The Flower World in Material Culture: An Iconographic Complex in the Southwest and

Mesoamerica
Author(s): Kelley Hays-Gilpin and Jane H. Hill
Source: Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Spring, 1999), pp. 1-37
Published by: University of New Mexico
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 JOURNALOF
ANTHROPOLOGICALRESEARCH
Journalof Anthropology)
(FormerlySouthwestern

VOLUME55 * NUMBER1 * SPRING * 1999

THE FLOWERWORLD IN MATERIALCULTURE:

AN ICONOGRAPHICCOMPLEXIN THE SOUTHWEST
AND MESOAMERICA
Kelley Hays-Gilpin
Departmentof Anthropology,
NorthernArizonaUniversity,P.O.Box 15200,
Flagstaff,AZ86011-5200

JaneH. Hill
of Universityof Arizona,P.O.Box 210030,
Department Anthropology,
Tucson,AZ85721-0030

Uto-Aztecanpeoples of Mesoamericaand the U.S. Southwest, togetherwith neighboring

Puebloand Mayangroups, share a systemof verbalimageryevokinga floweryspirit world.
This study traces Flower Worldimagery in visual arts in the prehistoricSouthwestand
explorespossible contextsand chronologyfor visual expressionsof the Flower Worldand
possiblelinks to Mesoamerica.Flower Worldimageryappearsmost coherentlyin the twelfth
century,in Mimbresmortuaryceramicsandpaintedwoodenritualregaliafrom theMimbres
and Chaco Canyon areas, in thirteenth-centuryKayentaAnasazi wooden ritual regalia,
and in fifteenth-centuryHopi and Rio Grandekiva murals. We argue that Flower World
imageryplayedan importantrolein theemergenceof thePuebloanKachina religionand the
broadericonographiccomplexwhich Crown terms the "SouthwestRegional Cult."Flower
imagerymay representrecruitmentof a female symbol into an increasinglyformal male-
dominatedritual system.

THE FLOWERWORLDHYPOTHESIS

the presence in the Southwestand Mesoamericaof a

HILL(1992) PROPOSED
of
complex imagery and metaphorabouta "FlowerWorld."Hill'swork con-
centrated on verbal art, where the Flower World is invoked by mentioning
specific flowers, by metaphors where flowers stand for the life force, and by
labeling objects and beings as "flowery."She found that Flower Worldimagery

Research,vol. 55, 1999

Journalof Anthropological
Copyright@by The Universityof New Mexico

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2 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH
is restrictedin its distributionamongthe variousgenres of verbalart. It is
particularlyassociatedwith the genre of song, is rare in oratory,and is not
foundin narratives(exceptin the so-calledrecitatives[Sapir1910]:songs that
punctuatethe recitationof narrativesin the fullwinter-seasonperformances).
The specificFlowerWorldcomplexincludesthe followingelements, all at-
tested in song in the SouthwestandMesoamerica:

1. The "FlowerWorld"is the spiritland,the landwherethe deadgo, and

the landwhere livingbeingshave their spiritualdimension.
2. The spiritlandis a beautifulchromaticworldthat includesnot only
flowersbut also colorfulbirds,butterflies,andrainbows.
3. The spiritualdimensionoflivingbeingsandritualobjectscanbe evoked
by associatingthem with flowers.
4. Flowersare metaphorsfor the soul andthe heart.
5. Flowersare associatedwithfire.
6. Whileflowersare associatedwithfemalebeautyandfertilitythrough-
outthe Americas,as wellas in mostofthe rest of the world,the Flower
Worldcomplexspecificallyis often associatedwith male ritualprac-
tice (as in the Kachinareligion)or maledomains(suchas Aztecwar-
fareandYaquiandPimanhunting).

Hill'sfindingswere basedalmostentirelyon evidencefromverbalartof the

historicperiod.The presentarticlereportsan assessmentby Hays-Gilpinof
the evidencefor the FlowerWorldin the prehistoricmaterialcultureof the
Southwest.1Whilewe havefoundno previousinvestigationsof the flowermotif
or elements commonlyassociatedwith it in materialculture,severalrecent
studiesexplorerelatediconographic contexts.These includeCrown(1994)on
a "SouthwestRegionalCult"manifestin Saladopolychromepotteryof the four-
teenth and earlyfifteenthcenturiesandMoulard(1984) on ClassicMimbres
conceptsof the Underworldas manifestedin potteryfromthe late eleventh
andearlytwelfthcenturies.An importantquestionis, howarethe ideologiesof
the FlowerWorld,Crown'sSouthwestRegionalCult,Moulard's MimbresUnder-
world,andthe Kachinareligion(see Adams1991;Schaafsma1994)relatedto
one another?Furthermore, how are these ideologiesrelatedto ritualpractices
involvingthe invocationof FlowerWorldimageryevidentin Mesoamerican
materials,as intheTeotihuacanwallpaintings(Pasztory1988;see Freidl,Schele,
andParker1993:183-84for discussionof Mayaconceptsof the WhiteFlower
SoulandMcCafferty andMcCafferty 1991foran analysisof genderideologyand
flowerson spindlewhorlsin ancientCholula)?
We argue that Flower Worldideologyis ancientamongthe Uto-Aztecan
peoples. The system may have originatedwhen the flower,widely attested
around the world as a symbol of female progenitive power (Goody 1993), was
recruited to male ritualpractice. Since such cross-gender recruitments of sym-
bolic materials have been identified in ritual practice around the world, this
process could have taken place independentlyin Mesoamericaand in the South-

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 THE FLOWERWORLDIN MATERIAL
CULTURE 3
west. We suggest that periodic efflorescences of these images in material cul-
ture give evidence of struggles over the control of Flower World imagery that
may have intensified during periods of heightened economic stress and social
tension. We return to these issues in the conclusion.

SURVEYOF FLOWERWORLDIMAGERYIN
SOUTHWESTMATERIALCULTURE

Media examined include rock art, pottery, murals, textiles, wood carvings,
shell, and baskets. Hays-Gilpin looked for representations of flowers, birds,
butterflies, and rainbows, because these are mentioned in the songs studied by
Hill (1992). A summary of the distributionaldata on representational figures-
flowers, birds, butterflies, and rainbows-is presented in Appendix A. Appen-
dixes B-E present more detailed informationon these icons and include refer-
ences to at least one example of each icon in each medium, area, and time
period listed in Appendix A. The references listed supply examples from both
primary sources and more accessible secondary sources such as recently pub-
lished compendia of Indian art.

RecognizingFlower Images
We note the problem of recognizing images of flowers in Southwestern icon-
ography. Flowers with leaves and stems, or seedy centers like sunflowers, are
easy to recognize as vegetal (Figure ib). Moulard (1984:xxi) has pointed out
that the cross-hatched element that constitutes the center of "sunflower"im-

a b

Figure1. Flowerson Pottery

a. Possibleflowerson Anasazipotterypriorto A.D.1300:Puercoor ShowlowBlack-on-
redbowlfromKiatuthlanna,easternArizona(afterRoberts1931:Plate16b);b. Hohokam
Red-on-buffplatewithunequivocalflowerpattern(afterGregonisandReinhard1979:40).
Drawingsby RonaldBeckwith.

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4 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH

ages may also have celestialsignificance,specificallyrepresentingthe Milky

Way.Manycircularrayedfiguresin pottery,rock art, andjewelry mightbe
flowersor celestialobjectssuchas the sun, stars,Venus,or, in materialsfrom
Chaco and Mimbres (circa A.D.1000-1150), even the supernova of A.D.1054.
Ambiguitymightwell be intentional.The "sunflower," forinstance,has clearly
been bothfloralandcelestialfor Europeans,due to its round,rayedshapeand
sun-followingmotionas attestedinits Englishname,inthe Spanishnamegirasol,
andin the LinneannameHelianthus.Since allusionsbetweencelestialbodies
andshieldsare frequentin Pueblointerpretations of iconography,some circu-
larfigureswithrays couldrepresentshields.2In this survey,rayedcirclesare
presentedas possibleflowers (Figurela). However,where we indicatethat
flowersare present,we have identifiedat least one unequivocalflowerdepic-
tion (Figureib).

Temporal and Geographic Distributionof FlowerWorldImagery

This section summarizesoccurrencesof FlowerWorldimages,organized
by geographyandtime.This summaryrevealsthat,just as FlowerWorldimag-
ery is very limitedin its distributionin verbalculture(Hill1992),its distribu-
tion is similarlylimitedin materialculture.Limitationsin time, space, and
mediumare quitestriking,especiallygiven the ubiquitousrepresentationsof
flowersin materialculturein the OldWorld(Goody1993).
HohokamRegion. Realisticsunflowerswithrayedpetalsandseedy centers
appearon Hohokampotteryof centralandsouthernArizonaperhapsas early
as the A.D.500s (see Haury1976:Fig.12.85;GregonisandReinhard1979:40;
ASM [ArizonaState Museum]catalogno. 94-34-272),but examples(Figure
ib) are rare.The birdsdepictedon Hohokampotteryare waterbirds,suchas
pelicansandcranes,andquail,ratherthanthe colorfulbirdsofthe FlowerWorld
complex.Similarthemesappearin rockart,andbirdsandsunburstshapesare
frequentin shell jewelry.In the collectionsexamined,however,flowersand
birdsnever appearon the same object.The onlyexampleof a rainbowis very
late, on a paintedprayerstick fromDoubleButte Cave,a 1300s-eraSalado
shrinenearTempe (Haury1945).Prayersticks there also bore depictionsof
stars,snakes,centipedes,anda kachina.A probablebirdwingfroma compos-
ite woodenobjectresemblesa woodenbirdfromHough'sUpperGilacaves in
the Mogollonarea,describedbelow.Thus,even thoughPimanpeoples,among
the probabledescendantsofthe Hohokam,haveFlowerWorldsongs(Hill1992),
Hohokampeopledo not appearto haverepresentedthis complexin theirsur-
vivingvisualarts untilafterA.D.1300,if at all.
AnasaziandMogollonRegions,A.D.1 to 1300.Rayedfiguresappearin rock
art of this era sporadically
throughoutthe Southwest.These figuresare never
associatedwith otherFlowerWorldelements.Duringthe same period,rayed
circles that might be flowers, celestial objects, or nonrepresentationalmotifs
appear in ceramics in the Upper San Juan, Mesa Verde, Puerco Valley of the
West, and Zuni areas (Figure la; Appendix B).
Birds appear much earlier than flowers in these regions and have a wide

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 THEFLOWER
WORLD
INMATERIAL
CULTURE 5
distribution.They are frequentin Basketmakerrock art, perhapsdatingas
earlyas A.D.1, andare infrequentbut presentin the BasketmakerIIIpottery
andbasketsdatingaroundA.D.600. Birdeffigyvessels appearas earlyas A.D.
200 in the PetrifiedForest (Wendorf1953),andelaboratelypaintedbirdeffi-
gies are frequentin PuebloIII and IV periodpotteryassemblages(see, for
example,Smith1971:414-16).A wide varietyof birdscanbe identifiedin pot-
tery and rock art, includingwadingbirds,ducks,turkeys,and raptors.Birds
remaina populartopicfor Pueblopotterydecorationeven today.
Rainbowsare especiallydifficultto recognizein monochromaticmediasuch
as petroglyphs.Parallelarcedlines are frequentin Fremontrockart of Utah
(Castleton1984).These are not well dated,but Basketmakerones in the Four
Cornersarea probablydate to aboutthe sixth to eighth centuries.Probable
rainbowimagesdo not appearin directassociationwithflowersandbirdsuntil
well after A.D.1300.
Evidenceforthe FlowerWorldcomplexpriorto A.D.1300is weakto nonex-
istent in the regionwith the followingexceptions:flowersandbirdsappearin
MimbrespotteryandMimbresandChacoCanyonpaintedwoodenritualrega-
lia no earlierthanA.D.1000 (Brody1977;Moulard1984;Vivian,Dodgen,and
Hartmann1978;Cosgrove1947;Hough1914).These complexes,whichlast
untilA.D.1150 andpossiblylater,provideour strongestcases for the expres-
sion of the FlowerWorldcomplexin prehistoricmaterialculturepriorto A.D.
1300.
MimbresCeramics.Flowers, birds, butterflies,and rainbowsappearon
Mimbresmortuaryceramics(Figure2), butthese iconsare not regularlyasso-
ciatedwith each other in this medium.One Mimbresceramicvessel bears
rainbowson its exterior(Moulard1984:131).Flowersare just as likelyto ap-
pearwithbatsandrabbitsas withbirds.For example,in the GalazRuinwhole
vessel assemblage(Anyonand LeBlanc1984),of about821 vessels, 27 have
singleradialfiguresthatfill the wholedesignfieldandmayrepresenta single
flower(butcouldalsorepresentthe sun, a featheredshield,or somethingelse.
Note thatTewa potterMariaMartinez'srevivalof one versionof this design,
paintedby her husband,JulianMartinez,is oftencalleda "feather"design;cf.
Peterson1977:117,Fig. 298). Two bowlsfromGalazshowmultiple,recogniz-
ablyvegetalflowerswithgeometricelements.Two designsshowflowerswith
rabbits,andone each shows flowerswith a frog,a bat,andbirds.Thereare at
least 36 representationsof birdswithoutflowersat Galaz.These includema-
caws,but also turkeys,raptors,waterbirds,andothers.Birdsandflowersdo
not dominatethe life-formrepertoire.There are, in addition,27 representa-
tions of fish, 17 humans,43 quadrupeds, 3 bats, 19 insects (onlya few of them
butterflies),and22 frogs,turtles,andlizards.Butterfliesappearon Mimbres
potteryfromsites otherthanGalazandare depictedin Brody(1977:Fig.168)
andDavis(1995:156,193);see Figure2e.
The context of Flower World imagery is probablymortuaryin the Mimbres
area, at least in ceramics. Although many pots have use wear, showing that
they were not made only to be buriedwith the dead (Bray 1982), most Mimbres

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6 RESEARCH
JOURNALOF ANTHROPOLOGICAL

II

a b

*
~ooo

c d

*f

Figure 2. Flowers, Birds, Butterflies, and a Bat on Mimbres Black-on-White Bowls

Drawings by Hattie Cosgrove from Davis 1995, courtesy of C. Burton Cosgrove, Jr.;
except upper right drawing by Ronald Beckwith after Brody 1977:164.

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 THEFLOWER
WORLDIN MATERIAL
CULTURE 7
Black-on-white bowlswith the representational imagesdiscussedhere appar-
ently were found inverted over the heads of deceased individuals.Moulard
(1984) persuasivelyargues that these bowls represent the UnderworldSky
and that the images on them representthe SpiritWorld.Flowers are fairly
frequentin Mimbrespotteryif the single field-fillingradialdesignsdescribed
aboveare countedas flowers.One such designhas two crossed,handledob-
jects-probablyrattles-superpositionedacrossa seedy-centeredflower(Fig-
ure 2d;Davis 1995:184).Fish, turtle,frog,andwaterbirddepictionsare more
frequentthanflowers,at least at the GalazRuin(Anyonand LeBlanc1984),
suggestingthatthe MimbresSpiritWorldmighthavebeen morewaterythan
flowery.This is consistentwith Zuniviews (Bunzel1932;Dutton1963:185).
An abundanceof quadrupeds suchas mountainsheep andantelope(Figure2b)
mightindicatea concernwith huntingin the SpiritWorldor with SpiritHelp-
ers in these guises.
Nonetheless, flowers are present sometimes. One bowl shows humans
wearingflowers(Davis1995:190).Somebowlshaveflowersandanimals(rab-
bits,birds,rodents)inset intogeometricbands,andsome haveanimals(frogs,
bats) emblazonedwith flowers (Anyonand LeBlanc1984). A flying bat has
flowers on his wings, representingone of our strong cases of "unequivocal
flowers"andprobablymarkinghim as a spiritbat, perhapsa messenger be-
tween worlds (Moulard1984:Plate37; Davis 1995:156depicts a second in-
stance,reproducedhere in Figure2a). Moulard(1984:124)observesthatbats
are associatedwith deathand the Underworld(we note that bats can easily
be observed exiting caves at sundown,a powerfulimage of mediationbe-
tween earthandsky, lightanddarkness)andthatthe representationsof flow-
ers on bat wings may have been intendedto "temper"the associationof the
batwithdeath,convertingthis imageto one of resurrection.Hill(1992)found,
however,that in verbalart no evidencefor much"tempering"appears.The
appellation"flowery"marksthe spiritaspect of animals,as opposedto their
everydaymaterialnature.
Macawsare presentin the MimbresUnderworldas well, sometimesinter-
actingwithhumans,butrarelyif ever associatedwithflowers.Moulard(1996)
notes thatmacawsenjoyhangingupsidedown,andartistsoftendepictedthem
in this pose-perhaps a sign thatmacawstranscend,or at least playwith,the
boundariesbetweenthis worldandthe Underworld. Macawsandparrotswere
the most colorfulbirdsknownto Puebloanpeople. Depictionsof them, and
actualmacawremains, some almost certainlyimportedas live birds from
Mesoamerica,appearin the eleventhcenturyin the Chaco,PuercoValleyof
the West, andMimbresareas.Representationsof macawsapparentlyappear
somewhatlater, in the A.D.1200s and 1300s, in the Mesa Verde, Kayenta,
MogollonRim,LittleColorado,andSinaguaareas(see Thompson1994:103for
a brief review and references).
Painted Wood. Painted wood items appear in contexts, such as caves and
storerooms, that suggest storage or "retirement" of ritual items. While it is
possible that the items were used in contexts of a mortuary nature, painted

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8 RESEARCH
JOURNALOF ANTHROPOLOGICAL

... ... ...

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i~......
:::::::- .................
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~:~:;?:?~:.~ .........
..

.............
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:::~

.:
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: ?.lI . ...................................................... . ..... ... n:~
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::::.';~.1??5: ""''-':Nw
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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Figure 3. Painted Wood Flowers and Birds

a. From Chetro Ketl, Chaco Canyon (after Vivian, Dodgen, and Hartmann 1978); b.
wooden flower petals and bird from the Mimbres area caves in the Upper Gila drainage
(after Cosgrove 1947). Drawings by Ronald Beckwith.

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 THE FLOWERWORLDIN MATERIALCULTURE 9

woodobjectsare not attestedas gravegoodsin the Southwestexceptas occa-

sionalprayersticks with markingsthat do not clearlydepictlife-forms.For
example,the birdsandflowerson paintedwoodenobjectsin DoolittleandBear
Creek Caves in the UpperGilaarea (Cosgrove1947;Hough1914) are non-
mortuary; atleast,theyarenotgravegoods.Thesecavesmayhavebeenshrines
for the offering,temporarystorage,or permanentretirementof ritualitems.
ChacoandMogollonPaintedWood.A cacheof woodenritualitems in Room
93 at ChetroKetlin ChacoCanyon(Figure3a)datingto A.D.1052-1120(Vivian,
Dodgen,andHartmann1978;DeanandWarren1983)containeddepictionsin
paintedwoodof flowers,a macaw,andanotherbird.The contextis not mortu-
ary but is more likely one of storageor "retirement"of ritualitems. It is, of
course,possiblethat the items were used in performancesof a mortuaryna-
turebutwerereturnedto storageafteruse ratherthanbeingdepositedingraves.
Carvedandpaintedwoodenbirdsalso appearin caves of the Mimbresarea,
sometimeswith probableflowerpetals fromcompositepaintedwoodobjects
and sometimeswith smallcoiled basketswith flowerlikedesigns (Cosgrove
1947;Hough1914);see Figure3b. These caches of ritualregaliaare poorly
dated.They all likely date to sometimebetween A.D.900 and 1300, but one
(Doolittle Cave) was associatedwith MimbresBlack-on-white(A.D. 1000-
1150) sherds (Cosgrove 1947); so at least some of these caches could be
attributedto the MimbresMogollonculture (A.D. 1000-1150). Provenience
data do not meet contemporaryarchaeologicalstandards,however, so this
date must remainquestionable.The Bear Creek cache (Hough 1914) was
associatedwith brownware sherds,andlackingany furtherdescriptivedata,
these couldhavebeen madeas late as the A.D.1300s. FeatherCave,a north-
ernJornadaMogollonritualcave nearLincolnandCapitan,New Mexico,con-
taineda woodenbird,but no recognizableflowers,andis also poorlydated-
its investigatorspresent a date rangeof A.D. 900-1300 (Ellis and Hammack
1968).The cave containedarrows,crooks,prayersticks, andpictographsof a
face (identifiedas a Sun Face), a ladderlikeobjectperhapsidentifiableas a
rainbow,concentriccircles identifiedas the sun, andhandprints,in addition
to the aforementionedwoodenbird(Ellis and Hammack1968). Drawingon
Puebloanethnography,Ellis and HammackidentifyFeather Cave as a Sun
and Earthshrine that would have been used twice a year at the solstices.
Since this site is so poorlydated,there is no reasonto concludethat all the
artifactsandrock art are contemporaneous.
KayentaandMesaVerdeAnasaziPaintedWood.Inmostof the Anasaziarea,
northof the Mimbrescountry,exceptingChaco,flowersare virtuallyabsent
untilthe middleor late PuebloIII period(ca. A.D.1200-1300).Flowersthen
appear,togetherwith birdimages,in paintedritualregaliain SunflowerCave
in the Kayentaarea(KidderandGuernsey1919)andothernorthernsites.
The cache of painted wood and leather sunflowers (Figure 4a) at Sunflower
Cave near Kayenta was stored in a Pueblo III period ceramic jar (Kidder and
Guernsey 1919). A carved bird, painted blue, yellow, and red with white spots,
also was present, together with wooden cones that may also represent flowers

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10 RESEARCH
JOURNALOF ANTHROPOLOGICAL
~...........
..N.: .....
....
......
. .

.............
iii...........
...i,~.i~.~iig
cl................
:?';?:?:?~~;:
??l~i ..iiiiii
iii:?::::???::?::??
......... .....
......

Figure 4. Kayenta Anasazi Wood, Leather, and Gourd Flowers and Birds
a. The Sunflower Cave cache (after Kidder and Guernsey 1919:Plate 61); b. birds from
the Montezuma Creek cache (after Cummings 1915:280 and 1953); c. flowers from the
Bonita Creek cache (after Wasley 1962). Drawings by Ronald Beckwith.

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 THEFLOWER
WORLDIN MATERIAL
CULTURE 11

(cf. cone-shapedflowers used on historic-periodHopi altars [Geertz 1987]).

ByronCummingscollectedan identical,but isolated,carvedandpaintedsun-
flowerin a cavein the BubblingSpringbranchof Tsegi Canyon,west of Kayenta
(ASMcatalogno. 1131).
A cachefoundin a cave on BonitaCreekin southernArizona,in a Maverick
MountainPolychromejardatingbetweenA.D.1280and1310,haswoodenflow-
ers (Figure4c) paintedturquoiseanddarkblue,woodencones, stringsof very
smallcoiledbaskets,anda turquoise-painted woodencruciform pendantclaimed
byWasley(1962)to representa bird.Wasleyarguesconvincinglythatthe cache
was depositedby migrantKayentans;MaverickMountainPolychromeis iden-
tical in style to the Kayentantype Kiet Siel Polychromebut is madeof local,
southernArizonamaterials.
A thirdcacheof woodenbirdsandpossibleflowerdepictionsmadeof gourds
(Figure4b) was foundin the MontezumaCreekareaof southernUtah,in the
westernMesaVerdeculturearea(Cummings1953:205-9).It remainsundated.
This cache lackswoodencones, but it does containsmallperforatedwooden
cylindersandslit perforatedcylindersCummingscalls"tinklers."These items
were in a plainwarejarthatCummingsdatedto the BasketmakerIIIor Pueblo
I perioddueto its crudity.However,morerecentstudiesof ceramicsjust south
of the MontezumaCreekareasuggestthatlate PuebloIIIperiodutilitywareis
far"cruder" thanearliertypes (FairleyandCallahan1985).Allof these Kayenta
area woodenbirdsare very similarto historicHopiand Zunipieces (Geertz
1987:Plate10; Stevenson1904:Plates58, 59, 116, 127).
These carvedwoodenitems almostcertainlywere partof ritualregalialike
thatworntodayby kachinasandotherritualfigures,suchas HopiFlutepriests.
Because these objectsare perishableand were only preservedin caves and
otherunusualconditions,we donothavea clearnotionof theiroriginaldistribu-
tion in space and time. Nonetheless,the dates, contexts,and associationsof
these objectssuggestthatmanyof the cave cachesare closelyrelatedandthat
the contentsof some,notablythe threeKayentaAnasazisites (SunflowerCave,
MontezumaCreek,and BonitaCreek)andat least two of the Mogollonsites
(BearCreekandDoolittleCaves),indicatethe presenceof the FlowerWorld
complex.
PuebloIIIFlowersin PotteryandMurals.Possibleflowersappearon Mesa
Verde Black-on-white(Brody 1990) and Santa Fe Black-on-white(Pippin
1987:Fig.19j)potterydatingto the A.D.1200s, as well as on the late White
MountainRedWaretype PinedalePolychromeof the northernMogollonarea.
Most of these depictionsare rayedcircles or triangle-rayedcirclesthatcould
also representthe sun or stars;none are unequivocallyvegetal.
Wallpaintingsin kivas and other rooms remainedmostly geometricuntil
sometimein the late A.D.1200s,a trendnotedalso in ceramics.Even so, mu-
ralsarerare,andlife-formseven rarer,in this period.Muralsapparently dating
to the A.D.1200sdepictingbirdsandflowerswere exposedby Hibben(citedin
Smith1952:Fig.7, pp.65-66) in the Gallinaareaof northernNew Mexico(Fig-
ure 5a).Flowersshownin these muralsare manypetalledandemanatefroma

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12 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH

amm-

a --
.M2

Figure5. KivaMurals
a. PuebloII periodkivamuralsfromthe Gallinaareashowingplantsandflyingbirds
(leftandcenter)andfromthe MesaVerdeareashowingmacaws(right)(Smith1952:Fig.
7);b. muralwithfloweredbasebandandburrowing animalsat Awatovi(Smith1952:Fig.
71) (figuresfromSmith1952reprintedcourtesyof the PeabodyMuseumof American
ArchaeologyandEthnology,HarvardUniversity);c. kivamuralwithbutterfliesat Pot-
tery Mound(fromHibben1975:15,courtesyof KCPublications andFrankHibben).

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 WORLDIN MATERIAL
THEFLOWER CULTURE 13
verticalstalk,like sunflowersor yucca.Macaws,like those in Figure5a,butno
flowers,appearin PuebloIII periodmuralsnear McElmoCanyon,Colorado,
andin MesaVerdecliffdwellings(Smith1952:Fig.7). Unlessothershavefaded
awaywith time, colorsare limitedto red,white,andblack.
PuebloIVPottery,KivaMurals,andOtherMedia.Unequivocal highlynatural-
istic flowers,as well as rayedcircles,appearon manykindsof potteryin the
fourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesin the Hopi,LittleColorado,MogollonRim,
andCentralBasinareas,as well as CasasGrandesin northernMexico(Appen-
dix B). Birdsappearfrequently,especiallymacaws,but also turkeys,raptors,
possibleducks,and at least one Stellar'sjay. Hummingbirds are often men-
tioned in FlowerWorldsongs (Hill 1992), but their depictionis rare in the
Southwest:one possiblehummingbird depictionappearson a fourteenth-cen-
turyJedditoYellowWarepotsherdfromthe Homol'oviarea (Homol'oviRe-
searchProgramslide collection,ArizonaState Museum).Butterfliesappear
on severalkindsof potteryin the fourteenthcentury(AppendixD). Rockart
depictionsof butterfliesare probablyalso fourteenthcenturyor later,andkiva
muraldepictionsare probablyfifteenthcentury.
Kivamuralsof the A.D.1400s(orpossiblyearly1500s)provideourstrongest
case for depictionof a flowerySpiritWorld.A muralat PotteryMoundshows
giantbutterfliescarryingflowersby theirstems (Hibben1975:Fig.8); see Fig-
ure 5c. Arcs above their heads may representclouds. Kiva 10 has a mural
(Hibben1975:Fig.44) showingthree macawseatingcorn (or emittingrudi-
mentaryspeech scrolls!),rainbowbands,andan arc of featherssimilarto the
paintedwood"plumearc"fromthe ChetroKetlRoom93 assemblageofwooden
items (Vivian,Dodgen,andHartmann1978:Fig.2.8). Macaws,a butterfly-hu-
manfigure,anddragonfliescavortarounda maidenon a panelwith a rainbow
base band(Hibben1975:Fig.45).
At Awatovi,flowers,burrowinganimals(skunk,black-footedferret),anda
possiblebirdappearon rainbowbase bands(Smith1952:Figs.61, 71, for ex-
ample);see Figure5b. Manyof the flowershaveunequivocalpetalsandseedy
centers, but some base bandelements are simplyquarteredcircles. Similar
quarteredcirclesappearstackedin bowls or basketsset on the rainbowbase
bandat bothAwatoviandKawaika-a(Smith1952:Figs.49, 60, 66, 71, 79, 86).
These may representfood offeringsratherthanflowers.Depictionsof nine-
teenth-centuryHopialtars,however,sometimesincludestackedhalf-gourds
withsimilarquartereddesignspaintedon theirinteriorsurfaces,andthese are
saidto representflowers(Geertz1987).
TherainbowbasebandsintheAwatovi,Kawaika-a, andPotteryMoundmurals
mayrepresent the interfacebetween this world andthe SpiritWorld.Figures
andobjectsstandingon the base bandare in the SpiritWorld,while we stand
on the floorof the kiva,in this world,observingthe otherworldlyscene that
would have formed a backdropfor altars and ritual performances. These Spirit
World scenes include Flower World images of flowers, butterflies, macaws,
and other birds, as well as celestial objects, animals, insects, ritual parapherna-
lia, corn, clouds, and probabledeities. The appearanceof burrowinganimals on

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14 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH
the rainbowbasebandsmaybe due to the abilityof skunks,ferrets,andothers
to movebetweenthis worldandthe Underworld.
Flowersarefrequentin fifteenth-century muralsat the Hopisites of Awatovi
and Kawaika-a(Smith 1952) and at the Rio Grandesite of Pottery Mound
(Hibben1975). BerthaDuttonnotes a few possibleflowersat Kuaua,a Rio
Grandesite nearAlbuquerque (CoronadoState Monument).Dutton,who be-
lieved that Kuauawas settled by Zunimigrantssometimein the A.D.1300s,
consulteda Zunispeaker,Zna'ote,who identifiedthe figurein the muralsas
the Corn-EarthMother.This figurewears a floweron her head,a Sky-Sun
Fathermaskon herface,anda birdlikedress (Dutton1963:Fig.54). The male-
female dualityin this identificationfits very well with argumentspresented
belowaboutgendersymbolismin FlowerWorldiconography. AnotherKuaua
figure holdsa leafystalkwith protuberances thatDutton firstidentifiesas ears
of corn.Duttonthen notes thather Zuniconsultantidentifiedthese imagesas
daturablossoms,probablybecauseotherfeaturesof the figureled himto iden-
tify it with a Zunipersonagewho usuallycarriesdatura,a sacredplantthat
causes dreamsand visions (Dutton1963:Fig.96 and pp. 69-70; we think it
looks like cornstalks).
Rainbowsreappearin muralsandpaintedaltarstones of the fifteenthcen-
tury in the Hopi,Canyonde Chelly,and Little ColoradoRiverareasandare
frequentin modernPuebloregaliaandaltars(see AppendixE). Rainbowsare
not directlyassociatedwith flowerandbirdimagesuntilthe fifteenth-century
murals.Rainbows,like flowers,can be difficultto recognize.Hays-Gilpinfo-
cused on arcs of parallellines in bichromemediaandarcs of differentcolored
lines in coloredmedia.Rainbowsneed not be representedas arcs. For ex-
ample,Navajosandpaintings often includeshort sets of parallelcoloredlines
representing the rainbow often seen connectingthe earthandlow cloudsdur-
ing desert rainstorms. In describingthe rock art of FeatherCave,Ellis and
Hammack(1968:35),citingParsons(1939:310),note thatsome Pueblopeople
representbothrainbowsandthe MilkyWayas ladderlikefigures,becausethey
are laddersto the UpperWorld.Ellis thereforesuggests that the ladderlike
figurenext to the Sun Face pictographin FeatherCaverepresentsa rainbow.
ExceptforEllis'sexample,laddersare not includedhere as rainbows,because
we do not knowif this attributionhas time depth(sometimesa ladderis prob-
ablyjust a ladder).Althoughnot tabulated,laddersare not frequentin the ma-
terialexamined.Moulard(1996)notes that some Pueblotraditionsview rain-
bows andthe MilkyWayas pathwaysbetweenworlds;rainbowsare daytime
paths,andthe MilkyWay,often depictedas a black-and-white checkerboard
band,is a nighttimepath.
HistoricPueblos.Hopialtarsof the nineteenthcenturysometimesincluded
woodenbirds,gourdflowers,andcarvedwoodenflowers,andthese elements
are also found as part of the regalia of kachinas and other supernaturals(see,
for example, Geertz 1987; Wright 1973; Fox 1988; Stevenson 1904:Plate 103).
Flowers are prominent on the Hopi Flute Society altar. Flute dancers wear
fresh sunflowers andplace flowers along their path (Stephen 1936:789-90, 809).

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 WORLDIN MATERIAL
THEFLOWER CULTURE 15
Flowersalso appearin kivawallpaintings(Dutton1963;Hibben1975;Smith
1952).Some Hopialtarsincludedrypaintings,andthese are oftenboundedby
a rainbow(Geertz1987).Birdsare frequenton Zunialtars(Stevenson1904),
butflowersare muchrarerthanat Hopi;this is consistentwiththe absenceof
flowerimageryfromZuniprayersrecordedby Bunzel(1932).Flowerimagery
does appearin Zunideer songs, however(Tedlock1992:123).Butterfliesand
flowers also appearin modem Pueblo blanketsworn in the Hopi Butterfly
Dance,3a social dance.In contrastto the prehistoricperiod,flowersappear
ubiquitouslyin historicpotteryandbasketry(AppendixB); we take this to be
at least partlythe result of Europeaninfluence.Flowerson manyhistoricRio
Grande(e.g.,ZiaandAcoma-Laguna) vessels, forexample,are oftenveryreal-
isticandresembleSpanishcolchaembroiderydesigns(see, forexample,Fisher
1979).4

SummaryandDiscussion
Hill's(1992)systematicstudyof verbaltexts revealeda complexof imagery
describinga colorful,flowerySpiritWorldin songs.The searchforflowersand
otherimagesmentionedin these songs, particularly colorfulbirds,butterflies,
andrainbows,in materialcultureitems of the Southwestshowedstrongpat-
terns in time, space,andmedium,as well as contextualparallelswiththe ver-
bal data.Althoughperhapsalwaysexpressedand transmittedacross genera-
tions in songs, strongexpressionof the FlowerWorldin materialcultureis
limitedto certaintimes, places,andconditions.
Ourstrongest cases for the presence of the FlowerWorldcomplexin the
prehistoricSouthwest-Mimbres potteryandwoodenartifacts,ChacoCan-
yon and Kayentanwooden artifacts,and Pueblo IV periodmuralsand, to a
lesser extent, ceramics-are made by examiningtwo aspects of the con-
text of flower depictions:the associationof flowers with the other Flower
Worldicons andthe context of use of flower-bearingartifacts.The expected
,FlowerWorldimages(flowers,birds,butterflies,andrainbows)are not regu-
larlyrepresentedtogether in the same tableauxuntil the fifteenth-century
kiva muralsof Awatovi,Kawaika-a,and Pottery Mound,and they continue
to appeartogether in contemporaryPuebloanregaliaandin Hopialtars.All
four icons begin to appearin the same media and areas in the A.D.1200s,
albeit rarely on the same object (i.e., there are altar slabs with birds and
altarslabs with rainbows,but no slabs with both;butterflies,macaws,and
flowers appearon vessels, but not together on the same pots). The regular
associationsof flowers with coloredbirdsbegan earlier,however.Material
culture evidence suggests that the MimbresMogollonand ChacoAnasazi
expressed Flower Worldimagery in ritual regalia duringthe eleventh to
twelfth centuries, while the Mimbresalso placed Flower Worldimagery
with the deadon ceramics.KayentaAnasazipeople producedsimilaritems
of ritualregaliadepictingflowers andbirdsin the late thirteenthcentury.A
very widespreadexpression of Flower Worldimagery burgeonedover a
wide region and several media in the fourteenthcentury, culminatingin

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16 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH

fifteenth-centurykiva muralsandhistoricPuebloanrituallyassociatedrega-
lia, altars,andmurals.
The FlowerWorldcomplexshouldnotbe interpretedas a "religion" or "cult"
in its own right.Instead,the complexconstitutedone of several"partideolo-
gies" or a set of symbolictools thatremainedavailable,eitherseparatelyor in
combination, to the ritualpracticeandthoughtof Southwesternpeopleover a
longperiodof time. Whenthe complexwas activated,as in the Mimbresor in
PuebloIV,it was probablya partof some largerideologicaldevelopment.For
instance,FlowerWorldimagerycan be used to contemplatethe contrastbe-
tween this worldandthe flowerySpiritWorld.Sucha use of these imagesis
clearin verbalart(Hill1992)andis stronglysuggestedby some of the material
cultureevidence.
Severalproposalsaboutmajorideologicaldevelopmentsin which Flower
Worldimageryis deployedappearin the literature.These includeShafer's
(1995)proposalforincreasingemphasisonthe layeringofthe universeinSouth-
west (especiallyMimbres)cosmology,Crown's(1994) proposalof a "South-
west RegionalCult,"andMoulard's(1984)accountof the meaningof Mimbres
mortuarypractice.All of these proposalsare complicatedby the problemof
possiblediffusionof ideologicaldevelopmentsfromMesoamericato the South-
west. We turnnow to a discussionof the questionof diffusionandideological
developmentsassociatedwiththe periodicefflorescencesof the FlowerWorld
iconographiccomplex.

DIFFUSION OF THE FLOWERWORLDIN SPACEAND TIME?

The associationbetweenflowersandsong is quiteancientin Mesoamerica,

consistentwiththe strongtendencythroughoutthe FlowerWorldcomplexin
the Uto-Aztecanlanguagesforflowersto be mentionedin songs farmorethan
in any othergenre.WallpaintingsfromTeotihuacandatingfrombetweenA.D.
500 and750 (Pasztory1988)havemanyexamplesof "speechscrolls"emanat-
ing fromthe mouthsof bothhumansandbirdsthatare embellishedwith flow-
ers (Figure6); Marcus(1992)suggeststhatthe embellishmentsof scrollssug-
gest the type of speechandthatflowerembellishmentsindicatethatthe figure
is singing.
In materialculture,there are also strikingparallelsbetween the two re-
gions. In Mesoamerica,as in the Southwest,flowersoccurin wall paintings
andritualregalia.Mostnotableare the depictionsof floweryparadises,includ-
ing multiplerepresentationsof floweringtrees, birds,butterflies,manysym-
bols of water,andimagesof divinitiesfoundat Teotihuacan.The Teotihuacan
muralsshow an uncannystructuralsimilaritywith kivamurals.For instance,
they show a band of flowery and watery elements bearing up images of a flow-
ery other world (cf. Pasztory 1988:66, Figs. III.18 and III.19). Flower World
imagery appears in Mesoamerica at an earlier date than any attested in the
Southwest, however. A direct diffusion is very unlikely, due to the probable
A.D.500-700 date for the Teotihuacanmurals and the probableA.D.1450-1600

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 THEFLOWER INMATERIAL
WORLD CULTURE 17

p.
- .
.N ...

C)
D o /
.oo

"Sa

Figure6. FlowerySpeechScrollSignifyingSong,Teotihuacan
FromBerrin1988:Fig.VI.21,line drawingby SaburySugiyama,reproducedwith per-
missionfromthe Fine Arts Museumsof San Francisco.

dates of the Puebloan murals. Intermediate areas and time periods should be
examined to address the question of diffusion. Casas Grandes was long thought
to have channeled Mesoamerican ideas and objects into the Southwest, but it
is an unlikely source for Flower World imagery, simply because the Casas
Grandes efflorescence is much later than the first attestations of Flower World
images in the Southwest at Chaco and in the Mimbres area. Casas Grandes
polychrome pottery includes images of snakes, humans (including possible
masked faces), birds (especially macaws), and possible flowers (these are not
"unequivocal flowers" and may easily be interpreted as celestial). With the
recent redating of the En Medio period to A.D.1200-1450 (Dean and Ravesloot
1988), it is clear that flower andbirdregalia at Chaco Canyonand in the Mimbres
area predates flower depictions on Casas Grandes ceramics.
In the absence of such intervening evidence, we conclude that the evidence

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18 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH
frommaterialculturesupportsthe conclusionthat Hill (1992)drewfromher
studyof verbalart:i.e., thatit is likelythat the FlowerWorldis very old and
very widespreadamongUto-Aztecanspeakersandmanyof theirneighborsin
the Southwestand need not have a specificallyMesoamericanorigin.5This
ancientcomplexis, however,not alwayssalient.Instead,it was periodically
the objectof specialrepresentational attentionin a restrictedrangeof media.
The questionformaterialculturedatabecomesone ofwhenandwhythe Flower
Worldwas enactedor depictedin mediathathavebeen preserved.
The idea of the FlowerWorldas a spiritworldthatparallelsthis worldfits
well with the ideaof a layereduniverse,seen in manyhistoricMesoamerican
andSouthwestoraltraditions.Forexample,the HopiEmergenceStorydetails
passageof the peoplefromsuccessive lowerto upperworlds.As each world
nearsdestructiondueto evil deeds,the peoplemustfindan openingin the sky
throughwhichthey canpass to the surfaceof the next world.The OldWorld/
Underworldthen becomes the abodeof spirits and the dead.Shafer(1995)
finds architecturalevidencefor belief in a layereduniversein the Mimbres
areain a shiftfromside-entryto roof-entrypit houses andthe developmentof
roof-entrypuebloroomsbetweenA.D.900 and1000.As notedabove,Moulard
(1984)arguesthatMimbresBlack-on-white bowls(ca.A.D.1000-1130)placed
overthe headsof the deadrepresentthe sky of the Underworld. Scenespainted
on suchbowls,then,representlife in the SpiritWorld,repletewithflowersand
game animalsamongotherimages.
Crown(1994) provides another scenario for the explicit emergence of
one probableFlower Worldefflorescence, the "SouthwestRegionalCult,"
as represented in iconographyon Saladopolychromepottery. Her argu-
ment is as follows: the late thirteenth century was a time of frequentand
long droughts,followedby populationmovements includingabandonment
of many regions, such as Kayentaand Mesa Verde. People gathered into
large villages in a few better-wateredareas, such as the MogollonRim,
Rio Grande,Verde Valley, Roosevelt Basin, upperandmiddleLittle Colo-
rado areas, and even the Hopi Mesas, where runofffrom the Black Mesa
watershedemerges nearthe present-dayHopivillages andnumerousfour-
teenth-centurysites. Duringthis time of social disruptionand geographic
displacement,there occurreda shift in ideology from an emphasis on an-
cestors, the dead,andperhapsthe associationbetween ancestors andter-
ritory, to a focus on the earth and fertility, coalescing in a suite of images
she recognizes as indicatinga shared ideology she calls the Southwest-
ern RegionalCult. Crownobserves that all icons involved,includingflow-
ers, stars, snakes, and kachinas,had been present in the Southwest for
varyinglengths of time andwere not a wholesale importof Mesoamerican
iconography.Flowers, which are only very rarelydepictedon paintedpot-
tery in the Southwest prior to the historic period, are part of a suite of
images on Saladopolychromethat include "the sun, Venus, stars, flow-
ers, the sky, clouds, lightning, precipitation,and the wind-strong evi-
dence that the associated beliefs concernedfertility and weather control.

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 THEFLOWER
WORLDIN MATERIAL
CULTURE 19
The icons thus provide evidence for the existence of an earth/fertility
cult" (Crown 1994:215).
Crownarguesthatthe SouthwesternRegionalCultis not simplya continu-
ationof the Mimbresritualsystem, since not only is there at least a century
betweenthe latestattestedMimbrespotteryandthe emergenceof Saladopot-
tery but also that imageshave been refunctionalized froma mortuarycult to
one associatedwith life andfertility.Crownobservesthat SouthwesternRe-
gionalCultimageryin othercontextsdoes not includeiconicmaterialassoci-
ated withpowerfulpeople(includingbirdswith spreadwings andtoads).Like
the Kachinareligion,it mayhavebeen a cult appropriate to the ritualpractice
of ordinarypeople,emergingin a time of disruptionin supportof a stablesocial
organization thatextendedsolidaritybeyondthe immediatekin groupandvil-
lage to a regionalsphere.The Mimbresand Saladoexamples,then, are two
largelyseparateefflorescencesof the FlowerWorldcomplexin differentcon-
texts.

A POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVETO DIFFUSION:

GENDER ASSOCIATIONSOF THE FLOWERWORLD

Shafer(1995) and Crown(1994) both note questionsabout (1) the prob-

lem of connectionswith Mesoamericaand (2) possible continuitiesacross
long time gaps in the Southwest. We propose that attentionto gender, an
issue not raisedby Shaferor Crown,may suggest a solutionto these prob-
lems of spatialand temporalcontinuity.Genderedconflicts involvingcon-
trol over rituallypotent symbolictools maywell be a humanuniversal.The
Flower Worldcomplex in the Southwest and Mesoamericais unusual in
that flowers are associatedwith masculinepower.In Mesoamerica,flowers
in Aztec song are symbols, not of beautifulwomen, but of brave warriors
and of blood (see Hill 1992). The Yaquideer dance is an exclusively male
domain;women are not supposedto touch the items of ritualparaphernalia
that can be describedas "flowers"or "flowery."In the Southwest,the kiva
is a largelymasculinedomain(Young1987),andkivapaintingswere almost
certainlymadeby men. Kachinaritualis also a masculinerealm.As noted
above, flower images appearon the Hopi Flute Society altar,together with
birds (Stephen 1936:789-90), and male Flute dancerswear fresh sunflow-
ers and make flowery paths (Stephen 1936:809)like those mentioned in
songs. This associationbetween flower symbolismand masculine power
coexists with obvious associations between female fertility and flowers,
widely attested in the contemporarySouthwest (as in "flowernames"for
females in widely separatedareas, such as at Hopi and Taos [see Parsons
1936 for the latter]) and in most other parts of the world where flowers
appear in ritual and art (Goody 1993).
We suggest that periodic efflorescences of Flower World imagery may rep-
resent instances of the recruitment of female progenitive power to masculine
ritual activity. This is an obvious symbolic move that could easily have taken

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20 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH

place independentlyin Mesoamericaand in the Southwest, as well as in-

dependently in the context of wider ideological shifts at different time
periods. In both areas there are masculinedeities of germinationand fer-
tility that are associated with flowers: Xochipilli in Mesoamerica,
Paiyatamuat Zuni, Mii-yifiwa(Moulard1984:124) or Muyingwaat Hopi
(Young 1994:117; Young equates this deity with Tlaloc). The notion of
this deity could have spread at the same time as maize agriculture,pro-
viding the foundationof the masculine Flower World system. Interest-
ingly, in the Teotihuacanmurals, the Flower Worldis often associated
with representationsof a femininedivinity,the "GreatGoddess"that Karl
Taube (1983) argues may be ultimately related to Spider Womanin the
Southwest. The emergence of the Flower Worldimagery independently
in later periods may represent independent triumphs of deities like
Xochipilliover feminine deities like the GreatGoddess.Anotherinstance
of masculineappropriationof symbols of female power can be seen in the
form of kivas themselves, which may represent symbolic wombs com-
plete with the sipapu (a floor feature symbolic of entrance to the Under-
world) as birth canal (Young1987).
Women,too, maymanipulatesymbolsof genderandpower.Potterymak-
ing is generallytaken in the Southwest to be an art practicedby females.
Not only is pottery a feminine domainin the present-dayPueblos, but a
Classic MimbresBlack-on-whitebowl depicts an obviouslyfemale figure
painting pots (Moulard1984:Plate 4), Shafer (1985) describes a female
Mimbresburialwith pottery tools, and pottery tool kits are often found
with female burialsin the Anasaziarea (Crotty1983). The points at which
FlowerWorldimageryappearin pottery(as in Hohokam,Mimbres,Salado)
mayrepresentmomentswhen womenattemptedto recaptureFlowerWorld
imagery.A modelforthis sort of recruitmentof maleritualpowerby women
can be foundin the emergence of the figurativeceramicsknownas "story-
tellers" at CochitiPueblo. Helen Cordero,the originatorof the storyteller
image, intended it to represent her own grandfather,SantiagoQuintana,
and to evoke a traditionin which ritual story performancewas a preroga-
tive of men. Corderowas surprisedwhen her imitatorsbegan to make fe-
male storyteller figures, because, as Corderotold BarbaraBabcock, "At
home,no womenstell stories."Babcockrevealsthatthe governorsat Cochiti
tried to stop womenfrommakingstorytellers;they were unsuccessful,and
the figures have become an enormous contemporarysuccess (Babcock
1988). Alternatively,Mills (1995) argues that males may have made pot-
tery alongsidewomen duringMimbrestimes (or paintedpottery;see also
Brody 1977:115-16; Hegmon and Trevathan1996; Jett and Moyle 1986).
Mills's ethnographicstudy of the divisionof craftproductionat Zunishows
that duringtimes of economicstress and rapidchange,the gendereddivi-
sion of labor may break down. Individuals can take on the crafts usually
associated with the opposite gender, without having to take on "third-gen-
der" identity (lhamana in the Zuni language; see Roscoe 1991). Careful

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 THEFLOWER
WORLDIN MATERIAL
CULTURE 21

study of the age, sex, and grave offeringsof Mimbresburials(see, for ex-
ample, the data set presented by Anyonand LeBlanc1984) might provide
valuableclues. Unfortunately,most of the beautifulvessels illustratedin
references cited here were recoveredbefore the adoptionof contemporary
research standards or were looted by treasure hunters, thus depriving
present-dayresearchers of importantcontextualassociations.

FUTURE RESEARCH

Ourdocumentation of the suggestivedistributionof FlowerWorldimagery

acrosstime, space,andmediacontextshows thatit is importantto studyico-
nographyacrossthe fullrangeof media.Historical-linguistic methodscanadd
verbalmediato the materialmediastudiedby archaeologists.Neitherthe lin-
guistic nor archaeological methodcan, of course,reconstructancientperfor-
but
mance, ethnoarchaeological methodscanhelp us to constrainourrangeof
inferences.Hill's (1992)focus on verbalart left manyquestionsunanswered.
Similarly,an exclusivefocus on materialcultureevidencewouldnot permit
the interpretationsthat Hill's findingsmake possible.We hope to have sug-
gested the potentialofferedby collaboration betweenlinguisticsandarchaeol-
ogy.However,just as Hill's(1992) work neglectedmanysourceson verbalart,
the surveywe offerhere of Southwestmaterialis not exhaustive;gapsin both
geographyandchronologyappear.Datingthe woodenflowersandbirdsfrom
Doolittle,Mule Creek,MontezumaCreek,and FeatherCaves wouldbe ex-
tremelyimportant.Are these artifactscontemporaneous with Mimbresmor-
tuaryiconography or withthe laterSaladoandPuebloearth/fertilitycomplex?
New techniquesnow permitus to datesuchartifactswith the sacrificeof only
a smallsliverof material.
Finally,we suggest that there is a very interestingglobaldistributionof
flower imagery.Goody(1993) has discussed an elaboratecomplexof "cul-
tures of flowers"in both ritualand everydaylife, with many complexrela-
tionshipsacross all of Eurasiaand Oceaniafromthe fourthmillenniumB.c.
Goodyasserts that cultivationandritualuse of flowers,a well as flowerico-
nographyor the evocationof flowersin verbalart,is strikinglyabsentin sub-
SaharanAfrica,except on the east coast. Flowerimagery,at least in material
culture,is also quiterestrictedthroughoutthe Americaspriorto the historic
period.The exceptionis the SouthwesternandMesoamericancomplex,which
Goody(1993:288)identifiedin the "elaborateflowercultureof pre-Columbian
Mexico."In this Flower Worldcomplex,the associationof flower imagery
with masculinedomainsis especiallystriking,as is its strong restrictionto
markedlyritualas opposedto everydaycontexts. Archaeologists,linguists,
and ethnographers should join in careful studies of the global distribution of
floral iconography and its functions, because this complex of imagery shows
considerable promise as a phenomenon through which we can explore the
limits of diversity of human thought about the relationship between people
and nature.

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 APPENDIX A
Distribution of Flower World Imagery by Culture Area, Time,
Period/Culture Dates (A.D.) Flowers Birds
Basketmaker-Pueblo
(Anasazi/Hisatsinom)
Basketmaker II 200 B.C.?-A.D. 500 - rock art
BasketmakerIII 500-700 - rockart,pots,basket
PuebloI 700-900 - jewelry,rockart,pots
PuebloII 900-1150 - rockart
PuebloII-IIIMesaVerde 900?-1250 pots (poss.) pots,jewelry
PuebloII-IIIChacoan 1030-1200 wood,jewelry(poss.), wood,rockart,jewelry
ceramics(poss.,late)
PuebloIIIKayenta 1150-1300 wood,leather wood
MaverickMountainphase 1280-1310 wood wood
PuebloIIIGallina 1200s murals murals
PuebloIV 1300-1540/1628 murals,pots murals,pots, altar,
jewelry,rockart
Hopi 1628-present wood,altar,pots pots, wood,altar
Zuni 1540-present pots, rareon altar pots, wallpainting,altar
Acoma/Laguna 1540-present pots pots
RioGrande 1540-present pots pots, wallpainting
Mogollon
Mimbres 1000-1150 pots,wood,jewelry pots,jewelry,wood
(poss.)
UpperGila(Mimbres-Salado)1000-1450 wood wood
Jornada 900?-1300? wood wood,rockart
WesternPueblo 1200-1400 pots, rockart pots, rockart
Other
Hohokam,Preclassicperiod 500?-1150 pots pots, rockart,jewelry
Salado 1280-1450 pots pots
CasasGrandes,Mediophase 1200-1450 pots pots,jewelry
Sinagua 1000?-1300 jewelry(poss.) wood,jewelry
Fremont 700-1300 - rockart

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 APPENDIX B
Flower Depictions in Southwest Material Culture
Date Locality Culture MediumandContext
A.D.500?-1150? CentralandsouthernArizona Hohokam fr
Pottery:unidentifiedred-on-buff
Site (Tucson);GilaandSacatonRe
fromSnaketown;SacatonRed-on
GilaBendSite. "Sunburst" pendan
representflowers.
A.D. 900?-1300 MesaVerde,southwest MesaVerdeAnasazi Pottery:MancosandMesaVerdeB
Colorado,andvicinity whites andMesaVerde-styleSant
on-white,possibleflowers.Note th
Black-on-white dates900 to 1150,
Mancosvessels lackprovenienced
flowerson RosaBlack-on-white, U
Juan, ca. A.D.700-900.
A.D.1000?-1150 VerdeValleyandFlagstaff Sinagua Turquoiseandshell disc mosaicsm
representflowersor sun.
A.D.1000?-1150 MimbresValleyand MimbresMogollon Pottery:mortuary.
areaof
surrounding Stone andshell "sunburst"
penda
southwestNew Mexico representflowersor sun.

A.D. 1000?-1150 DoolittleCave,UpperGila MimbresMogollon Paintedwood:possibleflowerpeta

River,New Mexico be assembledinto a compositetab
Associatedwithpaintedwoodenb
cone, MimbresBlack-on-white sh
A.D. 1000?-1300? BearCanyonCave,Upper ProbablyMimbres Paintedwood.Associatedminiatu
GilaRiver,New Mexico Mogollon,possibly coiledbasketswithradialdesigns
Salado attachedto sticks,couldrepresen
flowers.Undatedritualdeposit,
associatedwith brownwarepotte

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A.D. 1054-1116 Room 93, Chetro Ketl, Chaco Chaco Anasazi Painted wood.
Canyon Shell and stone "sunburst"pendan
represent flowers.
A.D.1050-1200 Other Chacoansites and Eastern Anasazi Mosaic pendants from Aztec Ruin m
southern CibolanAnasazi, flowers or sun. Possible flower finia
including Puerco Valley of the hairpinand St. Johns Polychrome a
East Black-on-red bowls from Village of
Kivas. Puerco Black-on-red bowl fr
Kiatuthlanna.Also Wingate Black-o
Reserve Black-on-white.
A.D.1150-1300, Sunflower Cave, near Kayenta, Kayenta Anasazi Painted wood and leather (regalia),
probably1200s and Cummings's Montezuma in "cliffdweller corrugated"jar at S
Creek Cave (undated) Cave; carved wooden bird and cut g
may represent flowers at Montezum
A.D. 1200-1450 Mogollon Rim Western Pueblo Pottery: Fourmile Polychrome, poss
(Late Mogollon) Point of Pines Polychrome, definite
Rock art in Showlow area (possibly
A.D. 1200-1450 Casas Grandes, Chihuahua,and Casas Grandes, Pottery has possible flowers. "Sun
vicinity, including southern Medio phase petalled pendants.
New Mexico
A.D. 1280-1300 Bonita Cave Maverick Mountain Painted wood (regalia), ritual cache
phase (Kayentan Mountain Polychrome jar.
migrants)
A.D. 1200s North-central New Mexico Gallina Murals
A.D.1280-1450? Widespread,focus on central Salado Pottery, all depositional contexts.
and eastern Arizona
A.D. 1300-1540, Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande Pueblo IV Pottery: Sikyatki Polychrome, Rio
1628 (Hopi) Biscuit and/or Glaze wares. Shell "
pendants may represent flowers. P
flowers in Galisteo Basin rock art.

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 1375 or 1400- Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande
A.D. Late Pueblo IV Kiva murals at Awatovi, Pottery M
1540, 1628 (Hopi) area; possible flowei at Kuaua. Wa
Puye Cliff Dwellings, Pajarito Plate
paintings at Cerro de los Indios.

A.D1628 to Hopi Mesas, Arizona Hopi Sunflowers used in Flute dance; ap

present kachina regalia, textiles, rattles, alt
murals, baskets, pottery (San Bern
Polychrome, Polacca Polychrome).

A.D.1540 to Zuni, New Mexico Zuni Pottery, regalia

present

A.D. 1540 to Acoma and Laguna, New Western Keresan Pottery

present Mexico
A.D. 1540 to Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Zia, Eastern Keresan Pottery
present New Mexico
A.D. 1540 to San Juan, New Mexico Tewa Pottery

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 APPENDIX C
Bird Depictions in Southwest Material Culture
Date Locality MediumandContext
Culture
A.D.200?-500 FourCornersarea Rockart?If so, birdsare rare.
BasketmakerII
A.D. 500-700 FourCornersarea Rockart (frequent),pottery(rare),
BasketmakerIII
(rare);stone pendant.Paintedbird
multicolored,usuallywhiteor blac
A.D. 700-900 FourCornersarea PuebloI Probablyin rockart;two pendantsf
Verde;potteryfromMesaVerde.
A.D. 500-1100 CentralandsouthernArizona Hohokam,Preclassic Pottery,jewelry,rockart.

A.D.900-1300 Utah Fremont Rockart

A.D. 900-1150 ColoradoPlateau PuebloII Rockart,butless frequentthanin e
BasketmakerIIIstyle.
A.D. 900?-1300?FeatherCave,RioBonito, NorthernJornada Paintedwood
LincolnCo.,New Mexico Mogollon
A.D.1000?-1150 DoolittleCave,UpperGila MimbresMogollon Paintedwood.Associatedwith pain
River,New Mexico flowerpetals,woodencone, Mimb
white sherds.
A.D. 1000?-1300? BearCanyonCave,UpperGila MimbresMogollon, Paintedwood(regalia)in BearCan
possiblySalado muralsin GilaCliffDwellingsNatio
Monument.
A.D.1000-1150 MimbresValleyandvicinity MimbresMogollon Pottery,mostlymortuary;stone, w
shell pendants.

A.D. 1054-1116 Room93, ChetroKetl,Chaco ChacoAnasazi, Paintedwood(regalia);shell andst

Canyon PuebloII pendants.

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A.D. 1060-1300 VerdeValleyandFlagstaff Sinagua Paintedwood(regalia)at RidgeRu
at RidgeRuinandothersites.
A.D.1100-1350? CentralandsouthernArizona Hohokam,Classic Jewelry
A.D.1150-1300 SunflowerCave,nearKayenta,KayentaAnasazi Paintedwood
(probably1200s) andCummings'sMontezuma
CreekCave(undated)
A.D.1200-1300 MesaVerde,southwest MesaVerdeAnasazi Pottery(MesaVerdeBlack-on-w
Colorado,andvicinity (poss.).
A.D. 1200-1450 MogollonRim WesternPueblo Pottery(PinedalePolychrome,Fo
(LateMogollon) Polychrome),mostlymacaws.

A.D. 1200-1450 CasasGrandes,Chihuahua, andCasasGrandes,Medio Pottery,mostlymacaws;shell "bu

vicinity,includingsouthern phase
New Mexico
A.D. 1200s North-central New Mexico Gallina Murals
A.D. 1280-1300 BonitaCave MaverickMountains Paintedwood(regalia)
phase (Kayenta
migrants)
A.D. 1280-1450? Widespread, focus on central Salado Pottery,manydepositionalcontex
andeasternArizona
A.D. 1300-1450? PhoenixBasin,DoubleButte Salado Paintedwood,possiblebirdwingf
Cave compositefigure.Associatedwith
depictionandpossiblekachinaon p

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A.D. 1300-1540 Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande Pueblo IV Pottery (JedditoYellow Ware, Hom
Ware, Zuni and Rio Grande Glaze
Grande Biscuit Ware), painted alta
pendants, rock art, incised slab, fig

A.D. 1375 or 1400- Hopi Mesas to Rio Grande Late Pueblo IV Kiva murals at Awatovi, Pottery M
1540, 1628 (Hopi) macaws, bluebirds, other colorful b
as waterbirds.Wallcarvingsin Pu
Dwellings, Pajarito Plateau.
A.D. 1540 to Hopi Mesas, Arizona Hopi Pottery, painted wood, altars, texti
present

A.D.1540 to Zuni, New Mexico Zuni Pottery, wall paintings, altars.

present

A.D. 1540 to Acoma, Laguna,New Mexico Western Keresan Pottery

present
A.D. 1540 to Cochiti, Santo Domingo, Zia, Eastern Keresan Pottery
present New Mexico
1940 Isleta, New Mexico Southern Tiwa Wall painting, Medicine Society.
A.D.1540 to San Juan,Jemez, New Mexico Tewa, Towa Pottery, kiva mural at Jemez.
present

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 APPENDIX D
Butterfly Depictions in Southwest Material Cultur
Date Locality Culture MediumandContext
A.D. 1000-1150 MimbresValleyandvicinity MimbresMogollon Pottery,mostlymortuary.

A.D. 1200-1300 MesaVerde,southwest Mesa VerdeAnasazi Pottery

Colorado,and vicinity
A.D.1280-1450? Widespread,
focuson central Salado Pottery
andeasternArizona
A.D. 1200-1450 MogollonRim WesternPueblo Pottery(PinedalePolychrome,Kw
Polychrome).
A.D. 1300-1540 HopiMesasto RioGrande PuebloIV Pottery(JedditoYellowWaretypes
Tularosaor Klaget
Black-on-gray;
white).

A.D. 1375or 1400- HopiMesasto Rio Grande LatePuebloIV Kivamuralsat Awatovi,PotteryMo

1540, 1628 (Hopi) Also dragonflies.
A.D. 1540to HopiMesas,Arizona Hopi Pottery,paintedwood,textiles,bas
present
A.D. 1540to Zuni,New Mexico Zuni Regalia,pottery(poss. dragonflies
present

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 APPENDIX E
Rainbow Depictions in Southwest Material Culture
IDate ILocality ICulture I MediumandContext
A.D.500-700 Canyonde Chelly BasketmakerIII- Rockart,one withfluteplayer.
PuebloII

A.D. 700?-1300? Utah Fremont Rockart

A.D. 900?-1300? FeatherCave,RioBonito, NorthernJornada Rockart.EllisandHammacknote t

LincolnCo.,New Mexico Mogollon ladderdesignnearthe forearm[of a
kachina-likefigure]maybe a rainb
forin Pueblomythology,the rainbo
to as a ladder(Parsons1939:310)."
A.D.1000-1150 MimbresValleyandvicinity MimbresMogollon Potterybowlexterior,one example
A.D.1300-1450 MogollonRim WesternPueblo Paintedaltarstone
A.D.1300-1450? PhoenixBasin,DoubleButte Salado Paintedwoodprayerstickwithrain
Cave stars,centipedes;associatedwith k
carvedandpaintedfigure.No flowe
woodenbirdwing.
A.D.1300-1540 HopiMesasto RioGrande PuebloIV Paintedaltarslabsat Kinishba,Pec

A.D.1375or 1400- HopiMesasto RioGrande LatePuebloIV Kivamuralsat AwatoviandKawai

1540,1628(Hopi) some basebandsappearto be rainb
flowerson them.Onepossibleat Po
Mound.Paintedaltarslabsat Kawa

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A.D. 1540to HopiMesas,Arizona Hopi Regalia,altars,drypaintings.
present
A.D.1540to Zuni,New Mexico Zuni Regalia,altars,pottery.
present
A.D.1540to Jemez,New Mexico Towa Kivamurals
present
1940 Isleta,New Mexico SouthernTiwa Wallpainting,MedicineSociety.
A.D.1540to AcomaandLaguna,New WesternKeresan Pottery:possiblerainbowsarchin
present Mexico andflowers.

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32 OFANTHROPOLOGICAL
JOURNAL RESEARCH
NOTES

1. The Universityof Arizona'sSocialand BehavioralSciences ResearchInstitute

providedfundingforthe materialculturesurvey,andthe Universityof Arizonaprovided
fundsforillustrations.Wewouldalsoliketo thankPatriciaCrown,JerroldLevy,George
Cowgill,RichardAhlstrom,Tim Knab,MichelleHegmon,andthe JARreviewersfor
helpfulcommentsandadditional data.We also thankNativeAmericanconsultantswho
do not wish to be namedindividually.The Museumof NorthernArizonacuratorial,
library,and researchstaff providedresourcesand support.MikeJacobsand Nancy
Odegaardof the ArizonaState MuseumCollectionsDivisionbroughtthe Cummings
Tsegi Canyonflowerto ourattention.We thankthemandRonaldBeckwithof the Na-
tionalParkService,WesternArchaeological Conservation Center,who draftedmost of
the illustrations;the rest are creditedin their captions.All errorsare our fault.An
abbreviated accountof this studywillappearin the Proceedingsof the 1995Southwest
Symposium,to be editedby MichelleHegmon.
2. Severalauthors(cf. Tyler 1991;Smith1952;Parsons1939)have addressedthe
symbolicassociationbetweensolar,avian,andfloralimageryin the Southwest.Further
explorationof these associationsis beyondthe scopeof this article.
3. We also note thatthe traditionalhairstyleof youngHopiwomenhas been called
"squash blossom" and "butterfly" English;in Hopiit is poli'ini,whichroughlytrans-
in
latesas "wearinga butterfly." Thishairstyleis clearlydepictedin ceramicsandrockart
(Grant1978:179)at least as earlyas A.D.600 in the Anasaziarea,butwe do not knowif
its presentsymbolicassociationshavetimedepth;so thispotentialFlowerWorldimage
has been excludedfromfurtherconsideration here.
4. FlowerWorldimageryis widespreadin Navajoiconographyin both verbaland
visualart.Spaceprecludesdiscussionof this interestingdevelopmentof the complex.
5. Hill suggestedthat the FlowerWorldmay have originatedamongUto-Aztecan
peoples, since FlowerWorldimageryis foundvery clearlyamongthe Aztec, Yaqui,
Pimans,andHopi.A few of its elementsarealsofoundamongNumicandTakicpeoples.
Outsideof Uto-Aztecan,very clearattestationof a FlowerWorldcomplexis given for
the contemporary TzotzilMayabyLaughlin(1962)andfora contemporary Nahua-speak-
ing communityby Knab(1986),andthereis also evidenceforits presenceamongother
Puebloangroupsin the Southwest,amongZuni,Keresan,andTanoan-speaking peoples.

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