Cyclic Steam Stimulation Thermal EOR Process

Tripoli University
Postgraduate Program for M.Sc. Degree

Petroleum Engineering Department
Advanced Topics in EOR

PE 618
Thermal Recovery Process “Cyclic Steam

Stimulation”
Prepared by:
Osama Gouma Abo Aliga
Supervised by:
Dr. Nuri K. Ben Hmeda
Spring 2018
Advanced Topics in EOR Cyclic Steam Stimulation
Abstract
The development of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes has been ongoing since the
end of Second World War, when operators who owned reservoirs with declining
reserves recognized that significant quantities of oil remained in their reservoirs after
primary and secondary recovery.
The current renewed interest on research and development of (EOR) processes and their
oil field implementation would allow targeting significant volumes of oil accumulations
that have been left behind in mature reservoirs after primary and secondary oil recovery
operations.
The potential for (EOR) is real and achievable. Oil recovery mechanisms and processes
are concisely reviewed in this Paper. A brief introduction to primary and secondary oil
recovery stages is provided, while the main focus of the Paper is give to Cyclic Steam
Stimulation Thermal Recovery process.
1
Introduction
The methods of calculation of reserves in place and recovery factors which could
expected by natural depletion. It was shown that the presence of a gas cap or an active
aquifer generally results in a high recovery factor, by providing a strong natural drive.
The lack of sufficient natural drive in most reservoirs has led operators to introduce
some form of artificial drive, the most basic method being the injection of natural gas
or water.
In the early days of petroleum industry, reservoir were allowed to produce naturally
until a certain stage of depletion has been reached, generally when the production rates
had become uneconomic. This was known as “primary” production phase. In the second
phase the recovery was increased by installing methods of artificial drive (water or gas
injection) logically known as “secondary recovery methods”.
This definition of secondary oil recovery is only of historic interest, since secondary
recovery methods are now introduced mush earlier in the life of a field, often before the
end of the primary recovery production phase. However, before under taking a
secondary recovery project it should be clearly proven that natural recovery processes
are insufficient, otherwise there is a risk that the heavy capital investment required may
be completely wasted. A certain amount of production data is there for required. Before
producing a reservoir it is unwise to assume that it is associated aquifer or gas cap
inactive.
However, if reservoir produced too long during the primary phase the chances of a
successful secondary recovery phase may be reduced.
Several recovery methods may be used in succession: for example, initial recovery by
natural drainage followed by water injection and then carbon dioxide injection. Some
authors have used the term “tertiary recovery”.
In the last few years, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) processes have re-gained interest
from the research and development phases to the oilfield (EOR) implementation. This
renewed interest has been furthered by the current high oil price environment, the
increasing worldwide oil demand, the maturation of oilfields worldwide, and few new
well discoveries (1).
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1. How Oil is Produced?(2)

In the producing life of a reservoir. Primary recovery is oil recovery by natural drive
mechanisms: solution gas, water influx, and gas cap drive or gravity drainage. Figure
(1) illustrates.
Secondary recovery refers to techniques, such as gas or water injection, whose purpose
is mainly to raise or maintain reservoir pressure. Tertiary recovery is any technique
applied after secondary recovery. Nearly all (EOR) processes have been at least field
tested as secondary displacements.
Figure (1): The oil recovery classification (3).
1.1 Primary Oil Recovery (2):
After discovery, must oil reservoirs undergo a period of production called primary oil
recovery. Primary oil recovery used natural reservoir energy to drive the oil through the
complex pore network to producing wells. The driving energy may be derived from one
or more of the following:
 Rock and liquid expansion drive.

 Depletion drive.
 Gas-cap drive.
 Water drive.
 Gravity drainage drive.
 Combination drive.
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The primary recovery efficiency is generally low, varied from 5 to 20 % (OIIP), when
gas is the drive agent. Much higher recoveries are associated with water drives.
Reservoirs with effective gravity drainage can also have higher recoveries.
Eventually, the natural drive energy is dissipated. When this occurs energy must be
added to the reservoir to produce any additional oil.
Driving Mechanism Oil Recovery Range, %

Rock and liquid expansion 3-7
Solution gas 5-30
Gas cap 20-40
Water drive 35-75
Gravity drainage <80
Combination drive 30-60
Table (1): Recovery ranges for each drive mechanism (4).
1.2 Secondary Oil Recovery (2):
Over the lifetime of the well, the pressure will fall, and at some point, there will be
insufficient underground pressure to force the oil to the surface. If economical the
remaining oil in the well is extracted using secondary oil recovery methods.
Secondary oil recovery involved the introduction of energy into reservoir by injection
gas or water under pressure where the gas is immiscible with oil. Separate wells are
usually used for injection and production.
The technique was called “Pressure Maintenance”. The added energy stimulates the
movement of oil, providing additional recovery at increased rates.
Secondary recovery occurs as artificial energy is applied into the wellbore and lift fluids
to the surface. This may be accomplished by, installing a subsurface pump.
There are two main objectives in secondary crude oil production:
 Supplement the depleted reservoir energy pressure.
 Sweep the crude oil from the injection well toward and into the production well.
The most common operations are commonly used:
 Waterflood.
 Water-gas reinjection.
Note: Secondary recovery is done when well, reservoir, facility, and economic
conditions permit.
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1.2.1 Waterflood (5):

The water flooding is the most widely fluid injection process today. It has been
recognized since 1880 that injecting water into an oil bearing formation has the
potential to improve oil recovery. Waterflooding is responsible for significant fraction
of the oil currently produced in the world. In fact, in 21st century, most operators begin
to investigate the feasibility of water injection within a short time following the initial
field recovery.
The primary reasons why waterflooding is the most successful and most widely used
oil recovery process:
 General availability of water.
 Low cost relative to other injection fluid.
 Ease of injecting fluid into formation.
 High efficiency with which water displace oil.
The injection of water into a wellbore to push, or “drive” oil to another well where it
can be produced, recognized enhanced oil recovery technique since early 1900’s.
Some oil reservoirs have natural water influx, which increases oil production Called
“water drive” reservoirs. They are natural “waterfloods”.
1.2.1.1 Flooding Pattern (5):

The injection wells are distributed amongst the production wells, and the most common
patterns are the following:
 Direct line drive.

 Staggered line drive.
 Five-spot.
 Seven-spot.
 Nine-spot.
Figure (2): The flood patterns (4).
5
Why would you need to waterflood? (6)

Many oil reservoirs are solution gas drive, waterflooding can recover much of the oil
left behind under “Primary” production, especially a solution gas drive system, since
waterflooding usually follows “primary” production, and it is often called a “secondary”
recovery technique.
How does a waterflood work? (6)

 Certain oil wells are converted to water injection wells.
 Other oil wells remain as producers.
 The injected water displaces, or “pushes” oil to the producing wells.
Figure (3): The waterflood technique (6).
When to start EOR? (9)
A common procedure for determining the optimum time to start (EOR) process after
waterflooding depends on:
 Anticipated oil recovery.

 Fluid production rates.
 Monetary investment.
 Costs of water treatment and pumping equipment.
 Costs of maintenance and operation of the water installation facilities.
 Costs of drilling new injection wells or converting existing production wells
into injectors.
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1.2.2 Water, Gas Injection (7):

The injected fluids maintain reservoir pressure or repressure the reservoir after primary
depletion and displace a portion of the remaining crude oil to production wells. In fact,
the first method recommended for improving the recovery of oil was probably the
reinjection of natural gas.
The success of secondary recovery processes depends on:
 The mechanism by which the injected fluid displaces the oil (displacement
efficiency).
 The volume of the reservoir that the injected fluid enters (conformance or sweep
efficiency).
Immiscible gas (one that will not mix with oil) is injected to maintain formation
pressure, to slow the rate of decline of natural reservoir drives, and sometimes to
enhance gravity drainage.
Immiscible gas is commonly injected in alternating steps with water to improve
recovery. Immiscible gases include natural gas produced with the oil, nitrogen, or flue
gas.
Immiscible gas injected into the well behaves in a manner similar to that in a gas-cap
drive: the gas expands to force additional quantities of oil to the surface. Gas injection
requires the use of compressors to raise the pressure of the gas so that it will enter the
formation pores.
1.2.3 Limitations and disadvantages of Primary and Secondary Recovery

Processes (9):
 Rapid decrease in reservoir pressure, leads to low oil production rates and oil
recovery (5 – 10 % of original oil in place).
 Secondary recovery (water or gas injection) often does not yield a good recovery
due to:
 Reservoir heterogeneity.
 Unfavorable mobility ratio between oil and water.
 Water and gas coning problems.
 Low sweep efficiency.
1.3 Tertiary Recovery (8):

Traditional primary and secondary recovery methods typically recover only one third
of the original oil in place. It is at some point before secondary recovery ceases to
remain feasible that enhanced oil recovery methods must be applied if further oil is to
be recovered.
Tertiary oil recovery methods take oil recovery one step further and sometimes rely on
methods that reduce the viscosity of the oil and increase oil mobility. Enhanced oil
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recovery methods have focused on recovering the remaining oil from a reservoir that
has been depleted of energy during the application of primary and secondary recovery
methods.
Conventional oil production methods may be unsuccessful because the management of
the reservoir was poor or because reservoir heterogeneity prevented the recovery of
crude oil in an economical manner. Reservoir Heterogeneity, such as fractures and
faults, can cause reservoirs to drain inefficiently by conventional methods. Also, highly
cemented or shale zones can produce barriers to the flow of fluids in reservoirs and lead
to high residual oil saturation.
Reservoirs containing crude oils with low API gravity often cannot be produced
efficiently without application of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods because of the
high viscosity of the crude oil. In some cases, the reservoir pressure is depleted
prematurely by poor reservoir management practices that create reservoirs with low
energy and high oil saturation.
1.4 Factors affecting the oil production and recovery (4):

The oil reserves obtained as results of (EOR) methods in addition to the primary or
conventional reserves may be expressed in as the percentage of original oil in place
(OIIP). To estimate how much (EOR) method add to oil reserves, the recovery potential
of the reservoir has to be known.
The “Recovery Factor” depends on a number of parameters including:
 Drive mechanism of the reservoir.
 Mobility of reservoir fluids.
 Permeability and variation of permeability, both vertically and in the area.
 Inclination and stratification of the layers.
 Strategy and methods of field development and exploitation.
Although no two reservoirs are identical in all aspects, they can be grouped according
to the primary recovery mechanism by which they produce.
It has been observed that each drive mechanism has certain typical performance
characteristics in terms of:
 Ultimate recovery factor.
 Pressure decline rate.
 Gas-oil ratio.
 Water production.
8
Enhanced Oil
Recovery
9
2. Definition of Enhanced Oil Recovery (9):

Tertiary or enhanced recovery refers to processes in the porous medium that recover oil
not produced by the conventional primary and secondary production methods. (EOR)
is meant to improve the sweep efficiency in the reservoir by use of injectants that can
reduce the remaining oil saturation below the level achieved by conventional injection
methods.
Included in remaining oil defined here are both the oil trapped in the flooded areas by
capillary forces “residual oil”, and the oil in areas not flooded by the injected fluid
“bypassed oil”. Examples of injectants are CO2 or chemicals added to the injected
water. In summary, (EOR) is to reduce the residual oil saturation and to improve the
sweep efficiency in all directions.
The oil recovered by both primary and secondary processes ranges from 20 to 50 %
depending upon oil and reservoir properties. The goal of enhanced oil recovery
processes is to recover at least a part of the remaining oil in place. These methods
change the reservoir fluid properties.
The objective of (EOR) is to increase the pressure difference between the reservoir and
production wells, or to increase the mobility of the oil by reduction of the oil viscosity
or decrease of the interfacial tension between the displacing fluids and oil. There are
several (EOR) processes that are considered to be promising:
 Chemical processes.
 Thermal processes.
 Miscible displacement processes.
 Other processes, such as microbial (EOR).
The goal of any enhanced oil recovery process is to mobilize “remaining” oil using:
 Thermal methods to reduce 𝑆𝑜𝑟 by steam distillation and reduces oil viscosity.
 Chemical methods to Reduce 𝑆𝑜𝑟 by lowering water-oil interfacial tension, and
increases volumetric sweep efficiency by reducing the water-oil mobility ratio.
 Miscible methods to reduce 𝑆𝑜𝑟 by developing miscibility with the oil through a
vaporizing or condensing gas drive process.
This is achieved by enhancing oil displacement and volumetric sweep efficiencies.
2.1 Factors Affecting the (EOR) (1):

1. The influence of reservoir characteristic:
1. Average depth:
Reservoir depth has an important influence on both technical and economic aspects of
an enhanced oil recovery project. On the technical level, a shallow reservoir putts a
restraint on the injection pressure that can be used, since this must be less than fracture
pressure.
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Economically, the cost of an enhanced oil recovery project is directly related to the
depth.
2. Structure, in particular the dip of bed:
For two phase flow in an inclined bed in which gravity opposes the sweep, the fractional
flow (𝑓1 ) of displacing fluid is given by:
𝑘𝑘
1 − 𝜇 𝑟2 ∆𝜌 𝑔 sin 𝛼 1
2𝑢
𝑓1 = < → (1)
𝑘𝑟2 𝜇1 𝑘𝑟2 𝜇1
1+ 1+
𝜇2 𝑘𝑟1 𝜇2 𝑘𝑟1
Using this equation it can be shown that the distribution of hydrocarbon recovery from
a porous medium, for any economic limit of the fractional flow of the displacing fluid
in production stream, is greater when gravity plays apart than when it does not.
In practice, gravitational forces are truly effective in reservoirs containing highly
permeable sands or in which the dip is unusually large.
3. Degree of homogeneity:
In order to achieve a high recovery of hydrocarbons, there should be no impediment to
fluid flow within reservoir. Possible impediment may of tectonic “isolating fault” or
stratigraphic nature “lateral facies variation, lenses, unconformities”, it is advisable to
ascertain the degree of communication between wells before any enhanced recovery
project.
4. Petrophysical properties (permeability, capillary pressure, wettability):
Porosity, permeability, relative permeability as function of saturation, capillary
pressure and wettability are all properties which should be taken into account in the
study of enhanced oil recovery project. The higher porosity and the higher residual oil
saturation at the end of the natural recovery phase, the more attractive an enhanced oil
recovery project becomes.
2. The influence of fluid characteristic:

 Fluid viscosity:
The principle fluid property to be taken into account when designing an enhanced oil
recovery project is the viscosity. If the fluid are highly viscos the displacement velocity
well be low, since the applied pressure gradient limited. Oil production well be at low
rate that it will not be economically attractive.
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2. The arrangement of production and injection wells (Flooding pattern):

The objective is to select the proper pattern that will provide the injection fluid with the
maximum possible contact with the crude oil system. This selection can be achieved
by:
 Converting existing production wells into injectors.
 Drilling infill injection wells.
2.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Processes (7):

(EOR) refers to the recovery of oil through the injection of fluids and energy not
normally present in the reservoir. The injected fluids must accomplish several
objectives as follows:
 Boost the natural energy in the reservoir.

 Interact with the reservoir rock/oil system to create conditions favorable for
residual oil recovery that include among others:
 Reduction of the interfacial tension between the displacing fluid and oil.
 Increase the capillary number.
 Reduce capillary forces.
 Increase the drive water viscosity.
 Provide mobility control.
 Oil swelling.
 Oil viscosity reduction.
 Alteration of the reservoir rock wettability.
The ultimate goal of (EOR) processes is to increase the overall oil displacement
efficiency, which is a function of microscopic and macroscopic displacement
efficiency.
Microscopic efficiency refers to the displacement or mobilization of oil at the pore scale
and measures the effectiveness of the displacing fluid in moving the oil at those places
in the rock where the displacing fluid contacts the oil, microscopic efficiency, can be
increased by reducing capillary forces or interfacial tension between the displacing fluid
and oil or by decreasing the oil viscosity.
Macroscopic or volumetric displacement efficiency refers to the effectiveness of the

displacing fluid in contacting the reservoir in a volumetric sense.
Volumetric displacement efficiency also known as conformance indicates the

effectiveness of the displacing fluid in sweeping out the volume of a reservoir, both
areally and vertically, effectively the displacing fluid moves the displaced oil toward
production wells. Figure (4) presents a schematic of sweep efficiencies: microscopic
and macroscopic (areal sweep and vertical sweep).
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Figure (4): Schematics of microscopic and macroscopic sweep efficiencies (7).

For example waterfloods, this is the ratio of water to oil mobilities. The mobility ratio
(M) for a waterflood is given by the following expression:
𝑘𝑟𝑤⁄
𝑀𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜆𝑊 𝜇𝑤 𝑘𝑟𝑤 𝜇𝑜
𝑀= = = = → (2)
𝑀𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝜆𝑂 𝑘𝑟𝑜⁄ 𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝜇𝑤
𝜇𝑜
Where:
𝜆𝑊 , 𝜆𝑂 : Water and oil mobilities, (md/cp).
𝑘𝑟𝑤 , 𝑘𝑟𝑜 : Relative permeabilities to water and oil.
𝜇𝑜 , 𝜇𝑤 : Oil and water viscosity, (cp).
Volumetric sweep efficiency increases as (M) decreases, therefore mobility ratio is an

indication of the stability of a displacement process, with flow becoming unstable
(nonuniform displacement front or viscous fingering) when (M > 1.0).
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Figure (5): Waterflooding with unfavorable mobility ratio (7).

The capillary number (𝑁𝐶 ) is a dimensional group expressing the ratio of viscous to
capillary (interfacial) forces as follows:
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝜇𝑑

𝑁𝐶 = = → (3)
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜎𝜎𝑤
Where:
𝑣 : The interstitial velocity of the displacing fluid (water).
𝜎𝜎𝑤 : Interfacial tension between the oil and the displacing fluid.
Capillary numbers for a mature waterflooding process are commonly in the order of
(10−7 ) to(10−6 ).
At the end of the waterflooding process, experience has shown that at these low
capillary numbers an important amount of oil is left behind in the reservoir trapped by
capillary forces at the pore scale, if the capillary number is increased through the
application of (EOR) processes, residual oil will be mobilized and recovered.
The most practical alternative to significantly increase the capillary number is through
the application of surfactants or alkaline flooding (chemical flooding).
(EOR) processes are classified to:
 Chemical processes.
 Miscible processes.
 Thermal processes.
 Other processes, such as microbial (EOR).
2.2.1 Chemical Processes:

Chemical processes are classified to general categories:
1. Polymer flooding.
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2. Surfactant flooding.
3. Caustic flooding.
2.2.1.1 Polymer Flooding (7):

Polymers are used to achieve favorable mobility ratios during water or surfactant
flooding. It is therefore essential that the viscosity of the polymer solution is not reduced
during the flooding period, which for North Sea reservoirs can be several years.
Temperature can affect polymer viscosity both with respect to the change in state of
energy and temperature dependent chemical breakdown of the polymer chain.
The high viscosity of the polymer solution may reduce the infectivity dramatically and
lead to low injection rates. The polymer injection is high dependent on the temperature.
The long term, temperature dependency stability of the polymer has been studied for
the promising polymers xanthan and scleroglucan at unfavorable conditions, which
may be present in real field cases, the xanthan viscosity decay time constant, (τ) as
defined by:
−𝑡
𝜇𝑝 = exp ( ) → (4)
𝜏
It can be in the order of days. However, the decay time constant can being the order of
years, illustrating the level of uncertainty in predicting polymer viscosity. Generally
surfactant flooding is used in combination of polymer flooding which results in:
 Increase in the viscosity of water.
 Reduction in relative permeability to water.
As a result of those alterations, mobility ratio M is also reduced leading to more
favorable conditions for oil recovery. In reservoirs with high mobility ratio, results in
the improvement of the volumetric sweep efficiency.
Polymer flooding will be favorable in reservoirs where oil viscosity is high, or in
reservoirs that are heterogeneous, with the oil bearing layers at different permeability's.
Polymers have been extensively used in field applications in order to reach the
following goals:
 To improve mobility ratio and thus, to reach more favorable conditions for oil
displacement.
 To reduce effective permeability to the displacing fluid in highly permeable zones
or to plug those zones.
 To improve the infectivity profile of the injecting wells and to improve the
production performance of producers by plugging off high conductivity zones in
the vicinity of a well.
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2.2.1.2 Surfactant Flooding (7):

The aim of surfactant flooding is to recover the capillary trapped residual oil after
waterflooding. By means of surfactant solutions, the residual oil can be mobilized
through a strong reduction in the interfacial tensions between oil and water. Some of
the larger field tests 90 to 400 acres have been technical successful, recovering 25 to 30
% of the residual oil. In spite of this, the process seemed to be far from economical. For
the North Sea this method seems to be very optimistic. By the possibility to inject the
surfactant before the reservoir is completely waterflooding, it is likely to improve the
process economy by earlier production of the extra oil, restricting us to a time window
for the application of surfactant flooding.
After the surfactant solution has been injected, the trapped oil droplets or ganglions are
mobilized due to a reduction in interfacial tension between oil and water. The
coalescence of these drops leads to a local increase in oil saturation. Behind the oil
bank, the surfactant now prevents the mobilized oil from being retrapped. The ultimate
residual oil saturation will therefore be determined by the interfacial tension between
oil and surfactant solution behind the oil bank.
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency:
 Interfacial tension reduction (improves displacement sweep efficiency).
 Mobility control (improves volumetric sweep efficiency).
Figure (6): Surfactant flooding process (7).
2.2.1.3 Alkaline or Caustic Flooding (10):

In this type of chemical flooding, alkaline or caustic solutions are injected into the
reservoir. Common caustic chemicals are sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, or sodium
carbonate. These caustic chemicals react with the natural acids “naphthenic acids”
present in crude oils to form surfactants in-situ “sodium naphthenate” that work in the
same way as injected synthetic surfactants reduction of interfacial tension “IFT”
between oil and water to move additional amounts of oil to the producing well.
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These chemicals also react with reservoir rocks to change wettability. Alkaline flooding
can be applied to oils in the API gravity range of 13° to 35°, particularly in oils having
high content of organic acids. The preferred oil formations for alkaline flooding are
sandstone reservoirs rather than carbonate formations that contain anhydride or
gypsum, which can consume large amounts of alkaline chemicals.
These chemicals are also consumed by clays, minerals, or silica, and the higher the
temperature of the reservoir the higher the alkali consumption. Another common
problem during caustic flooding is scale formation in the producing wells.
2.2.2 Miscible Processes (9):

These processes are defined as the processes where the effectiveness of the
displacement results primarily from miscibility between the oil in place and the injected
fluid. Displacement fluids, such as hydrocarbon solvents, CO2, flue gas, and nitrogen,
are considered. Miscibility plays a role in surfactant processes, but is not primary
recovery mechanism for these processes.
2.2.2.1 CO2 Flooding (9):

The CO2 flooding method has been implemented commercially since 1985 to date. It is
a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase
output when extracting oil. When a reservoir’s pressure is depleted through primary and
secondary production, Carbon Dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery
method.
It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2000 ft. Where CO2 will be in a
supercritical state, with API oil gravity greater than 22 to 25o and remaining oil
saturations greater than 20 %. It should also be noted that Carbon dioxide flooding is
not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area but simply by the reservoir
characteristics.
Carbon dioxide flooding works on the premise that by injecting CO2 into the reservoir,
the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to
the production well. For CO2, it is possible to make recovery predictions. The following
data should be chosen:
 Injection pressure.
 Injection slug size.
 Continuous CO2.
 Injection or alternate injection of water.
 Well pattern.
 Zonal isolation.
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Figure (7): CO2 Flooding process (11).
2.2.2.1 Inert Gas Flooding (9):

The ever rising cost and limited supply of natural gas prompted operators to search out
for a substitute for injection. Promising substitutes that received the most attention
were:
 Pure nitrogen gas (inert).
 Inert gas mixture that is predominantly nitrogen.
The injection of nitrogen can enhance the recovery of oil or gas by one or more of the
following mechanisms:
 Pressure maintenance.
 Immiscible displacement.
 Miscible displacement (depending on the conditions of pressure and
temperature).
The primary advantage of inert gas is its availability and low cost. Other advantages
include:
 Prevention of oil encroachment into the gas cap when gas cap is present.
 Higher recoveries compared to water drive in reservoirs having low permeability.
 Residual inert gas at abandonment rather than saleable natural gas.
 Reliability of the supply.
2.2.3 Thermal Processes (9):
When petroleum reservoirs contains a low gravity (less than 20o API), high-viscosity
oil and have a high porosity, secondary recovery methods are not effective for
displacement of oil. For such reservoirs, thermal processes are most effective. The
injection of steam reduces the oil viscosity which causes an increase in the oil mobility.
Depending on the way in which the heat is generated in the reservoir, the thermal
processes can be divided into two categories:
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 Steam injection.
 In-situ combustion.
2.2.3.1 Steam Injection (9):
Steam is injected in the reservoir either continuously or in cycles. Continuous steam

injection involves both injection and production wells, whereas cyclic injection
involves one well only which serves as both injection and production well. Steam floods
are easier to control than in-situ combustion. For the same pattern size, the response
time is 25 to 50 % lower than the response time for additional production by in situ
combustion.
Figure (8): Usual steam injection process (8).
2.2.3.2 In Situ Combustion (9):
For In situ combustion there are two methods:
 Wet combustion water added to air to carry more heat forward to oil zone.
 Dry combustion only air is used for ignition.
2.2.3.2.1 Wet Combustion:

The crude oil near the well bore is ignited using chemicals, down-hole electric heaters
or down-hole gas burners. After completing ignition in the vicinity of the wellbore,
continuous air injection promotes movement in the burning zone toward the producing
wells. Propagation of a continuous burning zone results in almost complete removal of
all reservoir liquids and leaves behind hot, clean rock, which heats the injected air
before it reaches the burning zone.
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2.2.3.2.2 Dry Combustion:
In this in-situ combustion process, a large amount of heat is left behind in the swept
formation as waste heat. The heat utilization and efficiency of the process can be
improved by water injection. In this process, water is injected with the air. Superheated
steam forms in an evaporation front and travel travels behind the combustion front.
The important advantage of this process is that the amount of residual oil left to be
burned as fuel by the burning front is considerably decreased, which in turn displaces
more oil and less air is required to burn a unit volume of oil in the reservoir.
Figure (9): In situ combustion process (9).
2.2.4 Microbial EOR Methods (MEOR) (9):

The function of (MEOR) is same as that of chemical flooding except that in most cases
chemicals produce in-situ (in reservoir) by microbes. (MEOR) processes generally
consist of the injection of a microbial population with some form of nutrient (molasses,
corn syrup etc.). Carbon source will either be sugar or crude oil.
21
Figure (10): Essential nutrients for microbes to grow (9).

The microorganisms feed on nutrients and produce a number of byproducts:
 CO2 and other gases Essential nutrients.

 Surfactants and polymers.
 Alcohols.
 Certain acids.
Presence of these products in-situ leads to:
 Reduction of IFT (surfactants, alcohols, acids).

 Selective plugging of the most permeable zones.
 Reduction of oil viscosity.
2.3 Selection of an (EOR) Method (9):

The criteria for selection of a particular (EOR) process are complex because of the large
number of petro physical, chemical, geologic, environmental and fluid properties
(density and viscosity which are dependent on temperature) that must be considered for
each individual case.
The graphical model utilized in following figs gives a simplified method for the proper
selection of an (EOR) method not just for specific case but for any reservoirs as well,
including an economical overview of each method depending on profound analysis on
both:
 Technical features.
 Economical features.
21
Figure (11): Optimal density range for various the proper selections of (EOR)
Methods (9).
Figure (12): Cost comparison for the different (EOR) methods (9).
22
Cyclic Steam
Stimulation
23
3. Cyclic Steam Injection (EOR) Process (8):

Cyclic steam injection is the alternating injection of steam and production of oil with
condensed steam from the same well or wells. This process is predominantly a vertical
well process, with each well alternately injecting steam and producing heavy oil and
steam condensate. In practice, steam is injected into the formation at high pressure. This
is followed by a soak period after which production is commenced. The heat injected
warms the heavy oil and lowers its viscosity.
A heated zone is created through which the warmed heavy oil can flow back into the
well. The major limitation is that less than 30 % (usually less than 20 %) of the initial
oil in place can be recovered. Cyclic steam stimulation is often the preferred method
for production in heavy oil reservoirs that can contain high pressure steam without
fracturing the overburden.
3.1 Idea of Cyclic Steam Injection (EOR) Process (8):

There are three phases in cyclic steam stimulation:
First: High temperature, high pressure steam is injected for up to one month.
Second: The formation is allowed to soak for one or two weeks to allow the heat to
diffuse and lower the heavy oil viscosity.
Third: Heavy oil is pumped out of the well until production falls to uneconomic rates,
which may take up to one year. Then the cycle is repeated, as many as 15 times, until
production can no longer be recovered.
Figure (13): Idea of cyclic steam injection (11).
24
3.2 Factors Affecting the Process (8):

The parameter to be examine before any practical application:
1. Reservoir parameters which define the limits of the process:
 Permeability.
 Oil content and properties.
 Qualitative effect of hot fluid injection, related to the behavior of the oil and the
matrix.
 Thickness, depth, stratification, and heterogeneity of the formation.
 Reservoir pressure.
2. Operating parameter:
 Injection rate, steam quality.

 In the case of displacement, well spacing.
 In the case of stimulation, injection time, soaking time, production time and
production rate.
The following screening criteria for steam flooding (EOR) process are given in Table
(2). There are different criteria given by several authors in the literature concerning
(EOR) methods.
EOR Process Steam Flooding

Gravity ᵒAPI > 8-13.5→?
Viscosity (cp) < 200000↓ 4700↓
Composition N.C.
Oil Saturation (%) > 40↑ 66↑

Formation Type High Porosity Sandstone
Net Thickness > 20
(ft)
Average Permeability > 200 5
(md)
Depth (ft) < 4500↓ 1500
Temp (℉) N.C.
Table (2): Screening criteria for steam flooding processes (16).
 NC non critical factor.

 "↑" indicates higher value of parameter is better. Underlined values represent the
approximate mean or average for current field projects.
25
3.3 The Mechanism under which the Process Working (2):

The mechanisms of steam processes in oil recovery are considered the following:
 Viscosity reduction.
 Distillation of lighter fraction.
 Steam vapor drive.
 Thermal expansion.
 Gravity drainage.
3.4 Devices Required for Cyclic Steam Injection (12):

Completion diagram for steam injection used a thermal packer with expansion joint is
used. The thermal packer is used to isolate the annular space and reduce heat transfer
to the casing. The thermal packer expansion allows longitudinal expansion of the string
during injection.
The implementation of the technology was carried out in single horizontal wells with
thermal compellations, 9-5/8" casing and production section complete with 7" slotted
liner. To reduce the heat transfer and to guarantee the quality of the injected steam
vacuum insulated tubing is used.
For the connection of the steam generators is necessary proceeded to install the
Christmas tree and the steam injection wellhead as follows: After placing the injection
wellhead is placed the Christmas tree, which has a series of valves that connect with
the injection line. Two of these valves are provided to relieve the steam out of the pipe,
another for the connection to the boilers and one for the pressure measurement through
a pressure gauge. The schematic of the Christmas tree and steam injection wellhead is
shown in Figure (14).
Figure (14): Mechanical diagram of the steam injector well (12).
26
Equipment and services needed to perform CSS:
 Portable steam generators.

 Water treatment plant.
 Portable gas scrubber.
 Combustion gas Analyzer.
 Metallic Storage Tanks.
3.4.1 Steam Generation process description (12):

Initially, the water required for the steam generation is extracted from an aquifer
through a water production well. The extracted water is driven by a pump, is stored in
a hard water tank for the purpose of precipitating some entrained solids, to subsequently
enter into the treatment unit.
The water obtained from nature, has unwanted features such as suspended solids,
dissolved and hardness, which must be eliminated through physical chemical processes,
so it is transported to a portable processing unit, this treatment unit consists of a filter
and two softeners. Since the hard water is pumped through pipes to the fluid treatment
unit starting in a filter. These filters are made of activated charcoal natural with millions
of microscopic holes to capture and break molecules of contaminants present, this
absorbs the greatest amount of solids in the water. After the filter unit, it is brought to
water softeners which are responsible for reducing water hardness through ion
exchange resins.
These resins, in the form of zeolites, allow the removal of calcium and magnesium
present in the water which are replaced by sodium ions contained in the zeolites. The
water now free of hardness is sent to the soft water tanks used to store water without
the presence of hardness. From there it is sent to the steam generator where the fluid
originally in liquid state is heated and changes state. Maximum properties of the feed
water are shown in Table (3).
Maximum properties of the feed water
Ph 8.5
Total Hardness (ppm) 14
Calcium hardness (ppm) 40
Mg 1.2
Chlorides (ppm) 80
Fe (ppm) 3.9
Table (3): Maximum properties of the feed water (12).
Finally the steam generated is sent to the wellhead, which was previously completed as
a steam injector. Figure (15) shows a schematic diagram of the steam generation
process.
27
Figure (15): Steam generation process diagram (12).

In order to achieve the maximum affectivity of the CSS process, it is important to ensure
the operations conditions described in the injection program to guarantee the optimal
delivery of heat to the reservoir, for which the operating parameters during injection
are monitored (steam quality, casing elongation, pressure and temperature in wellhead
and casing).
3.5 State of the Art:

Thermal techniques are mostly used for heavy oil reservoirs, heat is introduced to the
oil reservoir through steam and heat applied is to lower the viscosity of fluids allowing
the oil to flow easier and to be produced easily. Dolberry Oil estimates that steam
accounts for 52 % of the market methods utilized for (EOR). Table (4) illustrates.
In comparison with gas injection, carbon dioxide is at 31 % and nitrogen is at 17 %.
Steam provides additional pressure that produces greater oil production as the
additional heat assists in losing the crude oil in the "pay zone" surrounding the well (13).
Oil Recovery Factors (successful projects)

Thermal (EOR) Percentage of (OOIP)
(CSS) 10 - 40
Steam flooding 50 - 60
(SAGD) 60 - 70
In‐situ Combustion 70 - 80
Table (4): Oil recovery rate of thermal (EOR) methods (14).
28
3.6 The EOR Processes Implementation (15):

Implementation of the (EOR) project is complex and long lasting process comprising
the phases shown in Figure (16). In order to achieve a greater level of efficiency and
reduction of risks and uncertainties of the project outcome, it is necessary to define the
comprehensive management of the (EOR) process starting from (EOR) method
selection, process designing, performing the pilot test and full implementation at the
whole oil reservoir.
Figure (16): Phases of (EOR) projects implementation (15).
Phase 1 refers to the preliminary multi criteria analysis in order to estimate the
possibilities of application of adequate (EOR) methods at certain oil reservoir. Main
properties of fluids and reservoir (potential candidate for the (EOR) method
application), which are comparing to the criteria defined on the basis of laboratory
results and practical results of a large number of (EOR) projects involve: oil viscosity
and density, oil saturation, thickness, permeability, porosity, depth, reservoir
temperature and pressure, formation type. There are different criteria given by several
authors in the literature concerning (EOR) methods.
Further step after the selection of one or more of (EOR) methods for application in a
particular reservoir is conduction of complex reservoir studies involving laboratory
testing and development of static geological and dynamic reservoir models.
Accurate reservoir model is essential for understanding the behavior of reservoir fluids
and production optimization. Numerical simulators are used for selecting the optimal
strategy reservoir recovery based on prediction of reservoir performance in different
production conditions and economic analysis in order to determine the profitability of
selected (EOR) methods. Modelling of all types of (EOR) techniques such as injection
of CO2 and other gases, chemical and thermal processes by 3D simulators provides
29
selecting the optimum (EOR) techniques for application in reservoir with unique
characteristics.
It should be emphasized that a very good understanding of recovery process by selected

(EOR) method is needed for developing an adequate reservoir simulation models, and
on that basis to define reliable outcome of (EOR) process implementation prediction.
The next stage of the process implementation is designing and implementing the pilot
test of selected (EOR) method at one (mini pilot test) or more wells. Usually, three types
of wells are present: injection well for fluid injection, observation well for monitoring
and control of critical operating parameters and production well. During the pilot test,
a continuous monitoring of production and injection parameters is performed.
Also, geophysical well logging in observational wells is done for analysis of oil
saturation changes in order to obtain direct estimate of reservoir characteristics as well
as insight in injected fluid fronts movement. After realization of pilot test, the planning
and full implementation of (EOR) project at the whole reservoir is following.
This final stage is based on the results of the pilot test and 'response' of reservoirs part
where pilot test has been implemented in the terms of incremental oil production. For
(EOR) project implementation is required 6 to 10 years, where first phase of selection
(EOR) method, laboratory testing and process modeling lasts 1 to 2 years, pilot test
implementation is 2 to 4 years, and for application of (EOR) process in the whole
reservoir is required 3 to 5 years.
3.6.1 Economic of Thermal Process Implementation (16):

The analysis of past (EOR) projects experience, public (EOR) projects data were
collected from different sources with information from as early as 1986 a total of 6700
entries were initially collected, including all major (EOR) projects in both clastic and
carbonate reservoirs, a preliminary raw data review were made to eliminate duplicate
entries, mislabeled information, name change of projects, etc., reducing the total
number into 2800.
Fig (17) shows the (EOR) project history for clastic reservoirs, where as expected
thermal methods have consistently been active through 1990s period of low oil prices
whereas immiscible hydrocarbon projects have constantly decreased, miscible CO2
projects of interest are starting to be more prolific. A similar trend can be observed in
carbonate oil reservoirs where CO2 and hydrocarbon miscible dominate.
31
Figure (17): Active (EOR) projects (16).
3.7 Expected Results from the Application of the Process (17):

A number of studies have estimates the potential U.S. recovery by different (EOR)
Processes. While specific recovery estimates for different processes vary. Results from
the study by the Natl. Petroleum Council are summarized in Figure (18).
Figure (18): Potential (EOR) production rate (17).
31
The study was based on examination of reservoirs having more than 50 MM BBL
OOIP. This data base encompassed about 67% of the total OOIP. As the beginning of
1996, thermal processes contributed about 424 M 𝐵/𝐷, miscible and immiscible gas
processes contributed about 299 M𝐵/𝐷, and chemical process added less than 1000
𝐵/𝐷 of the total (EOR) production.
3.8 Steam Stimulation Process Calculations (2):

Steam stimulation is carried out in a number of cycles. Each cycle consists of three
stages: steam injection, steam soaking, and production. During injection and soaking
periods, the steam zone bush away from wellbore, the energy being carried into
reservoir. The steam zone become a condensing or hot water zone during the production
or flow back periods. The pushes away energy provides the pressure gradient for the
oil to be able flowing back into wellbore.
They are many analytical model to calculate oil recovery and to evaluate the reservoir
performance the following two equation are used most commonly.
0.00708 𝑘 𝑘𝑟𝑜 ℎ 𝑟𝑒
𝑞𝑜ℎ = 𝑟 + 𝜇 𝑜𝑐 ln ( ) (𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑤 ) → (5)
𝜇𝑜ℎ ln (𝑟ℎ ) 𝑟ℎ
𝑤
Where:
𝜇𝑜𝑐 , 𝜇𝑜ℎ : Cold and hot oil viscosity.
𝑟ℎ : Radius of heat zone.
As reservoir pressure withdrawal, energy associated with fluids are removed from the
reservoir. This cause a reduction of 𝑟ℎ and a reduction of temperature, which increases
𝜇𝑜ℎ and the average heated zone is calculated by:
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑟 + (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑟 ) [𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑧 (1 − 𝛿) − 𝛿] → (6)
Where:
𝛿: Energy removed with produced fluid.

To understand steam processes requires to know steam properties such as:
 Enthalpies.
 Densities.
 Viscosities.
 Specific heat and heat conductivity.
32
3.9 Case study: Results of the Cyclic Steam Stimulation Project in Zuata
Principal Field, Orinoco Oil Belt, Venezuela (12):
To determinate the success of the Cyclic Steam Stimulation Project in Zuata Principal
Field was necessary to evaluate the real field data, analyzing production response,
operating conditions and implementation. To quantify the efficiency of the CSS the
Cumulative Steam Oil Ratio was calculated, resulting in an economical profitable
application.
Recent jobs referred to Cyclic Steam Stimulation performed for the Orinoco Oil Belt
have shown that the thermal processes are efficient for the oil production, improve the
properties of oil during extraction, decreasing the viscosity and increase the well
productivity.
In Cyclic Steam Stimulation, the steam is injected and produced through the same well.
This type of stimulation is the most used in thermal recovery processes. This provides
thermal energy in the vicinity of the well, using steam as a transfer medium and
allowing the rock acts as a heat exchanger for temporary storage of the injected energy.
Each cycle consists of three phases: injection, soaking and production.
The Zuata Principal Field is located on the southern flank of the Eastern Venezuelan
Basin and produces extra heavy oil of 8 to 10 API from the Oficina formation, it has a
total of 593 wells of which 423 wells are active. Within the field there are a variety of
wells that range from simple to mechanically complex wells (double, triple with
fishbones, stacked, among others). From the total of wells there are 408 wells with non-
thermal completions and 185 with thermal completions.
Currently, thermal recovery process by steam injection is a feasible technological

option to extract the huge remaining reserves of Zuata Principal Field, taking into
account the complexity due to the great number of wells drilled in the field and the risks
of collision. That is why at the end of 2011 began the pilot project and later in 2013 the
full field application of Cyclic Steam Stimulation, currently 15 CSS jobs have been
successful. Injected steam quality varies between 70 and 80 %, with steam accumulated
ranging between 7.500 and 10.000 tons, with an average thermal life effect of 14
months.
3.9.1 Zuata Principal Field Current Situation (12):
There are more than 5 million feet drilled in multilateral and fishbone wells, in addition
to the stratigraphic and single horizontal wells, representing a density of almost 2 wells
per 2 km, and remaining reserves of 3767 million of barrels that have high complexity
to be recovered due to collision risks.
33
Figure (19): Zuata Principal Field subsurface view (12).
The characteristics of the studied reservoir are presented in the Table (5):
Reservoir characteristics
Depth (ft) 1500

Original Reservoir Pressure (psi) 800
Porosity (%) 32
Permeability (md) 7400 -14000
API 7 - 11
Oil Saturation (%) 78
Average Temperature (℉) 125
Average Clay (%) 10
Viscosity @ Reservoir T and P (cp) 2300 - 2800
Table (5): Reservoir characteristics (12).
34
3.9.2 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Methodology (12):
For the implementation of the CSS Project, fife stages have been established:
Stage (1): Review of single horizontal wells with thermal completions of Zuata
Principal Field:
Horizontal single lateral wells with thermal completions were reviewed, those with N80
and P110 surface, intermediate and production casings, thermal liner hanger, thermal
wellhead and cementing with SF.
Stage (2): Review of the geology and petrophysical properties of the horizontal
section of the well:
To determine the CSS candidate wells a detailed review of the following characteristics
was done.
 Horizontal section navigated by the well.
 Percentage of net pay contacted.
 Average Porosity and Permeability.
Stage (3): Analysis of the production history:
At this stage a review of the production history of the well is carried out. The water cut
is one of the most important parameters to consider (which is one of the limitations for
the technology application), it must be less than 30 %. During this review process, the
wells with poor properties and high water cut were discarded, considering only the
wells with low water cut less than 30 % and moderate oil rate.
Stage (4): Numerical reservoir simulation of Cyclic Steam Stimulation:
A screening was performed between single horizontal wells with thermal completions.
The wells that met the geological criteria necessary for the application of the CSS
process were selected. Different sensitivities were made, taking into account
operational parameters such as steam injection rate (ton/d), total amount of steam
(ton.), injection time (days) and soaking time (days) in order to select the best scenario.
Finally, 26 wells were selected for the beginning of the mass application campaign.
Only one stimulation cycle was considered. The feasibility of applying several cycles
will require further analysis.
Methodology used to select the steam injection depth:
The selection of the injection point is one of the most important aspects to ensure the
success of the CSS process. To determine the optimal injection depth well trajectory is
taken into consideration a review of geodetic survey is done, and then proceeds to
evaluate petrophysical logs to determine the sand section with higher quality, avoiding
locating the injection point near clay areas. It has sought to locate the injection point as
far as possible away from the heel of the well (1000 to 2000 feet after the liner hanger)
35
in order to achieve a more uniform pressure profile and affect the less drained areas
around the well (towards the well tip), this has allowed a longer than expected duration
of the thermal effect on a regular injection cycle (there has been a duration of 14 months
on average).
Stage (5): Implantation and operation phase:
Once the selection and prioritization of the wells, taking into account the estimated
profitability of production as well as the existence and incorporation of new surface
facilities for water and gas supply, the operational logistics in the field is coordinated.
Methodology based on best operational practices:
The operation phase begins with the realization of the workover and steam injection
program. The workover program must contemplate a mechanical check of the well
integrity and make sure the wells resistant against heat also prevent leaking or steam
eruption to the surface. A cement bond logging must be performed first to check cement
bond casing-cement and cement-formation. Good cement bond is needed to hold the
casing from elongation due to high temperature of steam. It also prevents steam to flow
through the channel inside cement. Once the good well cementing has been verified,
the injection completion is lowered according to the proposed diagram.
Well Completion:
Figure (20) shows a typical completion diagram for steam injection used in Zuata
Principal Field. A thermal packer with expansion joint is used. The thermal packer is
used to isolate the annular space and reduce heat transfer to the casing. The thermal
packer expansion allows longitudinal expansion of the string during injection. The
implementation of the technology was carried out in single horizontal wells with
thermal completions, 9-5/8" casing and production section complete with 7" slotted
liner. To reduce the heat transfer and to guarantee the quality of the injected steam
vacuum insulated tubing is used.
Figure (20): Mechanical diagram of the steam injector well (12).
36
Figure (21): Christmas tree and steam injection wellhead (12).

For the connection of the steam generators is necessary proceeded to install the
Christmas tree and the steam injection wellhead as follows: After placing the injection
wellhead is placed the Christmas tree, which has a series of valves that connect with
the injection line.
Two of these valves are provided to relieve the steam out of the pipe, another for the
connection to the boilers and one for the pressure measurement through a pressure
gauge. The schematic of the Christmas tree and steam injection wellhead is shown in
Figure (21).
Equipment and services needed to perform CSS:
For the implantation and operation of the CSS project the following equipment and
services are necessary.
1. Steam generation Skid, with the following equipment:
 Two portable steam generators 25𝑀𝑀 𝐵𝑇𝑈/𝑑𝑎𝑦.

 One water treatment plant.
 One portable gas scrubber.
 Two metallic storage tanks of 500 bbl. each.
 One combustion gas analyzer.
2. Completion equipment:
 4 1/2" x 3 1/2" vacuum insulated tubing (VIT).

 9 5/8” thermal packer.
 Miscellaneous completion equipment.
37
3. Additional contracted services:
 Cement logging service to verify cement bond.

 Pulling service to convert from producer to injector and back to producer.
 Steam generation equipment mobilization service.
After treatment, water become now free of hardness is sent to the soft water tanks used
to store water without the presence of hardness. From there it is sent to the steam
generator, where the fluid, originally in liquid state, is heated and changes state. The
steam generation has the characteristics described in Table (6).
Saturated Steam Properties
Temperature (℉) 550

Pressure (psi) 1030
X Boiler (%) 80
X at the entrance of the sand (%) 77.46
Steam enthalpy (Btu/lb) 960
Table (6): Saturated steam properties (12).
Finally, the steam generated is sent to the wellhead, which was previously completed
as a steam injector
Once the steam injection phase 7.500 to 10.000 tons is completed, the well is converted
from steam injector to producer. During this phase the extraction of the injection
completion is performed and the production completion is lowered.
Once the producer conversion is completed, the connection and activation of the well
is coordinated in the shortest possible time. Electro-mechanical adjustments for surface
facilities connections and power equipment installation, testing and commissioning of
the artificial lift system are made.
Artificial lift methods used after steam injection:
The artificial lift methods used to complete the wells studied were Mechanical Pumping
and Progressive Cavity Pumping. It is noteworthy that in one of the wells operated with
CSS technology well 214 was completed with a Steel-Steel PCP, obtaining excellent
results in terms of production optimization and pump life.
In Figure (22) the percentage distribution is shown by artificial lifting method
employed.
38
Figure (22): Percentage distribution of artificial lift methods (12).
3.9.3 Parameters Monitoring During Production Phase (12):

Once connected and activated the well to production, weekly sampling and daily
monitoring of operational parameters is done to optimize the well. Once the percentage
of water and sediments decreased considerably, it is performed a production test,
monitoring the well continues to determine the end of the thermal effect.
1. Wellhead elongation:
An important parameter to study for steam injections is the elongation at the wellhead,
representing the level of deformation of materials that conform it; ignoring the control
of this variable could cause mechanical failures.
Considering changes in temperature between the injected fluid and the geothermal
gradient, the flow of energy moves from the center of the injection pipe to the
formation; traveling across the mechanical structure of the well, originating all the
mechanisms of heat transfer.
By increasing the energy level in the materials that make up the well inside a plastic
regime, the original mechanical condition is affected avoiding the materials to returns
to its original conditions, once the acting forces are diminished.
This behavior causes fatigue and premature failure of materials. Figure (23) shows the
average elongation magnitudes observed during the steam injection process under the
following average conditions 350 tons/day, steam quality of 80 %, wellhead
temperature of 550 °F, casing temperature of 80 °F, 28 days of steam injection.
39
Figure (23): Wellhead elongation in studied wells (12).

Wellhead elongation is an important information, which can be easily monitored in
surface, giving this magnitude an estimate of well conditions after the implementation
of steam injection.
In Figure (23) are presented the wellhead elongation recorded during CSS activities; the
elongation is in the order of 0.25 to 1.5 inches at the end of the injection period. The
statistical of mechanical failure in simple horizontal thermal wells completed with
vacuum insulated pipe is low, and no failure has been observed since the start of the
project operation in 2013.
2. Variables during steam injection phase:
A variable term is defined as any characteristic or quality that identifies a reality that
can be measured, monitored and studied through an investigation process. The
evaluation of operating variables during the steam injection process using conventional
completions with vacuum insulated pipe allowed the analysis of operational
parameters, achieving identify scenarios in order to develop analytical models.
Graphics were made incorporating the operational parameters obtained from 15 wells
in study, identifying the behavior of variables and viewing trends presented next; the
behavior of one of the wells is showed, displaying the actual changes and trends during
steam injection.
From the analysis in Figure (24), the injection rate could be defined as an independent
variable, since it has the ability to influence or affect the other variables in the system.
According to this, it can be précised how the magnitudes of temperature and pressure
in the wellhead vary with respect to the increase, decrease or maintenance of the
injection rate.
In this evaluation, it was possible to establish the scenario which was repeated in each
one of the studied wells, using as independent variable the rate of steam injection; this
41
scenario will support the activities of monitoring and controlling the injection in the
operational areas.
Figure (24): Model of operational variables during steam injection (12).

3. Bottom Hole Temperature (BHT) behavior during production phase:
During the steam injection process several mechanisms occur, all with different degrees
of importance. The dominant mechanism in the case of heavy and extra heavy oils is
the viscosity reduction, this due to the rise in temperature. Below in Figure (25) a
viscosity profile as function of temperature is presented.
Figure (25): Viscosity profile as function of temperature (12).
41
It is observe in the graph above that with a higher magnitude of viscosity the impact of
temperature is more significant (higher scope), once viscosities decreases the effect is
smaller.
Once the production stage has started, 3 scenarios could be presented with the energy
supplied to the reservoir; in the first, the heat is in the wellbore and the energy supplied
is produced; another scenario occurs when placing the well under production with a
high soak time, and as a consequence of the low volume of steam this could be lost in
the reservoir; and finally opening to production at the optimum time, using the energy
supplied to the maximum.
Relating to the measurement of the operational parameters in wells, during the
completion to producer they are instrumented with pressure and temperature sensors at
the suction level of the subsurface pump and at the wellhead. In Figure (26) the behavior
of the BHT as a function of the time is shown after a soaking phase of 10 days, this is
representative of the behavior of the studied wells.
Figure (26): Bottomhole temperature behavior during production phase (12).

In Figure (26) it can be seen that at the time of activation of the well after soaking phase,
it had an average BHT of 192 °F, which declines logarithmically (better adjustment
curve) in a time of 330 days until reaching the original reservoir temperature.
Furthermore, it is observed that the greatest temperature drop occurs in the first 90 days
after the activation of the well and then decreases less abruptly.
This behavior is analogous to the studied wells. In the CSS cycles performed in Zuata
Principal Field the temperatures observed at the beginning of the production phase are
in the range of 192 to 210 ° F with an average soak time of 10 days. This is a clear
indication of the effectiveness of the energy delivery to the reservoir.
42
3.9.4 CSS Project Production Results (12):

Figure (27) shows the results of production tests from wells once optimized. The
average increase at the initial rate was 220 STBD. One of the most remarkable results
it is observed in the oil production response of well 916, in which to date, two cycles of
CSS have been performed. In the first cycle an incremental production of 158 STBD
was obtained and eleven months after activation and stop for a second cycle, the well
exhibited a production of 324 STBD (155 additional barrels to the cold base production
before the first cycle) with a temperature gradient of 10 °F above the average
temperature of the reservoir and a CSOR of 1.54.
After activating the well from a second CSS cycle, an oil production of 491 STBD was
obtained, with an increase of 167 STBD with respect to the base cold production in the
second cycle and 322 barrels above the base cold production of the first injection cycle.
From the behavior analysis of this well it is evident the importance of determining the
economic limit of the project in order to pinpoint the moment in which the technology
is paid and starts obtaining benefits to plan more efficiently the subsequent cycles and
maintaining as long as possible hot production.
Figure (27): Incremental oil production after CSS (12).

The duration of the thermal effect was determined and the profitability of the
stimulation was assessed by estimating the cumulative oil production Np of the cold
process based on the decline behavior that the well had before the intervention.
In Figure (28) are shown the results of Np and at the end of the thermal effect of the 9
studied wells. To date the estimated incremental Np is 534.92 M BBL with an average
Np per well of 59.440 M BBL. The Np of 6 additional cycles are still being evaluated
in which the thermal effect continues.
43
Figure (28): Incremental Cumulative Oil Production per well (12).

The Steam Oil Ratio (SOR) is a very important thermal method indicator. It is related
to the incremental oil produced in one cycle with steam injected as cold water
equivalent CWE. The range of SOR in successful thermal projects is between 0.5 and 5
average of successive cycles.
To quantify the efficiency of the CSS the Cumulative Steam Oil Ratio CSOR at the end
of the thermal effect was calculated, yielding an average of 0.94, resulting in an
economical profitable application of the technology. The CSOR of the studied wells are
presented in Figure (29).
Figure (29): Cumulative Steam Oil Ratio CSOR per well (12).
44
The cumulative results of the project are such that beyond the effects of viscosity
reduction by the addition of thermal energy to the reservoir, CSS has improved
permeability in the adjacent areas to the well by removal of formation damage, since
some wells have maintained production above the cold base, which can be seen in the
historical production of studied wells.
45
Conclusions
 In the producing life of a reservoir. Primary recovery is oil recovery by natural drive
mechanisms: solution gas, water influx, and gas cap drive or gravity drainage.
During primary drive mechanisms the natural drive energy is dissipated. When this
occurs energy must be added to the reservoir to produce any additional oil.
 Secondary oil recovery involved the introduction of energy into reservoir by
injection gas or water under pressure where the gas is immiscible with oil. Separate
wells are usually used for injection and production. The technique was called
“Pressure Maintenance”. The added energy stimulates the movement of oil,
providing additional recovery at increased rates.
 Tertiary oil recovery methods take oil recovery one step further and sometimes rely
on methods that reduce the viscosity of the oil and increase oil mobility. Enhanced
oil recovery methods have focused on recovering the remaining oil from a reservoir
that has been depleted of energy during the application of primary and secondary
recovery methods.
 With the implementation of CSS in the Zuata Principal Field, it is concluded that:
 The average incremental oil production is 220 STBD with an average duration
of the thermal effect of 14 months. The incremental cumulative oil production
Np per well is 59.400 M BBL on average.
 The CSOR obtained per CSS cycle is 0.94 on average at the end of thermal
effect, which makes the project profitable.
 Based on the operational results, an optimal soaking time of 10 days was
established for the studied wells.
 Temperature ranges observed at the beginning of the production phase are in
the range of 192 to 210 ° F. The highest temperature drop during the production
period is observed in the first 3 months and after 300 days temperatures are still
very slightly above the original reservoir temperature.
 CSS technology in Zuata Principal Field has only been implemented in single
horizontal wells with thermal completions, using VIT to reduce the heat losses,
maintain steam quality in the optimum range and preserving the mechanical
integrity of the well.
 The wellhead elongations registered in surface during the steam injection are in
the order of 0.25 to 1.5 inches, with no failure observed since the beginning of
the project operation in 2013.
 For the artificial lift of the CSS wells, Mechanical Pumping and Progressive
Cavity Pumping methods have been used, with the particularity of the use of
Steel-Steel PCP technology in a well, with widely satisfactory results.
 CSS has improved permeability in the adjacent areas to the well by removal of
formation damage, since some wells have maintained production above the cold
base.
46
References
1. Latil, M., et al., "Enhanced Oil Recovery", Department of Petroleum Engineering

Institute Francis du Petrol.
2. Teknica Petroleum Services Ltd., Enhanced Oil Recovery, Calgary, Alberta, T2P
3S8, June 2012.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOR and IOR.PDF.
4. Ahmed, T., Reservoir engineering handbook. 4th ed. Amsterdam; Boston: Gulf
Professional Pub, 2010.
5. Cobb, W., et al., Waterflooding. Dallas, Texas 2012.
6. Cobb, W., et al., Waterflooding a Tried and True Technique for Secondary Oil
Recovery. Houston Bar Association Oil, Gas and Mineral Law Section, March
2013.
7. Zeron, L., Introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Processes and
Bioremediation of Oil-Contaminated Sites, InTech, Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka,
Croatia, 2012.
8. Games, G., Enhanced Recovery Methods for Heavy Oil and Tar Sands, by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 2009.
9. Jelmert, A., et al., "Comparative Study of Different EOR Methods", Department of
Petroleum Engineering, Norwegian University of Science & Technology,
Trondheim, Norway.
10. Zeron, L., et al., Advances in Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes, University of New
Brunswick, Chemical Engineering Department, Canada, 2012.
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/picture/EOR.
12. Morales, R., et al., Case of Study: Results of the Cyclic Steam Stimulation Project
in Zuata Principal Field, Orinoco Oil Belt, Venezuela, by the technical committee
of ACIPET, 2017.
13. Qadir, S., et al., Comparison of Different Enhanced Oil Recovery Techniques for
Better Oil Productivity, International Journal of Applied Science and Technology,
September 2011.
14. Alvarez, J., et al., Current Overview of Cyclic Steam Injection Process, Journal of
Petroleum Science Research Volume 2 Issue 3, July 2013.
15. Maričić, K., et al., Factors Influencing Successful Implementation of Enhanced Oil
Recovery Projects, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Mining and Geology,
November 2014.
16. Moreno, J., et al., EOR Advisor System: A Comprehensive Approach to EOR
Selection, International Petroleum Technology Conference, December 2014.
17. Green, D., et al., "Enhanced Oil Recovery", SPE Series, Richardson, Texas 1998.
47

Cyclic Steam Stimulation Thermal EOR Process

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Cyclic Steam Stimulation Thermal EOR Process

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Tripoli University

Postgraduate Program for M.Sc. Degree

Advanced Topics in EOR

Thermal Recovery Process “Cyclic Steam

1. How Oil is Produced?(2)

Figure (1): The oil recovery classification (3).

1.1 Primary Oil Recovery (2):

 Rock and liquid expansion drive.

Driving Mechanism Oil Recovery Range, %

Table (1): Recovery ranges for each drive mechanism (4).

1.2 Secondary Oil Recovery (2):

1.2.1 Waterflood (5):

1.2.1.1 Flooding Pattern (5):

 Direct line drive.

Figure (2): The flood patterns (4).

Why would you need to waterflood? (6)

How does a waterflood work? (6)

Figure (3): The waterflood technique (6).

When to start EOR? (9)

 Anticipated oil recovery.

1.2.2 Water, Gas Injection (7):

1.2.3 Limitations and disadvantages of Primary and Secondary Recovery

1.3 Tertiary Recovery (8):

1.4 Factors affecting the oil production and recovery (4):

2. Definition of Enhanced Oil Recovery (9):

This is achieved by enhancing oil displacement and volumetric sweep efficiencies.

2.1 Factors Affecting the (EOR) (1):

2. The influence of fluid characteristic:

2. The arrangement of production and injection wells (Flooding pattern):

2.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Processes (7):

 Boost the natural energy in the reservoir.

Macroscopic or volumetric displacement efficiency refers to the effectiveness of the

Volumetric displacement efficiency also known as conformance indicates the

Figure (4): Schematics of microscopic and macroscopic sweep efficiencies (7).

𝑘𝑟𝑤 , 𝑘𝑟𝑜 : Relative permeabilities to water and oil.

𝜇𝑜 , 𝜇𝑤 : Oil and water viscosity, (cp).

Volumetric sweep efficiency increases as (M) decreases, therefore mobility ratio is an

Figure (5): Waterflooding with unfavorable mobility ratio (7).

𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝜇𝑑

𝑣 : The interstitial velocity of the displacing fluid (water).

2.2.1 Chemical Processes:

2.2.1.1 Polymer Flooding (7):

2.2.1.2 Surfactant Flooding (7):

Figure (6): Surfactant flooding process (7).

2.2.1.3 Alkaline or Caustic Flooding (10):

2.2.2 Miscible Processes (9):

2.2.2.1 CO2 Flooding (9):

Figure (7): CO2 Flooding process (11).

2.2.2.1 Inert Gas Flooding (9):

2.2.3 Thermal Processes (9):

2.2.3.1 Steam Injection (9):

Steam is injected in the reservoir either continuously or in cycles. Continuous steam

Figure (8): Usual steam injection process (8).

2.2.3.2 In Situ Combustion (9):

For In situ combustion there are two methods:

2.2.3.2.1 Wet Combustion:

2.2.3.2.2 Dry Combustion:

Figure (9): In situ combustion process (9).

2.2.4 Microbial EOR Methods (MEOR) (9):

Figure (10): Essential nutrients for microbes to grow (9).

 CO2 and other gases Essential nutrients.

 Reduction of IFT (surfactants, alcohols, acids).