Creating Constraint Diagrams

04A_constraint-diagram.ppt

D. Edberg

2013/Oct/08 1" 04A&" 1"

Overview
•  What are constraint diagrams?
•  Constraints for takeoff
•  Constraints for cruise
•  Landing constraints
•  Acceleration
•  The constraint diagram
Embraer ERJ-145 Regional Jet
•  Concluding remarks

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 What are Constraint Diagrams?
• Display what an airplane can and cannot do
• Used for design optimization
TSL WTO
• Choose a design point based on W and S
TO

• Design point must lie within the constraint

boundaries
€
• Designs are often “optimum” near the
constraint lines

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Example Constraint Diagram

€

Courtesy W. Mason, Va. Tech

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 1.00
Constraint Diagram
0.90
Design Point
0.80

0.70

0.60
T/W

0.50

0.40
Cruise Out
0.30 Combat Turn Ma=0.9
Combat Turn Ma=1.2
Max Mach Heavy=2.2
0.20 Landing 4k
Takeoff 4k
Loiter SL
0.10 Mach 1.2 SL

0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100

W/S

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JSF Constraint Diagram

Courtesy Paul Bevilaqua, Lockheed Martin
1.4

1.2
Mach 1.4 1.5 1.6
1.0
Thrust / 0.8 Sustained G
Weight 6
0.6
Ratio 5
4
T/W 0.4
Instantaneous G 9 8 7
0.2

0.0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Wing Loading W/S (psf)
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 The Governing Equation
•  Derived from the equation for specific excess
power (§ 5.15, Introduction to Aeronautics: A
Design Perspective, Brandt, Stiles, Bertin, and
Whitford, AIAA. PDF file in notes.)
•  Thrust-to-weight vs. wing loading:
0 * - 4
T SLα = β 221 q ,, CD $ nβ '2 $ W '/ 1 $ dh ' 1 $ dv '22
+k & ) & )/ + & ) + & )5
TO

W TO α 22 β ,WTO 1
S % q ( S (/. V % dt ( g % dt (22
%
3 + 6

€
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Variables in Constraint Equation

α = T/TTO = ratio of actual thrust to takeoff thrust
(accounts for thrust loss due to altitude, V)
β = W/WTO = weight fraction (fuel use, stores drop)
k1 = induced drag term
k2 = drag term (Brandt, p. 134)
2
h = altitude C D = k1CL + k2CL + CDO
n = load factor 2
 ΩV 
q = ½ρV2 = dynamic pressure n = 1+  
 g0 
v = velocity
Ω = turn rate (rad/s)

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 Values for Constants K1 & CD0
(Mattingly et al, Aircraft Engine Design)

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Flight Path Considerations

  If level flight, dh/dt = 0
  If no turns or loads, n = 1

  If no acceleration, dv/dt = 0

  Usually take off at 1.2 × stall speed

(apply a factor of 1.44 to v2 with takeoff assumed
using max lift coefficient CL max)
  Landing at 1.3 × stall speed (factor of 1.69 for
landing)

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 Example Constraints for Takeoff
(“High” Thrust, Neglect Runway Friction)
TSL 1.44 β 2 WTO
Governing Equation: =
WTO αρ C L gsTO S MAX

Name Sample Value

β (fully fueled) 1
ρ (sea level) 0.002378 slugs/ft3
α (from v at 0.7 liftoff speed) 0.84
CL max (estimated, similar aircraft) 2.2
g 32.2 ft/s2
STO (requirement) 2500 ft
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Resulting Takeoff Constraint Equation

WTO & lb # TSL
$$ 2 !!
S % ft " WTO
20 0.82
40 0.16
TSL W 60 0.25
= .004 TO
WTO S 80 0.33
100 0.41
120 0.49
140 0.57
160 0.65
180 0.74
200 0.82
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 Constraints for Cruise
' - 2
* $
TSL β!
!q + C Do 3 nβ 0 3 WTO 0( 1 dh 1 dV !
!
Governing Eqn: = & + W + k1 11 .. 1 .( + + #
WTO α ! β + TO 2 q / 2 S /( V dt g dt !
!
% , S ) !
"

Name Value
β (fuel lost during climb) 0.818
α (thrust at cruise speed) 0.93
q 200 lb/ft2
CL 0.575

k1 0.03
CD 0 0.03
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Final Cruise Constraint Equation

WTO & lb # TSL
$$ 2 !!
S % ft " WTO
20 0.38
& # 40 0.28
TSL $ 6.46 W ! 60 0.29
=$ + .003 TO !
WTO W S ! 80 0.32
$ TO
% S " 100 0.36
120 0.41
140 0.46
160 0.52
180 0.57
200 0.63
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 Example Constraints for Landing
WTO S L ρC LMAX gµ
Governing Equation: =
S 1.69 β

Name Value

ρ 0.00238 slugs/ft3

C LMAX 2.6 (Schaufele)

µ (friction coefficient) 0.3 (www.asft.se)
β$ 0.65
SL (landing distance) 3000 ft
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Final Landing Constraint Equation

WTO " lb f % TSL

$ 2'
S # ft & WTO
WTO lb
= 163 2f 163 0.1
S ft € 163 0.2
163 0.3
… …
163 1.0
€

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 Non-Fighters Must Consider Runway
Friction
  Use “effective” acceleration at 70% of takeoff or
landing speed
Landing assumes no thrust
µ = runway friction
WTO, WL = takeoff and landing weights
2
1.44WTO
sTO =
ρSCLmax g0 [T − D − µ (WTO − L)] 0.7 V
TO

1.69 W L 2
sL =
ρSCLmax g0 [ D + µ (W L − L)] 0.7 V
L
€
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Acceleration Constraint
(Level, Unbanked Flight)
  The governing equation is
0 * - 4
T SLα = β 221 q ,, C $ β '2 $ W '/ 1 $ dv '22
+k & ) &
D
)/ + & )5
TO

W TO α 22 β , 1
(W S) % q ( % S (/. g % dt (226
TO
3 +

  What is used for q? Start, finish, or mean?

€

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 Construction of Constraint Diagram
  Plot all curves on a single graph
  Wing loading horizontal

  Thrust-to-weight vertical

  Identify which side of each curve is OK

  Make sure the constraint curves make sense!

  Choose and identify design point

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Sample Constraint Diagram —Regional

Constraint Diagram Jet
for Regional Jet Mission
Design point Solution Space
1.2
(W/S = 50 psf,
1 T/W = 0.33)
0.8 Takeoff
Tsl/Wto

0.6 Cruise

0.4 Landing

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Wing Loading (lb/ft^2)
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 Example Constraint Diagram
(Black lines, Cartoon box, Design point)
Fighter Constraint Diagram
3.0 Solution Space
Turn
2.5 Design Point
Horiz Accel
W/S = 38 psf
2.0 T/W = 1.7 Takeoff
T/W

1.5 Braking
1.0
0.5
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 120
W/S (lbf/ft2)

2013/Oct/08 04A&"21"

Ceres UAV Constraint Diagram

80
Engine Horsepower

70
60
ost
uring C

Design Point
50 2
104 ft , 45 hp
40
ct

Takeoff
Manufa

30
Landing

Ferry
20
10
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Wing Area (ft2)
Courtesy Nathan Olson, CPP ‘08
2013/Oct/08 04A&"22"
 Comments on Design Point
•  Must fit in allowable areas of all constraints
•  Allow some margin (“wiggle room”) so
design changes don’t move it out
•  Lowest-weight aircraft meeting constraints is
often cheapest
•  Less thrust = less engine required = less
engine cost, usually
•  Existing engine thrust may not match what’s
needed
•  Constraint diagram does not know how many
engines. (Multi-engines provide nT of thrust)
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Summary of Constraint Diagrams

•  Select design point
•  Must satisfy all constraint curves
•  Must fit all constraints and/or missions (for
multiple-mission aircraft)
•  SHOW SIMILAR AIRCRAFT on your plot!
•  Be sure to include off-nominal conditions i.e.
•  Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport @ 120° F
•  Denver @ 100°F
•  Go back and re-do constraint diagram when
parameters or design changes
•  Do not put tables of constraint curve data in your
slides! I WILL take off points.!

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 Comments on
Thrust-to-Weight (T/W)
and Wing Loading (W/S)

(Based on Chapter 5 of Raymer’s

Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach)
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Thrust-To-Weight Ratio T/W (Raymer Tables 5.1, 5.3)

Typical Installed T/W

Jet trainer 0.4
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.9
Jet fighter (other) 0.6
Military cargo/bomber 0.25
Jet transport 0.25 – 0.4

Statistical T/Wo Estimation (vs. max Mach Mmax)

T/Wo = aMmaxc
a c
Jet trainer 0.488 0.728
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141
Military cargo/bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363
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 Power-To-Weight Ratio P/W (Raymer Tables 5.2, 5.4)
Typical Installed W/P
Powered Sailplane 25
Homebuilt 12
GA-Single engine 14
GA-Twin engine 6
Agricultural 11
Twin turboprop 5
Flying boat 10
Statistical P/Wo Estimation (vs. vmax in kt) P/Wo = avmaxc
a c
Powered Sailplane 0.043 0.0
Homebuilt 0.005 0.57
GA-Single engine 0.004 0.57
GA-Twin engine 0.025 0.22
Agricultural 0.009 0.50
Twin turboprop 0.013 0.50
Flying boat
2013/Oct/08
0.030 0.23
04A&"27"

Power Loading &

Horsepower-to-Weight Ratio

  Propeller-Powered Aircraft:
  T = ηp P /v = 550 ηpHP/v

  so, T/W = (ηp/v)(P/W)

= (550 ηp/v)(HP/W) using fps units. (R5.1)

  Define “Power Loading” Wo/HP = 1/(HP/Wo)

  Note: reversed meaning compared to T/W!

  C = Cpv/(ηp) = CbhpV/(550ηp)

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 Power-to-Weight Ratio (Raymer Tables 5.2, 5.4)

TYPICAL
INSTALLED
P/W:

STATISTICAL
P/W
ESTIMATION
(vs. vmax)

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Thrust Matching
(T & W are actual values, NOT takeoff values)
In cruise: T = D, L = W, so:
(T/W)cruise = (D/L)cruise = 1/(L/D)cruise
In climb: T = D + W sin γ, L = W cos γ, so:
(T/W)climb = 1/(L/D)climb + sin γ
= 1/(L/D)climb + vvert/vhoriz (R5.4)
"T% "T% "W %" T %
$ ' =$ ' $$ cruise ''$ takeoff '
# W & takeoff # W & cruise # W takeoff &# Tcruise &
Must ratio results back to takeoff values for comparison

€
2013/Oct/08 04A&"30"
 Wing Loading (W/S) Comments

Higher W/S

Smaller Wing

  Higher stall speed

  Longer takeoff and landing distances

  Poorer maneuvering performance

But benefits are:

  Reduced friction drag and weight

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Stall Speed
W = L = qstallSCLmax = 1/2 ρ vstall 2SCLmax
W/S = qstallCLmax = 1/2 ρ vstall 2CLmax
ρ = 0.002378 slugs/ft3 @ sea level
ρ = 0.00189 slugs/ft3 @ 5000 ft, hot day (Denver)
vstall defined by FAR, MIL SPEC, or design reqts
vstall = 61 kt (FAR-23: Single engine, Wo < 12,500 lb)
vstall may be set by vapproach
Civil: vapproach = 1.3 vstall
Military: vapproach = 1.2 vstall
Carrier-Based: vapproach = 1.15 vstall
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 Maximum Lift Coefficient
(Raymer Fig. 5.3)
CLmax

WINGS OF MODERATE ASPECT RATIO (4-8)

Quarter-Chord Sweep
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Takeoff Distance Estimation (Raymer Fig. 5.4)

NUMBER
OF JET
Takeoff ENGINES Jet
Distance
(x 1000 ft) BALANCED
FIELD
LENGTH

Prop

TAKEOFF PARAMETER: W/S or W/S

σCLTOT/W σCLTOHP/W
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 References
Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design
Perspective, Brandt, Stiles, Bertin, and
Whitford, AIAA. PDF file in notes.
Aircraft Engine Design, Mattingly, Heiser, and
Daley, AIAA
Aviation Week & Space Technology Source Book,
information on currently available engines and
aircraft:
www.avweek.com/aw/sourcebook/index.jsp

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FARs (Federal Aviation Regulations)

& Other Regulation Information
http://rgl.faa.gov/
Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/
rgFAR.nsf/MainFrame?OpenFrameSetB
http://www.airweb.faa.gov/
Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/
rgFAR.nsf/B
!

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