RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR KIDS
Right from the Start
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by Avery D. Faigenbaum, Ed.D., CSCS, FACSM and James E. McFarland, Ed.M., CSCS
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the importance of
enhancing muscular fitness
early in life.
2. Dispel the myths associated
with youth resistance training.
3. Describe the PROCESS [Pro-
gression, Regularity, Overload,
Creativity, Enjoyment, Socializa-
tion, and Supervision] of develop-
ing a youth resistance training
program.
Key words: Children, Motor Skills,
Strength Training, Physical
Development, Youth Fitness
16 ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal ®
Copyright © 2016 American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
G
lobal recommendations on youth physical activity suggest that children
and adolescents should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate to
vigorous physical activity (MVPA) daily in the context of family, school,
and community activities (33). In addition to active games and aerobic
exercise, regular participation in strength-building activities also should
be incorporated into the weekly routine of school-aged youth (21,33). Despite traditional
fears and misinformed concerns associated with youth resistance training, a compelling
body of evidence has found that participation in a supervised resistance training program
can be a safe, effective, and worthwhile method of conditioning for children and adoles-
cents (5,14,21). Nowadays, a growing number of fitness centers and sport training clubs
offer youth fitness programs that include various forms of resistance exercise.
Many of the benefits associated with adult resistance training programs are attainable
by children and adolescents (21,29). However, youth resistance training programs should
be supervised by qualified fitness professionals and consistent with the needs, interests,
and abilities of younger populations. This is where the art of youth resistance training
comes into play because the physical demands of training need to be balanced with ef-
fective instructional strategies that maximize enjoyment, foster socialization, and spark
an ongoing interest in daily MVPA. That is, the most effective youth fitness professionals
are able to use different pedagogical approaches to address individual learning styles
and developmental needs. Notwithstanding the importance of improving muscular fit-
ness (i.e., muscular strength, muscular power, and muscular endurance), youth fitness
professionals should provide an opportunity for all participants to have fun, make
friends, and learn something new.
In this article, a review of troubling trends in muscular fitness among modern-day
youth will highlight the need for planned resistance training early in life. Myths associated
with youth resistance training will be addressed and the potential benefits of integrating
strength-building exercises into youth fitness programs will be discussed. Ideas for enhanc-
ing resistance training skill competency will provide fitness professionals with information
that can be used to design training programs that are safe, effective, and progressive. For
Photo courtesy of Avery D. Faigenbaum.
September/October 2016
ease of discussion, the terms youth and young athletes refer to both
children and adolescents.
TROUBLING TRENDS IN MUSCULAR FITNESS
Although the enduring impact of daily MVPA on the health and
well-being of youth continues to be advanced in the literature
(33), these benefits will be realized only if youth have developed
adequate levels of muscular fitness and movement skill compe-
tency (4,6,16). A certain level of force production and force at-
tenuation is needed to perform movement skills, and therefore,
the importance of enhancing muscular fitness should be consid-
ered foundational to long-term physical development (12,20).
Youth who do not become proficient movers early in life will be
less likely to participate in diverse physical activities as adults
(27,30). This idea relates to Seefeldt’s original notion of a profi-
ciency barrier whereby children who do not surpass a critical
threshold of motor skill proficiency early in life will be less likely
to engage in sports and physical activities later in life (28). Just
like the skills of reading and writing, interest and aptitude in
physical activity should begin early in life with a strong focus
on movement skills and physical abilities.
Epidemiological findings from an international sample of
children indicate that a growing number of youth are not meet-
ing physical activity recommendations (31), and those with
lower levels of MVPA are at increased risk of obesity (18). With-
out opportunities to develop the prerequisite levels of muscular
fitness and motor skill proficiency early in life, youth are less
likely to participate in games and activities with confidence
and vigor later in life (16,22). Secular trends in measures of mus-
cular fitness in English children indicate declines in bent arm
hang, sit-up performance, and hand grip strength during a
10-year period (7). Similar observations were reported in se-
lected measures of muscular power (e.g., long jump and vertical
jump) in Spanish adolescents (23) and fundamental movement
skills (e.g., jumping and kicking) in Australian youth (17). Al-
though many factors influence time spent in MVPA during
the growing years (18), the global pandemic of physical inactivity
may be due, at least in part, to a deficiency of muscular fitness
and motor skill performance in modern-day youth.
In support of this view a 2-year study of children between 6
and 10 years of age found that those with low motor competency
participated less in sports and had fewer opportunities for devel-
oping motor abilities and physical fitness (16). Other re-
searchers noted an increasingly widening gap in gross motor
coordination between normal-weight and overweight children
(10). Unfortunately, the divergence in performance between
children with low and high levels of muscular fitness seems
to persist across developmental time in the absence of targeted
interventions. Without regular opportunities to enhance their
muscular strength and motor skill abilities early in life, youth will
be less likely to engage in the recommended amount of daily
MVPA and more likely to experience negative health outcomes
(12). Of note, recent increases in the waist circumference of ad-
olescents during periods of bodyweight stabilization suggest that
Volume 20 | Number 5
Copyright © 2016 American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
modern-day youth have more fat and less muscle than previous
generations (15).
TRAIN THE DEVELOPING BRAIN
The first few years of life are characterized by rapid changes in
the myelination of the central nervous system, and the effects of
a well-designed resistance training program can be long lasting
(24). Similar to learning a new language or playing a musical in-
strument, there is a unique opportunity to target strength devel-
opment early in life to set the stage for greater gains in physical
fitness later in life. Research findings indicate that children show
greater training-induced gains in various motor performance
skills (e.g., jumping, running, and throwing) after resistance train-
ing than adolescents (4). Furthermore, training programs that
target sports-related injuries to the anterior cruciate ligament are
more effective if they start earlier in life before the onset of neuro-
muscular deficits that may increase injury risk (25). Collectively,
these observations underscore a potential synergist adaptation
whereby participation in strength-building activities early in life
compliments naturally occurring changes in muscular fitness (11).
New insights into the design of long-term physical develop-
ment programs have highlighted the importance of enhancing
muscular strength during childhood and continuing participa-
tion in resistance training activities throughout adolescence
(12,20,21). Indeed, resistance training should be a priority in
youth fitness programs because muscular strength is the driving
force toward performance enhancement and injury prevention
(11,21). Although the need for individualization should not be
overlooked when designing programs for youth of different
sex, maturity status, and training experience, the formation of
a long-term plan that maximizes strength development is critical
for the promotion of daily physical activity as an ongoing life-
style choice. As such, the concept of long-term physical devel-
opment should be viewed as a structured, progressive, and
informed approach for enhancing health, fitness, and perfor-
mance in children and adolescents (20).
Years ago, some observers had concerns that resistance train-
ing would be unsafe or ineffective for youth (see side bar). How-
ever, a compelling body of research indicates that a systematic
approach to long-term physical development grounded in resis-
tance training offers observable health and fitness value to chil-
dren and adolescents (21,29). In addition to enhancing muscular
fitness and motor skill performance, various forms of resistance
training can increase bone mineral density, improve cardiovas-
cular risk factors, facilitate weight control, and prepare inactive
youth for the demands of physical activity and sport (11,21,29).
The American College of Sports Medicine suggests that in the
early stages of an exercise program, muscle-strengthening exer-
cises may need to precede aerobic training activities in frail se-
niors (1). In the same light, targeted interventions that include
strength-building exercises and directed-movement practice
may be needed to activate inactive youth right from the start.
www.acsm-healthfitness.org 17
RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR KIDS
Sidebar: Myths That Won’t Quit
Myth: Resistance training will stunt the growth of children
No scientific evidence indicates that participation in a supervised resistance training program will stunt the growth of children or damage
developing growth plates (21). Childhood may actually be the opportune time to engage in weight-bearing activities that enhance bone
mineral content and density (3). In all likelihood, regular participation in a well-designed resistance training program during the growing
years will have a favorable influence on bone growth and development.

Myth: Resistance training is unsafe for children

The risks associated with youth resistance training are not greater than other recreational and sport activities in which youth regularly
participate (14,21). Although accidents can happen, the key is to provide qualified instruction in a safe training environment and sensibly
progress the program based on resistance training skill competency. In addition, basic education on weight training room etiquette, in-
dividual goals, and realistic outcomes should be part of youth resistance training programs.

Myth: Youth need to be at least 12 years old to life weights

Although there is no evidence-based minimum age for participation in a youth resistance training program, all participants should be
able to accept directions and follow safety rules. Boys and girls younger than 12 years old have participated safely in supervised resis-
tance training programs (14). Generally, when youth are ready for sport participation, approximately ages 7 or 8, they are ready for some
type of resistance training as part of a well-rounded fitness program.

Myth: Girls will develop bulky muscles if they lift weights

Training-induced gains in muscular strength during childhood are primarily due to neuromuscular adaptations and skill develop-
ment. Although boys may develop bigger muscles during the growing years because the effects of anabolic hormones would be op-
erant, girls can get stronger throughout childhood and adolescence while gaining all the benefits from resistance training without
developing bulky muscles (21).

Myth: Resistance training is only for young athletes

Regular participation in a well-designed resistance training program offers observable health and fitness value for all children and ado-
lescents (21). In addition to performance enhancement and injury reduction, resistance training can improve musculoskeletal health,
enhance metabolic function, and increase daily physical activity. Resistance training may be particularly beneficial for overweight youth
who often are unwilling and unable to perform prolonged periods of aerobic exercise (29).

LEARN TO MOVE commonalities of resistance exercise performance should not be

Education and instruction on proper resistance training tech-
niques and procedures should begin early in life to optimize
training adaptations and spark an ongoing interest in resistance
exercise. Although there is no minimum age for participation in
a supervised resistance training program, most healthy 7- and
8-year-olds are ready to follow instructions and adhere to safety
rules (11). Well-designed resistance training programs provide a
needed opportunity for boys and girls to enhance their muscular
fitness while improving their resistance training skill competency
(RTSC). The construct of RTSC refers to the technical ability of
performing a resistance exercise and involves the evaluation of
movement patterns that are considered essential for the mastery
of a particular exercise (2). Notwithstanding the importance of
prescribing the right dose (i.e., intensity and volume) of resistance
training, it is equally important to provide meaningful feedback
on the quality of the exercise performance. Consequently, RTSC
relates to one’s physical development as well as one’s ability to
focus, follow instructions, and execute a task properly.
To improve RTSC, fitness professionals should provide con-
sistent feedback on the technical performance of every exercise.
Because most youth have limited experience in resistance train-
ing, the importance of assessing exercise technique using accepted
overlooked. The perception of RTSC as opposed to the amount
of weight lifted may help to reinforce the importance of main-
taining proper exercise technique and illustrates the significance
of movement pattern efficiency as the criterion measure (13). In
addition, by assessing performance and recording component
scores, fitness professionals can identify skills that need more in-
structional time, and youth can monitor their own progress as
they work toward clearly defined goals.
An example of an RTSC checklist for the back squat exercise
is outlined in the Table. During training sessions, youth are
given specific feedback related to their technical performance
and general demeanor. Consequently, they become aware of
their strengths and weaknesses and address areas in need of im-
provement. The four levels used to assess RTSC performance
are advanced (3 points), basic (2 points), capable (1 point), and
developing (0 point). The advanced level is indicative of skilled
lifting performance and a genuine interest in improving per-
sonal fitness. The developing level indicates that the participant
performed a skill improperly or displayed behavior that was
disrespectful or uncooperative. By recording the component
scores and tallying up the total points for all phases of a spe-
cific exercise, fitness professionals can identify skills that need

18 ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal ® September/October 2016

Copyright © 2016 American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
TABLE: Back Squat Resistance Training Skill Competency Checklist
Points*
Phase Desired Action Common Breakdown Max Earned
Check point 1. Safe exercise area Inadequate space 3
2. Correct starting weight Incorrect weight selection
3. Collars on bar (if plates are used), and well-positioned Lack of collars & poorly positioned
safety rails safety rails
Ready position 4. Bar on shoulders and upper back Bar positioned on neck 3
5. Head neutral & eyes forward Head facing downward
6. Feet wider than shoulder width Feet position too narrow
Downward phase 7. Flex hips and knees Thighs not at proper depth 3
8. Thighs parallel to floor Trunk begins to flex forward
9. Elbows under bar, knees over feet & behind toes, Knees inward or forward
torso erect, and feet flat
Heels rise
Upward phase 10. Extend hips and knees Trunk begins to round forward 3
11. Torso upright, elbows under bar, knees over feet Elbows drift behind bar, knees move
& behind toes inward/forward
12. Maintain bar control with firm grip until bar is racked Firm grip is not maintained
General demeanor 13. Responsibility Does not follow safety rules 3
14. Resourcefulness Unwilling to solve simple problems
15. Respect Does not cooperate with others
Total Points 15
The back squat resistance training skill competency checklist can be used to assess exercise performance and communicate the specific actions and behaviors that are
required for this exercise.
*3 points, advanced; 2 points, basic; 1 point, capable; and 0 point, developing.

more instructional time and effort. The back squat RTSC check-
list can be used as a framework for developing rubrics for
other exercises.
The ability to perform multijoint resistance exercises with
proper technique requires adequate levels of muscular strength
along with the coordinated integration of different physical,
emotional, and cognitive abilities that evolve during the growing
years (24). With regular exposure to resistance training early in
life, children will have an opportunity to enhance their RTSC
and muscular strength on a variety of exercises. Although youth
with poor muscular strength and low RTSC may have difficulty
performing basic resistance exercises, those with higher levels of
muscular strength and skill competency will be better prepared
to learn more advanced skills because they can use developing
pathways that influence motor control and movement profi-
ciency (11,24).
If qualified fitness professionals assess movement mechanics
and provide constructive feedback during training sessions,
Volume 20 | Number 5
youth will have a unique opportunity to learn task-related activ-
ities and enhance their RTSC. If participants are beginners (low
muscle strength and low RTSC), fitness professionals should
prescribe a range of basic resistance exercises (e.g., squatting,
pushing, or pulling movements) that enhance muscular strength
while improving one’s competence to perform a variety of exer-
cises. As youth gain competence and confidence in their ability
to perform basic exercises, their capacity for resistance exercise
can be improved with more advanced training programs
(Figure 1). For technically competent youth with high levels of
muscular strength, more advanced programs will be needed to
optimize training adaptations (11,19). An example of a youth re-
sistance training program with exercise progressions will be pro-
vided in a future issue of ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal ®.
UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS
Youth resistance training programs need to be evidence-based
and carefully prescribed to optimize training outcomes,
www.acsm-healthfitness.org 19

Copyright © 2016 American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR KIDS

maximize exercise adherence, and reduce the risk of unto-

ward events. Although factors such as heredity, training expe-
rience, and health habits (e.g., nutrition and sleep) will
influence the rate and magnitude of adaptation that occurs,
seven fundamental principles that determine the effectiveness
of youth resistance training programs are the principles of

Photo courtesy of Avery D. Faigenbaum.

(a) the Progression, (b) Regularity, (c) Overload, (d) Creativity,
(e) Enjoyment, (f) Socialization, and (g) Supervision. These basic
principles can be remembered as the PROCESS of youth resis-
tance training. Although the principles of progression, regularity,
and overload are well-established tenets of resistance training (26),
the concepts of creativity, enjoyment, socialization, and super-
vision are particularly applicable to the design of sustainable
youth fitness programs. When working with children and ado-
lescents, it is important to remember that the goal of the program
should not be limited to increasing muscular strength. Improving
motor skills, fostering new social networks, and promoting healthy
behaviors in a supportive environment are equally important. Principle of Regularity
This is where the art and science of youth resistance training
come into play because the principles of pediatric exercise Although the optimal resistance training frequency may depend
science need to be balanced with effective teaching and ongoing on each participant’s training goals, two to three training ses-
instruction that is developmentally appropriate for children sions per week on nonconsecutive days are reasonable for most
and adolescents. youth (21). Inconsistent training will result in only modest train-
ing adaptations, and periods of inactivity will result in a loss
of muscular strength and power. The adage “use it or lose it”
Principle of Progression is appropriate for resistance exercise because training-induced
The principle of progression refers to the fact that the demands adaptations in muscular fitness cannot be stored. The principle
placed on the growing body must be increased gradually of regularity states that long-term gains in physical development
through time to achieve long-term gains in muscular fitness. will be realized only if the program is performed on a consistent
This does not mean that heavier weights should be used every basis throughout childhood and adolescence.
workout, but rather, that through time, the stress placed on
the body should progressively become more challenging to con-
tinually stimulate adaptations and maintain interest in the pro- Principle of Overload
gram. Without a more challenging stimulus that is consistent The overload principle is a fundamental tenet of all resistance
with each individual’s needs and abilities, additional training- training programs. The overload principle simply states that to
induced adaptations are unlikely. Although increasing the train- enhance muscular fitness, the body must exercise at a level be-
ing load or performing additional sets are common methods of yond that at which it is normally stressed. Otherwise, if the train-
progression, performing novel exercises or more complex move- ing stimulus is not increased beyond the level to which the
ment patters also are beneficial. muscles are accustomed, the participant will not maximize

Figure 1. Youth resistance training guidelines with progression based on each participant's resistance training skill
competency and muscular strength.

20 ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal ® September/October 2016

Copyright © 2016 American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
training adaptations. Training overload can be manipulated by Figure 2. Youth fitness professionals are most important in
changing the intensity, volume, frequency, or choice of exercise. terms of education, motivation, socialization, and gratification.
Principle of Creativity
The creativity principle refers to the imagination and ingenuity
that can help to optimize training-induced adaptations and en-
hance exercise adherence. By sensibly incorporating novel exer-
cises and new training equipment into the program, fitness

Photo courtesy of Avery Faigenbaum.

professionals can help youth overcome barriers and maintain in-
terest in resistance exercise. Creative thinking is particularly
valuable when designing resistance training programs for youth
with special needs or those with high levels of RTSC. The fun-
damental principles related to the prescription of sets and repe-
titions should be balanced with imagination and creativity. For
example, youth can create new resistance exercises with light-
weight medicine balls or find a solution on their own to a chal-
lenging task that requires balance and coordination.
Principle of Enjoyment
Enjoyment is an important determinant of participation in
youth fitness and sport programs (32). The principle of enjoy-
make greater gains in muscular fitness (8). Indeed, qualified su-
ment states that participants who enjoy the experience of partic-
pervision is a critical component of any youth resistance training
ipating in exercise or sports activities are more likely to adhere to
program, particularly for beginners who need to develop com-
the program and achieve training goals. Although encourage-
petence on basic exercises before progressing to more complex
ment from fitness professionals and support from family and
movements. Youth fitness specialists should be well versed in the
friends can influence exercise adherence, the enjoyment a child
principles of pediatric exercise science and should know how
feels during and after an exercise session can facilitate the sus-
to teach, progress, and modify skill-based exercises (Figure 2).
tainability of the desired behavior. Enjoyment can be defined as
a balance between skill and challenge (9). If the resistance train- SUMMARY
ing program is too advanced, youth may become anxious and
Troubling trends in muscular fitness among modern-day youth
lose interest. Conversely, if the training program is too easy, then
have created an immediate need to implement safe, effective,
youth may become bored. Youth resistance training programs
and enjoyable resistance training programs for children and
should be matched with the physical abilities of the participants
adolescents. New insights into the design of long-term physical
for the training experience to be enjoyable.
development programs have highlighted the importance of en-
Principle of Socialization hancing muscular fitness and resistance training skill compe-
Participation in a resistance training program can help youth in- tency early in life to set the stage for more advanced training
teract with others in a positive and supportive manner. The later in life. Fitness professionals who genuinely appreciate the
principle of socialization states that gains in muscular fitness will uniqueness of younger populations and who understand the
be optimized if participants make new friends, meet other peo- PROCESS of youth resistance training are best prepared to de-
ple, and work together toward a common goal. Participating sign, supervise, and instruct sustainable programs that spark an
in a resistance training program can help youth feel connected to ongoing interest in health and fitness.
other participants as they gain confidence and competence in
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Recommended Reading:
• Faigenbaum AD, Westcott W. Youth Strength Training. Human Kinetics: Champaign
(IL); 2009.
• Lloyd RS, Oliver JL. Strength and Conditioning for Young Athletes: Science and
Application. New York (NY): Routledge; 2014. 232 p.
• Mediate P, Faigenbaum AD. Medicine Ball for All Kids. Monterey (CA): Health
Learning; 2007.
Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest and do not have any
financial disclosures.
Avery D. Faigenbaum, Ed.D., CSCS, FACSM, is a
full professor in the Department of Health and Exer-
cise Science at The College of New Jersey. His re-
search interests focus on pediatric exercise science,
resistance training, and preventive medicine.
James E. McFarland, Ed.M., CSCS, is a health and
physical education teacher at Hillsborough High School
in New Jersey. He is a USA Weightlifting Senior Level
Coach and has presented on youth strength and condition-
ing at national conferences. He also is an adjunct instruc-
tor in the Department of Health and Exercise Science at
The College of New Jersey.
BRIDGING THE GAP
Despite traditional fears and misinformed concerns
associated with youth resistance training, new insights
into the design of youth fitness programs have highlighted
the importance of enhancing muscular fitness during
childhood and continuing participation in strength-building
activities throughout adolescence. Although factors such as
heredity, training experience, and health habits (e.g., nutrition
and sleep) will influence the rate and magnitude of adaptation,
seven principles that determine the effectiveness of youth
resistance training are the principles of (a) Progression,
(b) Regularity, (c) Overload, (d) Creativity, (e) Enjoyment, (f)
Socialization, and (g) Supervision. These basic principles can
be remembered as the PROCESS of youth resistance training.
September/October 2016