me knowledgeable as well as a memorable experience.

49
 REFERENCES

 Wikipedia
 Google photos
 ONGC website
 www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
 Google search engine

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