MBA I SEM.

ITM

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR MANAGERS

Definition of Computers : Computer is very fast and accurate and electronic auto
machine. it receives an input information, store, processes, and gives an output result
with reference to the input information i.e. if 2 x 2 is the input then 4 will be the output.

Computer is an automatic machine that can directly manipulate large volume of

data at a high speed with great accuracy according to predetermined set of instructions.

Computer cannot think. So responsibility of the user is to instruct the computer for
solving a problem. Thus the user has to identify the problem.

Features of Computers : Some main features of computer is its fastness, accuracy,

ability to store a large volume of data and capability of executing long sequence of
information without human interference. Computer can execute millions of operations
per second.

Characteristics of Computers : Computer is an electronic data processing machine

which receives and stores large volume of data in the form of symbols and digits and
processes them at a high speed as per the instructions and outputs the results with great
speed and accuracy.

Characteristics of Computer
Speed
Accuracy
Reliability
Memory Capability
Versatility
Diligence

A Computer is a fast and accurate electronic data manipulating system that is

designed to automatically accept and store input data process them and produce output
results under the directions of a stored program of instructions.

Speed : A computer works one step at a time. It can add and subtract numbers, compare
letters to determine alphabetic sequence and move and copy numbers and letters. The
time required for computers to execute basic operations as adding and subtracting varies
from a few microseconds to nanoseconds.

Accuracy : In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. If the input data
entering the computer are correct and if the program of instructions is reliable, then we
can expect the computer generally to produce accurate output .

Reliability : the high speed of a computer is accompanied by an equally high level of

reliability. Thus a computer practically never makes a mistake of its own accord.

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Memory Capability : Every piece of information that is stored within the computer’s
memory is encoded as some unique combination of zeros and ones. These zeros and ones
are called bits. Each bit is represented by an electronic device.
Small computers have memories that are organized into a 8-bit multiples called
bytes. Normally 1 byte represents a single character. An instruction may occupy modes
like auto visual , user’s friendly etc.

System Elements : The elements of a computer system are 1. Hardware, 2. Software and
3. Humanware.

The physical equipment and components of the computer system are called
hardware. Software refers to the various kinds of programs (of instructions) that cause
the hardware to functions in the desired way. The personnel, referred to as humanware ,
are an important element who maintain and operate the system and provide the vital link
between the system and the users.

1. Hardware : A computer system is much more than a machine that does

calculations. For the machine to be useful, it must be surrounded by devices to
feed data, process information , and provide results. A computer system consists
of five basic units.
i) Input device(s)
ii) A control Unit (program controller)
iii) An arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
iv) Storage devices (main and auxiliary memory)
v) Output device(s)

2. Software : The set of programs that are run in a computer is called software. A
program is nothing but a set of sequenced instructions to the computer. There are
four major categories of software. They are
i) Operating systems
ii) Utility programs
iii) Language processors
iv) Application programs

Operating systems : These are programs usually written by computer

manufactures. These programs reside in the computer and are used to govern the
control of the computer hardware components, such as processors, memory
devices and input / output devices. They in fact act as an interface between the
user’s programs and the computer components and facilitate in the execution of
his programs. Operating systems can handle several programs at a time in the
timesharing mode and can optimize the use of computer hardware. The operating
system of a computer is one of the main factors which contribute to its
capabilities.

Utility Programs : These are also prewritten programs, usually by the

manufactures and supplied with the system. These are increasingly used in data-

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base management systems to manipulate data and print out results. A good range
of such utility programs can make the task much simpler for the user. Other
examples of utility programs are : 1. Program to load a program into memory. 2.
program to duplicate magnetic tapes. Etc.

Language Processors : This software is used to translate the programmer written

instructions into machine code instructions. This is a machine-dependent software
and is popularly known as assembler/compiler.

Application programs : Application programs to do some specific Job – They are

unique in their construction and can be used only for identical.

Application Programs : Application programs are user-written programs to do

some specific job. They are unique in their construction and can be used only for
identical jobs. Recently, many such application programs have been made
commercially available under the name program packages. These can be changed
marginally to fit individual needs and to meet the system requirements. Standard
packages for application areas such as payroll, billing, pert/cpm , inventory
control, and linear programming are available.

3. Humanware : Humanware of a commercial computer centre might include the

following personnel :
i) Software engineers
ii) Hardware maintenance engineers
iii) Systems analysts
iv) Programmers
v) Computer technicians / operators
vi) Data entry operators

The software engineer is concerned with the development of software packages

and the hardware engineer looks after the maintenance of computer components.
The systems analyst studies the problem to be solved in detail and prepares the
solution and program specifications. The programmer prepares computer
programs based on the specification prepared by the systems Analyst. The
computer operator operates the computer system and should possess the
knowledge of internal working of the entire system.

Draw the block diagram of a computer and explain each block of the computer.
Computer : A computer is an electronic device which takes certain data as input, process
the data and gives the result as output . the input is going to be taken by the input devices,
the data is processed by the processor (i.e) by the central processing unit and the output is
given through output devices.
1. Input Devices
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Output Devices.

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MBA I SEM. ITM

Block diagram of a digital computer

Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit (CU)

Input Output
Devices Devices
Primary Memory
Unit (MU)

Secondary
Memory Unit
Input Unit : Computers need to receive data and instructions in order to solve and
problem. Therefore , we need input unit to put the data and instructions into the
computers. The input unit consists of one (or) more input devices. There are a
number of devices that perform the function of input devices.

The keyboard of our computer is one of the most commonly used input devices.
Other commonly used input devices are the mouse, floppy disk derive, hard disk
drive and magnetic tape.

Regardless of the type of input device used in a computer system, all input
devices perform the following functions.

 Accept data and instructions from the outside world

 Convert it to a form that the computer can understand
 Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing also

The parts in the central processing unit are :

a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU);
b) Control Unit (CU)
c) Memory Unit (MU)

a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit : Al calculations are performed in the ALU of the
computer. ALU also does comparisons and takes decisions. Whenever any
calculation has to be done, the control unit transfers the required data from the
storage unit to the ALU.

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MBA I SEM. ITM

The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, etc. The ALU can also do logical operations: Eg. It can
check if the number A is lessthan , equal to (or) greater than the number B. After
the ALU has performed the calculation (or) the logical operation, the result is
transferred to the storage unit.

b) Control Unit : The control unit controls all other units in the computer. The input
unit does not know when to receive data and where to put the data in the storage
unit after receiving it. It is the control unit that gives the necessary instructions to
the input unit.

Similarly the control unit instructs the input unit where to store the data
after receiving it from the user. In the same way, it controls the flow of data and
instructions from the storage unit to ALU.

c) Memory Unit : The memory unit of the computer holds the data and instructions
that you enter through the input unit before these are processed. It preserves the
intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output devices.
The various storage devices used in computer systems are classified into two
categories :
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory

Primary memory : The primary memory refers to the storage of data in the main
computer called central processing unit (CPU) the capacity of the primary
memory unit is limited and also we can not store the data permanently in the
primary memory unit. When the data going to be processed than only that data is
stored in the primary memory .

Secondary memory : We can store the data in the secondary memory unit
permanently. Initially the data which is taken from the input devices are stored in
the secondary memory during the execution of data, that data is retrieved from
the secondary memory unit and it is placed on the primary memory unit. After the
calculations are over, the data is again stored in the secondary storage devices
with results.

Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are tapes and magnetic
disks.

Output Devices : Like input devices, output devices are instruments of

interpretation and communication between humans and computer systems of all
sizes. These devices take output results from CPU in machine coded from and
convert them into a form that can be used by people. These output devices used to
obtain the results after processing of inputted data. Printer and Video Display Unit
(VDU) are commonly used output devices.

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MBA I SEM. ITM

Various types of computers depending on their applications

Classification of Computers : Computers are available in different sizes and with
different capabilities. Broadly, they may be categorized as micro computers, mini
computers, mainframes and super computers. The selection of a particular system
primarily depends on the volume of data to be handled and the speed of the processor.

Micro Computers : A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing

system. Functionally it is similar to any other large system. Micro computers are self-
contained units and usually designed for use by one person at a time. Since micro
computers can be easily linked to large computers, they form a very important
segment of the integrated information systems.

Mini Computers : A mini computer is a medium-sized computer that is more costly

and powerful than a micro computer. An important distinction between a micro and
mini computer is that a mini computer is usually designed to serve multiple users
simultaneously. Mini computers are popular data processing systems among the
business organizations today.

Mainframe Computers : Computers with large storage capacities and very high
speed of processing (compared to micro or mini computers) are known as mainframe
computers. They support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users
simultaneously. They are also used as the central host computer in distributed data
processing systems.

Super Computers : These have extremely large storage capacities and computing
speeds which are at least 10 times faster than other computers. While the speed of
traditional computers is measured in terms of millions of instructions per second
(mips) , a super computer is rated in tens of millions of operations per second (mops);
an operation is made up of numerous instructions. Typically, the super computer is
used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines.
These include applications in electronics, petroleum engineering , weather
forecasting, structural analysis, chemistry, medicine and physics.

Types of Computers : Computers can be grouped into three types. They are :
1. Digital Computers
2. Analog Computers
3. Hybrid Computers
1. Digital Computers : This is a counting device that operate with the discrete data.
It operates directly by counting the numbers, digits that represent numerical,
alphabetical and other special symbols.
2. Analog Computers : This do not compute directly with numbers, rather deals with
variables that are measured in a continued series and are recorded to the same
predetermined degree of accuracy.
3. Hybrid Computers : The features of analog and digital computers are some times
combined to create a hybrid computers.

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Storage Devices : Data and programs that are keyed into the computer are to be
temporarily held for processing. The results that are obtained are also to be retained
temporarily or even permanently for later usage. To hold this data, programs, results
etc., storage devices have been introduced.
There are two classes of memory devices called.

1. Primary memory storage device

2. Secondary storage device

Primary Memory Unit : The primary refers to the storage of data in the main
computer called central processing unit (CPU). The capacity of the primary memory
unit is limited and also we can not store the data permanently in the primary memory
unit. When the data going to be processed then only that data is stored in the primary
memory.

The primary memory is divided into two types :

i) RAM (Random Access Memory)

ii) ROM (Read Only Memory)

i) Random Access Memory : RAM is a primary memory where data and

instructions are held temporarily while the program being executed. It is
called Random Access Memory because any of the locations on a chip can be
randomly selected and used to directly store and retrieve data and instructions.
RAM is called Read/Write memory and volatile. The data in RAM will be
lost when the power is switched off.

ii) Read Only Memory : ROM chips are non-volatile. ROM chip contain micro
program control instructions that cause the machine to perform certain
operations such as starting the computer (or) instructions to the entire
operating system. The contents of ROM are set by the manufacturers and they
are unchangeable and permanent.

ROM’s are mainly three types :

a) PROM b) EPROM c) EEPROM
a) Programmable Read Only Memory : It allows a chip to be programmed by the user
for converting operations into micro programs that are fused into a chip. Once
operations have been written into a PROM chip, they cannot be altered.

b) Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory : Once information is stored in ROM

chip (or) PROM chip cannot be changed (or) altered. But, it is possible by ERPOM.
It can be erased and reprogrammed. It needs to be changed by removing from the
processor and exposed to ultraviolet light for some time before it can accept any new
contents.
c) Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory : It can be reprogrammed
with special electrical pulses.

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Secondary Storage Unit : We can storage the data in the secondary memory unit
permanently. Initially the data which is taken from the input devices are stored in the
secondary memory during the execution of data , that data is retrieved from the
secondary memory unit. After the calculations are over, the data is again stored in the
secondary storage devices with results.
Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are tapes and magnetic disk.

Computer Generations : Generation in computer talk is a step in technology. It

provides a framework for the growth of the computer industry. Originally, the term
generation was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But
nowadays, it has been extended to include both the hardware and the software which
together make up an entire computer system.

Computers developed after ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)

have been classified into the following generations.

First Generation 1946-1955

Second Generation 1956-1965
Third Generation 1966-1975
Fourth Generation 1976-present

First Generation : The first generation computers were made up of vacuum tubes
and mercury delay lines were used for memory storage. The vacuum tubes had
limited life owing to use of filaments as source of electrons.

The first generation computers were faster than the earlier mechanical devices,
which were used to do the mathematical operations. When compared to the present
day computers, the first generation computers are very slow.
To enter the data into the computer, punched cards were used. Punched card was a
sheet of thick paper, in which holes were punched according to a coding scheme.
Characteristics of First Generation are :
 Large in size
 Slow operating speeds
 Restricted computing capacity
 Limited programming capabilities
 Short life span
 Complex maintenance schedules

Second Generation : The transistor, a smaller and more reliable successor to the
vacuum tube, was invented in 1947. however, computers that used transistors were
not produced in quantity until over a decade later. The second generation emerged
with transistors being the brain of the computer. Transistors are more reliable, small
in size and require low power when compared with vacuum tubes.

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These second generation computers, were faster and had increased storage
capacity. In the second generation computers in addition to the main memory, and
external or auxiliary storage devices like magnetic tapes, magnetic disks were used.

Characteristics of Second Generation are :

 Use of high-level programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN and
ALGOL
 Increase in magnetic storage capacity.
 Batch processing made possible.

Third Generation : The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation of the
integrated circuits, now popularly known as IC chips . the use of IC chips in the place of
transistors gave birth to third generation computers. They were still more compact, faster
and less expensive than the previous generation. Along with the third generation
computers, newer faster equipment were introduced for handling storage and input and
output.

Characteristics of Third Generation are :

 High storage capacity which extended up to 3M bytes.
 Use of IC’s and hence small in size.
 Simple Input / Output operations
 Simultaneous reliability and processing.

Fourth Generation : In the early 1070’s development of microprocessors revolutionized

the computer industry. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) and very high speed
integration circuits led to the development of micro computers.
These circuits improved the performance of the computers were developed which
were user friendly and very easy to operate.
With the advent of microprocessors, personal computers were developed which
were user friendly and very easy to operate.

Firth Generation : Japan and many other countries are working on systems which are
known as expert systems which will considerably improve the man-machine interaction.
Such systems would integrate the advancements in both hard ware and software
technologies and would facilitate computer-aided problem solving with the help of
organized information in many specialized areas.

What is an operating system ? what is the need of an operating system and explain
the functions of an operating system.

Operating System : Operating system is an interface between user and computer system.
A computer system needs a communication between user and the system. The user can
give instructions to the operating system directly and receives an immediate response
from the system through operating system.

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Functions of the operating system are :

a) Loading the programs into memory
b) Handling the input and output operations
c) Managing the computer resources such as I/O devices, CPU time and
memory space.
d) File management
e) I/O management

An operating system performs these services for applications :

Operating system determines which applications should run in what order and
how much time should be allowed for each application before giving chance to another
application.
They manage the sharing of internal memory among many applications.
Apart from these, it also handles input and output to and from attached hard ware
devices such as hard disks, printers etc.
It sends message to the applications or interactive user about the status of
operation and any errors that may have occurred.
An Operating system not only provides an interface between the user and the
hardware, but also manages the memory, CPU, disks, I-O management and controls the
execution of the programs. Operating system is a must for all computers ranging from
mainframes and supercomputers to small personal computers.

Input Devices :
1. Punched card
2. Paper tape
3. Terminals
4. Voice input
Punched Cards : Invented by Joseph Jacqurd to facilitate his choice of designes while
weaving. It was brought in commercial use by Hermon Hollerith patenting his design in
1889.

It is a card having 80 columns and 12 rows. Each character is coded by holes

punched or not punched. Only 1 character can be coded in 1 column and 80 characters in
1 card.
Advantages : Data can be stored for future reference in codes so no need of “retyping “ in
1 card.

Paper tape : It is a roll of paper of 1 inch width and several maters in length. 1 character
is stored in 1 channel. A paper tape is called a 8 channel paper tape it 8 rows are there in
which holes could be punched, thus coding a character.
Advantages : Can store more characters than that of punched cards and avoid wastage of
time that takes for changing of cards.

Terminals : Terminals are local on remote depending upon the way it is connected to the
CPU. Local if ordinary cable is used and remote it telephone lines, telegraph or
microwaves are used.

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Distance is not considered as a criteria to differentiate the above two. More than 1
terminal can be used with a single CPU. Thus calling it time sharing. The terminals can
be used in nearly all places of work like stock taking, stock checking , assembly line
reservations, payroll, banks etc.

a) Teletypewriter terminal : Teletypewriter is used to input 20 to 50 characters per

second. The output can be viewed on the visual display unit which will be read
under output devices.
b) Bar code recognition terminal : Used in factories to identify their products only
bars and lines are denoted on the product while manufacturing. The bar sense
reads the bars and recognizes the code and thus the product.
c) Hand held terminal : A portable terminal having a 32 memory enabling on the
spot collections of data which can be transferred to the main through a telephone
line. These can be used in medical stores taking orders, etc., road traffic surveys
market researches.
d) Hand-print terminal : It has 2 sensitive areas resistive to each other and applying
pressure on them. As they come in contact the pattern of pressure is coded and
characters and recognized can be used to draw and store data one’s handwriting.

Voice Input : A new area of development is the voice input where in the input
information or data is coded and recognized by the computer as the voice of the operator.
A vocabulary of 100-300 words with detailed information of the operator referred to on
further inputs.

Only one the operator whose voice is programmed in to the computer can operate
it and also the words programmed are limited.

The operator can be away from the terminal and still operate it and his hands will
be free to do anything else.

Output Devices : The conversion of machine language to human understandable

language is done by output devices. These can be listed out as ;
a) Printed output
b) Graphical output
c) Visual display Unit
d) Voice output
e) Computer output Microfilm

1. Printed output : It can be plain or lined. There are two types in this they are
a) printed due to impact . b) printed due to non – impact.

2.Computer output micro film :

Impact : - Impact comes in to direct contact with the paper and printed character.
Serial printer : character is selected and printed at a time.

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Line printer : - Line printer is arranged on a chain or a drum. In this 300 to 2500
lines can be printed in 1 minute. Air conditions is a compulsory to this type
because it gets heated.

Dot Matrix Printer -: The characters printed are in dots arranged in a 9 by 7

fashion 45 to 220 characters are printed in 1 second the output can be faculty.
Daisy wheel : 25 to 60 characters can be printed per second. All the characters are
present on a wheel with petals.

Non-impact :- It can not come into direct contact with the characters. It is very
expensive and latest.

Thermal : very expensive. The sheet used for should be special. In thermal with
the help of head characters are printed on very expensive paper (because it should
be sensitive to heat ) the machine should be placed vacuum and is very expensive.
It’s faster and 30 to 250 pages are printed in a minuet.

Laser : its full light accumulated by stimulated emission of radiation. In base

electronic laser and copies machines are used. It is the type of a serial printer.

3. Graphical Output : With the help of this, Graphs can be plotted and designs can be
printed as such.
Visual Display Unit : It has “12 or 15” inches. Its screen is just as a T.V. screen .
when its off the color of the screen is grey and when it is on it becomes black and
the characters in green. It is faster than tele printer. Doe not have any capacity to
give out ‘Hard copies’ the hard copies are printed and stored copies of data. The
screen is divided into 24 rows and 80 columns. These are very near. A single
character comes in a column , as the punch card

4. Voice Output : In speaking out invoice and vocabulary is less and memory is also
wasted.
System software and application software

System software Application software

1. This software will be produced by
The system programmers
2. System software is a set of programs
That manage the resources of a
computer system
3. developing system software is not
Quite expensive.
4. System software is not user friendly
5. Ex. Compilers, O.S. Loaders etc.
1. These programs are produced by
application programmers.
2. Application software performs specific
tasks for the computer with the help of
system software
3. Developing application software is
Quite expensive because it deals with
4. Application software is user friendly
5. Ex. Graphics, word processing,
Spreadsheet etc.

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Computer Languages : Programs, namely , the list of instructions to be executed by a

computer are known as the software of a computer. The electronic circuits used in
building a computer that executes the software is known as the hardware of the
computer. To take an analogy, a home television set bought from a shop is hardware; the
various entertainment programs you receive via cable are its software. It is immediately
evident that hardware is necessary but software is vital.

Computer software may be classified into two broad categories : application

software and system software. Application software is the set of programs necessary to
carry out operations for a specified application software. System software, on the other
hand, are general programs written for the system which provide the environment to
facilitate the writing of application software.

Programming Languages : It’s allow people to tell computers what to do. There are five
levels of programming languages.

1. Machine Language : This is the lowest level of computer languages. This

machine code is composed of binary digits. Machine language is the only
language the computer actually understands. Therefore machine language is
considered as first generation language. All other languages must be translated
into machine language before the computer can run the instruction. These
programs are machine dependent. Machine language is externally difficult to
under stand and use by programmers.

2. Assembly Language : It is also considered as a low level language, but is more

user friendly. Because it represents Instructions and data by using mnemonics.
Assembly language is considered as second generation language. Each statement
in an assembly language must be translated into a single statement into machine
language. Assembly languages are hardware dependents. For translating assembly
language programs to machine language to use assemblers.

3. Procedural Languages : These are also called as 3 GL’s one statement in a

procedural language is translated into a no. of machine language instructions,
there by making programming making producting.

Procedural Language require the program to specific exactly now the computer
must accomplish a task. A compile translates a high level language program [source
program] in to machine language code [object program]. There are two types of
languages trans laters – compiler, interpreter.

A compiler translates an entire program at ones. An interpretor translates and

executes one source program statement at a time.

4. Non Procedual Language : These are fourth generation languages are 4 GL’s.
These allow the user to specific the desired result, without having a specific the

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detailed procedure needed for achieving the result. These language greatly
simplifie and accalate the programming process. The 4 GL’s common in data base
applications as query language.

5. Natural Programming Language : They are also called 5 th generation languages

(or) Inteligenet languages. Translate programes translate natural languages into a
structure machine readable form.

6. Visual Programing Language : Programming Languages that are used with in a

graphical environment are often refer to as visual programming languages. These
languages use Icons, pull down menus etc to make programming easier and more
intuitive [Interstring] VB & VC++ are examples.

7. H.T.M.L : Hypertext is an approach to data management in which data are stores

in a network of noods connected by links. A combination of nodes and link and
supporting Indexes for a particular topic is a hyper text document. A hyper text
document may content text. Images and dodes, links. The standard language www
use (world wide web) for creating hyper text documents is the HTML.

8. Virtual Reality Model Language : The VRML is a file format for describing 3D
Interactive words and objects . It can be used with www to create 3D
representation of complex screens. VRML can represent static and animated
objects.

9. OOP Language : These languages are based on the Idea of taking a small amount
of data and the Instruction which tell us what to do with the data and putting bot
of them together in to what is called an object. This entire process is called as
encapsulation.

Advantages :
1. OOP’s has the property of Inheritence and reasobilit . In heritance means that what
subclasses of a class one a creator they Inherit the properties of parent class
2. The reusability feature of OOP means that objects. Created for one purpose can be
used in a different OOP program.

Disadvantages :
1. Defining the Initial library of classes is very time consuming.
2. OOP languages are less specific and powerful and they require more time to execute.

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MS. DOS ( Micro Soft Disk Operating System)

What is an operating system ? Ms Dos operating system.

Operating System : Operating system is a part of system software. To use a computer for
data processing, the computer should first be in operating condition. A computer is said
to be in operating condition, when it can be able to undertake basic computer operations,
such as accepting, storing, processing, outputting data and also controlling the computer
peripherals such as input, output and storage devices. This ability can be imparted to the
computer by inputting into it the software called operating system.

Operating system consists of specially written instructions in machine language

which enable the computer hardware to perform the work of data processing . operating
system is not a single set of instructions . it is a collection of programs.

Operating system mainly helps in organizing programs and data on disk and in
aiding the flow of programs and data among storage devices (say disks) , input, output
devices and the central processing unit.

Meaning and purpose of DOS : DOS (Disk Operating System) itself is a set of
programs. A set of instructions which are prepared to operate the computer and to use it
for data processing is called a program. The programs which are prepared to make use
of computer to solve problems are called application programs.
Disk operating system programs are usually available on floppy disks. These can
be permanently stored on fixed (hard disk) disks.
Before using the computer this operating system should be loaded into central
processing unit.
Without operating system programs computers cannot work i.e., computer will
not be taking commands form the user.
Disk operating system also provides many other commands for the purpose of
making efficient use of disks and other resources of a computer system.

Internal Commands in Ms Dos. : Internal commands are a few special commands that
are automatically loaded into the computer memory when the system is booted.
Some important commands are :

1. DIR 2) COPY 3) DELETE 4) TYPE 5) RENAME

6) CLS 7) DATE 8) TIME 9) MD 10) CD 11) RD

1) Directory command :

Dir : The DIR command is used to display all the files on the disk. The disk may be either
floppy disk/harddisk. In simple terms the DIR command will list all the files with their
respective extension which you have stored.
Syntax :
C> DIR <┘ ( Enter )

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This command can be typed in both upper (or lower case letters. When we type
this command at the DOS prompt (A>) the following information can be seen on the
screen : amount of space used by the file on the disk-data and time of last usage of the
file.
Usage : A > DIR ( press enter /return key after typing the command )

You can see the following information of the screen

Volume in drive A in BICS
Directory of A:\
HANU TXT 403 12-09-09 11:30 AM
PAY BAT 480 11-08-09 06:00 AM
C EXE 5508 02-07-09 08:00 AM
3 FILE(S) 68039 bytes 324712 bytes free.

The first line tells us that the drive is A: that is all the files are stored in A: drive.
The second line gives information regarding the directory listings.
The first column states that it is a file name (HANU)
The second column states that it is a file extension (TXT stands for text file)
The third column states that the number of bytes occupied by the particular file (size of
the file in bytes)
The fourth column gives us the date on which the file was created.
The firth column gives us the time.
The last line gives us the information regarding the total number of files on the disk and
the total number of bytes occupied by all the files.

1) The DIR command can also be used as follows.

C:\> DIR : lists the files on the diskette of the present working drive
C:\> DIR D: lists the files on the diskette in ‘D’ drive through the present working
drive is ‘ C’.
C:\> DIR/W : lists only the file name and their extensions. It lists the files in horizontal
order (width wise)
By using (*) in place of a filename we can refer to a particular group of files by
specifying directory listing of files containing common primary name (or) common
extension.
Ex : C:\> DIR *.TXT <┘
This command will display all the files with an extension of TXT.

2) COPY : The command COPY is used to copy one or more files on the same disk or
on to another disk.

This command can copy one or more files on the same disk or on to another disk.
This command can copy :
The files within the same drive
The files from one drive to another drive
A group of files from one drive to another drive.

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Syntax : C:\> COPY HANU.BAT SAI.B.AT <┘

The same command con be used to copy group of files using wild cards.
C:\> Copy A*.TXT D: <┘
This command copies all the files with an extension of TXT from C to D drive.

3) Delete : This command is used to erase (or) remove unnecessary files and make work
space on the disk.
Syntax : C:\> DEL filename
C:\> DEL BCCS.TXT <┘
This command will delete the file with file name BCCS.TXT

4) Type : This command is used to see the contents of a batch file or a text file on the
screen.
Ex : TYPE BCCS.TXT <┘
Display the contents of bccs.txt file on the screen. If the file is too long and you want to
stop the scrolling. We can use CTRL-S key, to stop and we can press any key to restart
the scrolling.

5) Rename : This command is used to rename a file which is already existing.

Syntax : C:\> REN file name 1 filename 2
Ex : c:\> REN HANU.BAT SRINU.BAT <┘
Here both extensions should be same.

6) CLS : This command is used to clear the screen

Syntax : C>\> CLS <┘
When you type the above command at the prompt it clears off the matter on the screen
and the prompt appears at the top of left hand corner.

7) MD <┘ ( Make Directory )

This command is used to create a new directory.

Syntax :
C: \> MD (directory name) or MKDIR
Eg: MD HANU <┘

8) CD <┘ ( Change Directory )

The directory command is used to display a list of filenames. DOS provides the facility
of sub dividing the disk into different directories called sub directories called sub
directories. All these files are grouped together and put them into separate directories.
Current Directory is the directory where we are presently working.
Path is a sequence of directory names followed by file name if required.
Syntax :
C:\> (\ directory name ) (\directory name..) (\file name)
C path may contain any number of directory names. It should start with back slash (\)

9) RD (Remove Directory ) or RMDIR

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This command is used to remove a sub directory form a particular directory.

Syntax : C:\> RD <┘ (Directory name)
Before deleting the directing one has to confirm that the files in that particular directory
are no more. A directory can’t be removed when you are in the particular directory. You
should be in the upper level directory and then remove the directory.

External Commands in Ms Dos : External commands are the commands that are stored
as files on the DOS system disk.
1. Check disk (CHKDSK)
2. Diskcopy
3. Format
4. Print
5. Xcopy

1) Check Disk (CHKDSK) : This command is used to check the various

parameters of a disk in usage, such as amount of disk space sued/unused
number of free sectors or bytes that are not usable owing to partial (or)
complete damage.
Syntax : C:\> CHKDSK <┘ (Disk drive specification)

2) Diskcopy : This command provides a way of copying the contents of disk

on to another disk by providing an intermediate storage in the form of
main memory buffer.

3) Format : Prepare a disk for use. This command is very versatile and has
many options varying for type of floppies.
That is the size of the floppy, density of the floppy, number of sectors in
the disk etc.
Syntax drive (1p, 4,v, s \ 360, 120)
Ex : Format A:
Format A : /s

4) Print : Allows the user to produce a hard copy of a file.

Syntax : Print (filename)

5) Xcopy : Copy files over the disks verboten (word to word)

Syntax : xcopy file(s) drive (s)

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Micro Soft Windows : Microsoft Windows is a software the makes your personal
Computer easy to use. Usually the interface between the user and the computer consists
of a screen and a keyboard and to interact with the computer the user responds to the
information on the screen by typing in commands at the DOS prompt. These commands
can be confusing and difficult to remember sometimes. Windows solves this problem by
using a mouse to point at the objects on the screen. A mouse is an input device to select
any object on the screen. The keyboard can also be used to select objects on the screen.

Windows-The past, present and the future : Windows 2.0 was released on October
1987. It got a better response from application developers. But its performance was still
poor. It was not widely accepted.

Windows 3.0 was released in May 1990 , Its performance was better than the
previous versions. As the hardware technology improved, fast machines were put on the
market.

Windows 3.1 was released in April 1992. Its user interface was improved with
better presentation facilities. A technique called OLE (Object Linking Embedding) , with
is used for sharing data between applications, was introduced.

Windows 3.11 was released in 1994 . Basic networking support was

incorporated. Its file system was better than before and more efficient.

After this, windows ’95 was released and it included many new features than its
earlier versions. This is declared as an Operating System in the sense the system can boot
with Windows ’95 software installed. And now Windows 98 and Windows Xp is
available in the market with some enhancements added to Windows 98.

Window Components : All operations in windows are restricted within an area on the
screen called a window. A typical window is shown below.

Title Bar : The title bar displays the current windows title. Control Menu can be invoked
by pressing the Alt+Space combinations. All operations like Maximum , Minimize etc
can also be invoked from this Control Menu.
Maximize, Minimize , Restore, Size and Close window :

Maximize button is used to maximize window to its full size. Minimize button
will reduce the window to the size of an icon. Close button is used to close the window or
application. Alternatively , you can also double-click on the control menu or press Ctrl +
F4 key combinations to Close a window. When a window is maximized the button will
change to Restore button to restore the window to its original shape.

Clicking the mouse anywhere on the Title Bar and then dragging the window to
the desired location can do moving a window. Also a window can be resized. Move the
mouse pointer to any border of the window. The mouse pointer shape changes to a

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double-headed arrow. To increase the width position the pointer on the Vertical border, to
increase the Height position the pointer on the Horizontal border, to do both, position the
pointer in the corner.

Menu Bar : The title bar menu bar is placed and it gives access to all the relevant
commands available. By clicking on the menu item a command may be displayed. And
again clicking on the command will execute it. Sometimes a menu item will have an
arrow like this ? and this means it still contains a submenu with a set of commands. The
following figure shows a typical menu bar.

Tool Bar : Just below the menu bar is the tool bar which gives access to the commonly
used commands to the user. But the tool bar can be used to any portion of the window.
There are several toolbars like standard toolbar, format toolbar, and drawing toolbar to
name a few.

Status Bar : The status bar is placed at the bottom of the window and provides
information about the selected item in the window. For instance, if you select a drive the
status bar will give information about the amount of disk space free on the selected drives
as well as the total capacity of the drive .

Windows Explorer : In windows explorer, you can see both the hierarchy of folders on
your computer and all the files and folders in each selected folder . this is especially
useful for copying and moving files. You can open the folder that contains the file you
want to move or copy, and then drag it to the folder you want to put it in. to locate the
Explorer, from the startup menu select programs , and Windows Explorer.

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