The amount of work a muscle does changes the muscle.

Muscle inactivity (due to a loss of nerve supply,

immobilization, or whatever the cause) always leads to muscle weakness and wasting. Muscles are no
exception to the saying “Use it or lose it!” Conversely, regular exercise increases muscle size, strength,
and endurance. However, not all types of exercise produce these effects—in fact, there are important
differences in the benefits of exercise.

Aerobic exercise, or endurance exercise, such as participating in an aerobics class, jogging, or biking
(Figure 6.11a), results in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue. These
changes come about, at least partly, because the blood supply to the muscles increases, and the
individual muscle fibers form more mitochondria and store more oxygen. Aerobic exercise helps us
reach a steady rate of ATP production and improves the efficiency of aerobic respiration. However,
aerobic exercise benefits much more than the skeletal muscles. It makes overall body metabolism more
efficient, improves digestion (and elimination), enhances neuromuscular coordination, and strengthens
the skeleton. The heart enlarges (hypertrophies) and pumps out more blood with each beat, helping to
clear more fat deposits from the blood vessel walls. The lungs become more efficient in gas exchange.
These benefits may be permanent or temporary, depending on how often and how vigorously a person
exercises. Aerobic exercise does not cause the muscles to increase much in size, even though the
exercise may go on for hours. The bulging muscles of a professional bodybuilder result mainly from
resistance exercise, or isometric exercise (Figure 6.11b), which pit the muscles against an immovable (or
difficult to move) object. Resistance exercises require very little time and little or no special equipment.
A few minutes every other day is usually sufficient. You can push against a wall, and you can strongly
contract buttock muscles even while standing in line at the grocery store. The key is forcing your
muscles to contract with as much force as possible. The increased muscle size and strength that result
are due mainly to enlargement of individual muscle fibers (they make more contractile myofilaments)
rather than to an increase in their number. The amount of connective tissue that reinforces the muscle
also increases. Because endurance and resistance exercises produce different patterns of muscle
response, it is important to know what your exercise goals are. Lifting weights will not improve your
endurance for a marathon. By the same token, jogging will not make you stronger for lifting furniture.
Obviously, the best exercise program for most people includes both types of exercise.

■ Cerebellum: • Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and visual and
equilibrium pathways • Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical motor centers,
resulting in smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle movements • Responsible for proper balance and
posture

The ventral rami of all other spinal nerves form complex networks of nerves called plexuses, which serve
the motor and sensory needs of the limbs.

Plexus Origin (from ventral rami) Important nerves Body areas served Result of damage to plexus or its
nerves Cervical C1–C5 Phrenic Diaphragm; skin and muscles of shoulder and neck Respiratory paralysis
(and death if not treated promptly) Brachial C5–C8 and T1 Axillary Deltoid muscle and skin of shoulder;
muscles and skin of superior thorax Paralysis and atrophy of deltoid muscle Radial Triceps and extensor
muscles of the forearm; skin of posterior upper limb Wristdrop—inability to extend hand at wrist
Median Flexor muscles and skin of forearm and some muscles of hand Decreased ability to flex and
abduct hand and flex and abduct thumb and index finger—therefore, inability to pick up small objects
Musculocutaneous Flexor muscles of arm; skin of lateral forearm Decreased ability to flex forearm at
elbow Ulnar Some flexor muscles of forearm; wrist and many hand muscles; skin of hand Clawhand—
inability to spread fingers apart Lumbar L1–L4 Femoral (including lateral and anterior cutaneous
branches) Lower abdomen, anterior and medial thigh muscles (hip flexors and knee extensors), and skin
of anteromedial leg and thigh Inability to extend leg and flex hip; loss of cutaneous sensation Obturator
Adductor muscles of medial thigh and small hip muscles; skin of medial thigh and hip joint Inability to
adduct thigh Sacral L4–L5 and S1–S4 Sciatic (largest nerve in body; splits to common fibular and tibial
nerves just above knee) Lower trunk and posterior surface of thigh (hip extensors and knee flexors)
Inability to extend hip and flex knee; sciatica • Common fibular (superficial and deep branches) • Tibial
(including sural and plantar branches) Lateral aspect of leg and foot Posterior aspect of leg and foot
Footdrop—inability to dorsiflex foot Inability to plantar flex and invert foot; shuffling gait Superior and
inferior gluteal Gluteus muscles of hip Inability to extend hip (maximus) or abduct and medially rotate
thigh (medius)