Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Liquid biofuels utilization for gas turbines: A review T

a b c,⁎
Ibrahim I. Enagi , K.A. Al-attab , Z.A. Zainal
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic, P.M.B 55, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sana’a University, Sana’a, Yemen
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The global demand for utilization of renewable fuels in gas turbines has been on the increase to secure a sus-
Liquid biofuels tainable, and pollution free environment. In this paper, the reviewed studies were on different liquid biofuels
Gas turbine production methods such as the catalytic conversion of biomass, gasification, pyrolysis and transesterification.
Colourless distributed combustion The review also included different studies on directly fired gas turbine (DFGT) and externally fired gas turbine
High temperature air combustion
(EFGT) utilizing biomass and liquid biofuels. Furthermore, this study elucidated the use of biofuels in clean
Moderate or intensive low oxygen dilution
combustion methods scalable to gas turbines such as colourless distributed combustion (CDC), high temperature
Catalytic combustion
air combustion (HiTAC), moderate or intensive low oxygen dilution (MILD) combustion and catalytic com-
bustion. The discussion included the effect of different input parameters associated with the clean combustion
systems that have influence on the attainment of ultra-low emissions of NOx and CO under premixed and non-
premixed modes. As for the fuel types, biodiesel is one of the most studied biofuel in gas turbine especially in
small-scale micro gas turbine (MGT) engines. The materials for the path of hot gas, types of fuels, heat recovery
and cogeneration techniques are the variables, found to be affecting the performance of the DFGT. As for the
EFGT, the high temperature heat exchanger with its lower turbine inlet temperature of 700–900 °C is generally
the main limiting factor for this technology. The paper concluded by highlighting relevant and recent findings,
thereby proposes a further research to improve the versatility in the utilization of liquid biofuels in gas turbines.

1. Introduction the thermochemical conversion systems, the process technologies for

The high global demand of energy has increased expeditiously in
the past decade with a reported ratio of annual increment of 2.3% in
2013 [1]. The depletion of fossil fuels and global warming concerns
encouraged the development of new combustion technologies for al-
ternative fuels utilization. These technologies should not only cover the
demand for power, but also maintain high performance, conversion and
efficiency without any environmental impacts [2]. The significance of
biomass resources to energy production has shown that 75% of global
renewable energy and 13% of world primary energy are from biomass,
whereas up to 30% of global energy supply by 2050 is estimated to be
from bio-energy contributions especially liquid biofuels [3,4]
Due to the increased diffusion of renewable energy sources in recent
years, biomass has gained a growing interest in the combined heat and
power (CHP) applications [5]. Using different energy conversion tech-
nologies, biomass is storable, programmable and can be utilised to meet
a wide range of energy needs [5]. There are several thermo-chemical
conversion processes of biomass into different biofuels that include
gasification, pyrolysis, liquefaction and transesterification. Focusing on
microalgae-to-biofuel production systems were extensively discussed
[6] with the benefits of exploiting upstream microalgae biomass de-
velopment for bioremediation. In addition, there is a recent progress in
gasification techniques including important pathways for production of
biofuels, socio-economic impacts of biofuel generation and process
design [7]. The first generation or advanced biofuels in existing com-
bustion engines are performing well as pure or blended additives. In
addition, oxygenated biofuels produces lower NO and sooth emissions
than hydrocarbon fuels. However, in order to improve fuel efficiency
and reduce engine emissions several novel technologies are being de-
veloped [8]. High efficiency, fuel flexibility and ultra-low emission heat
engines and fuel cell technologies will in future enable customers to
switch to the cleanest fuel available at the lowest cost [8].
One of the major power generation technologies with a significant
share in global carbon footprint is gas turbine. However, it is still lag-
ging behind when it comes to renewable resources utilization. One of
the European Union targets [9] for micro gas turbine (MGT) power
generation is the CHP small scale distributed generation. Some of the
advantages of gas turbine include; low pollutant emission, high

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mezainal@yahoo.com (Z.A. Zainal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.006
Received 11 April 2017; Received in revised form 13 October 2017; Accepted 9 March 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I.I. Enagi et al.
reliability, high power to weight ratio, high flexibility and ability to
produce both heat and power in a decentralised manner [10]. The
utilization of liquid biofuels within a relatively robust burning char-
acteristics of gas turbines is an added advantage [10]. Moreover, liquid
biofuels have emerged as the most promising alternative renewable
source of fuel [11]. It has been experimentally established that most
biofuels can readily be burned in pure form and in standard or slightly
modified combustor designs without any significant issues [10].
The indirectly or externally fired gas turbine (EFGT) is an inter-
esting option for electricity and heat production. Flue gas coming from
combustor through high temperature heat exchanger heats up the
compressed air. The expansion of the resulting hot, compressed and
clean air takes place at the turbine. Since the combustion takes place at
atmospheric pressure outside the cycle, flue gases are not in direct
contact with the turbine, allowing for the utilization of variety of fuels
including solid biomass [12]. Hot clean air at turbine exhaust can be
utilised directly for thermal applications with no additional heat re-
covery equipment. Thus, making the biomass EFGT configuration a
preferable candidate for CHP applications with a positive contribution
to the greenhouse emission reduction [13].
In the internally or directly fired gas turbines (DFGT), the hot
combustion gases are in direct contact with the turbine blades. DFGT
traditionally contain three main components namely: the compressor,
combustion chamber and turbine. Fig. 1a and b show simple cycle of
the DFGT and EFGT systems. Air pressure is elevated by the compressor
commonly up to the range of 15 – 45 bar before entering the combus-
tion chamber. Combustion flue gasses leave combustion chamber at
high temperature in the range of 850 – 1200 °C to the expander or
turbine, which is directly connected to the alternator for electrical
power generation [14]. Numerous efforts on the utilization of various
alternative fuels in existing gas turbine power plants are receiving at-
tention. The properties and quality of these fuels are important as well
as the necessity for a fuel flexible gas turbine combustors to attain the
increasingly stringent regulations concerning the gas emissions [2].
Combustion engineers are facing challenges in the quest to develop an
environmental friendly combustors producing ultra-low level pollutants
such as soot, unburnt hydrocarbons, CO and NOx [15]. New combustor
designs such as the high temperature air combustion (HiTAC) and
colourless distributed combustion (CDC) for more uniform and stable
combustion with ultra-low emissions are gaining more attention lately
[15]. Recent researches on flameless combustion in power generation
industry such as gas turbines have shown great potential. However, to
improve its versatility in using liquid biofuels, further research is still
needed on combustion mechanisms, comprehensive design methods, in-
depth flows and advanced modelling and experimental development
[16]. Other type of combustion enhancement technologies with gas
turbines such as Moderate or intense low oxygen dilution [17] and
catalytic combustion [18] have been widely investigated as well.
Fig. 1. A Simple sketch of (a) Directly fired gas turbine system; (b) Externally fired gas turbine system.
44
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
The current work aims at identifying the innovations and im-
provements on gas turbine systems with liquid biofuels to achieve
complete combustion with low carbon footprint. The objectives of the
review are to discuss new techniques for biofuel production, different
biomass conversion technologies, biofuel co-firing with other fuels and
new four combustion enhancement techniques: HiTAC, CDC, MILD and
catalytic combustion.
2. Production process of liquid bio-fuels
This section discusses the major technologies on biomass conversion
into liquid biofuels through catalytic, thermochemical and biochemical
processes. Table 1 summarizes the proximate and ultimate analysis
results of different types of raw biomass sources. From the analysis
shown, fuels with high moisture content or low heating value, such as
pine chip, cannot be co-fired or utilised directly with other fuels.
Therefore, a pre-treatment such as torrefaction or carbonization is re-
quired to upgrade the raw materials for further conversion [19]. The
properties of raw biomass such as low energy density, high bulk vo-
lume, high moisture content and hydrophilic nature are the major
challenges for direct biomass utilization in power production. In addi-
tion, fouling and slagging issues increase with biomass due to the sig-
nificant amount of alkali metal in biomass ash. Furthermore, milling
difficulty for direct biomass co-firing in existing pulverised coal is
among the drawbacks of direct biomass utilization [20]. On the other
hand, biomass can be converted through a variety of methods into li-
quid biofuel while preserving the environmental advantages of biomass
utilization. The role of biofuel co-firing is technically, economically,
and environmentally the most realistic option for power plants and
large CHP systems [21]. Biofuel co-firing plants can handle disruptions
in biofuel supply, which makes their utilization suitable with perennial
energy crops. Therefore, co-firing could serve as an important role in
stimulating these perennial crops [21]. Co-firing of biofuels is in addi-
tion a good solution for a steady plant operation, so incorporating it in
to CHP designs will permit a greater power production than the biofuel
corresponding production capacity of a given site [22].
2.1. Catalytic conversion of biomass into liquid fuels
The catalytic process and development of catalysts play important
role in the production of many liquid biofuels. Catalytic processes have
the flexibility and capability to optimise and adjust performance in
response to variations in feedstock and market demands. The major
challenge is the development of catalyst that may facilitate a highly
selective conversion of substrate to form desired products [23]. Cata-
lytic analysis shows that Zeolite catalysts [ZSM-5] and mesoporous
alumina silicates [Al-MCM-4] are utilised in many catalytic applications
involving biomass conversion and upgrading processes, because of their
I.I. Enagi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55

Table 1
Proximate and ultimate analysis of different fuels.
Proximate and ultimate analysis for different fuels

Fuel Tyre rubber PET bottles OH [36] OH PET OH Tyre Wood [27] Reed [27] Kukersite [37] Spruce [37] Reed [37] Peat [37] Pine chip
[36] [36] [36] [36] [5]

Moisture wt% 0.89 – 5.38 6.23 14.78 – – – – – – 38.80

Volatiles wt% 64.36 – 69.83 74.45 63.13 78.3 63.5 – – – – 48.75
Fixed carbon wt% 25.84 8.43 20.77 16.58 17.91 21.0 15.2 – – – – 9.50
Ash wt% 8.91 0.5 4.02 2.75 4.18 0.8 21.3 – – – – 2.95
Carbon wt% 79.48 61.58 51.20 59.33 53.34 49.5 33.4 82.5 73.9 75.9 75.1 45.84
Hydrogen wt% 7.32 4.98 6.00 7.18 6.06 4.1 4.1 10.0 7.0 7.2 7.2 5.57
Nitrogen wt% 0.3 – 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.36
Sulphur wt% 2.4 – 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.04 0.07 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.3 43.41
Oxygen by 10.5 33.44 41.7 33.0 39.9 45.1 40.8 6.6 18.4 16.0 16.9 –
difference
LHV MJ/Kg 36.60 29.10 18.64 2.77 22.26 17.7 12.3 – – – – –

specific porosity and acidic properties [23].
Several researches have shown the significance of catalytic pro-
cesses and the selection of catalysts in raw biomass conversion into li-
quid biofuels. In one of the experimental biomass catalytic conversion
with nickel, cobalt, iron and gallium-substituted ZSM-5 as catalysts,
highest hydrocarbon yield was about 16 wt% including 3.5 wt% of to-
luene [24]. Similarly, the products vapour and gas composition were
analysed through molecular-beam mass spectrometry. There was a
change in the composition of the volatiles during pyrolysis/catalytic
vapour cracking when varying the catalyst time- on- stream. Owing to
the coke deposits formed on catalysts, the rate of deoxygenated activity
decreases with time [24]. Analysing the development of efficient cat-
alyst for oxy-organic hydro deoxygenation [HDO], it was reported that
under mild conditions, Ni-Cu catalyst were more attractive than a single
Ni catalyst. However, at temperatures below 300 °C, copper facilitated
the nickel oxide reduction. CeO2 and ZrO2 catalyst were revealed
during screening as the most effective target process because of the
possibility of additional activation of oxy-compounds on the support
surface [25].
2.2. Biomass conversion into liquid fuels through gasification
Biomass gasification process takes place at temperatures higher than
700 °C in the presence of oxygen. Fig. 2 shows a simplified schematic
illustration of two main biofuel pathways. The biomass particles un-
dergo partial oxidation to produce gas and charcoal to form CH4, CO,
CO2, and H2. The conversion reaction is expressed in Eq. (1) [26,27]:
Biomass + Heat + Steam → CH 4 + CO + CO2 + H2
+ Hydrocarbon + Char (1)
Fischer Tropsch (FT) is a well-established method to convert syngas
into heavy hydrocarbon liquid fuels as shown in Fig. 3. FT has been
commercialized for many decades but mainly with coal and natural gas
as raw materials [28]. On the other hand, converting syngas from
biomass gasification into liquid biofuels has come a long way and
should not face any major technical difficulties. Simple FT reaction of
carbon monoxide with heterogeneous catalyst to form liquid biofuel is
shown in Eq. (2) [29].
nCO + mH2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Cx Hy Oz
catalyst (2)
Very wide range of catalysts have been investigated for many dec-
ades to achieve higher production yields, catalysts such as Fe-based,
cobalt, aluminium, silicon, magnesium and zirconium oxides. Wide
range of liquid biofuels product can be achieved from light oils C5 [30]
to aviation jet fuels (C8 – C16) [31] and diesel [32]. A recent economic
study on FT conversion plant with 1 t/h biomass feed capacity showed a
promising feasibility with payback period of less than 5 years [33].

Fig. 2. Simplified schematic illustration of two main bio-fuel pathways [26].

45
I.I. Enagi et al.
Fig. 3. Fischer Tropsch Process flow diagram [28].
The effect of biomass gasification agent on the liquid biofuel yield
has been studied [34]. Different gasification agents, such as; air, steam,
O2, CO2 were compared, and it was concluded that steam gasification is
a preferred conversion scheme for higher production yield of bio me-
thane. This is mainly due to the higher hydrogen concentration in
syngas derived from steam gasification [35]. Bio-methanol production
was tested experimentally through syngas synthesis in a pre-pilot flui-
dised bed gasifier. Wide range of raw materials were tested including:
biomass residues, polyethylene, terephtalene and tyre wastes [36]. In
addition, alternative investigation on production process using nick-
el–catalysed gasification in super critical water and the gasification of
different biomass types achieved high concentrations of H2 (up to 61%)
and CH4 (up to 28.6%) [37].
2.3. Pyrolysis bio-oil production
The pyrolysis process is a thermo-chemical decomposition of bio-
mass into bio-oil, solid bio-char and non-condensable gases in an
oxygen free environment. Among the advantages of pyrolysis over other
processes is the localised conversion of low density biomass into high
density intermediate bio-oil with further potential process into trans-
portation fuels such as diesel and gasoline [38].
Using biomass vacuum pyrolysis for gas turbine bio-oil fuel pro-
duction, the bio-oil sample investigated was a valuable gas turbine fuel
with high net heating value of 32 MJ/kg, low solid content of 0.34 wt%,
and relatively low Na + K + Ca content of 21 ppm [39]. However,
investigation on the series of thermal stability experiment revealed that
at temperatures of 80 °C the properties of bio-oil were altered, but at
40 °C and 50 °C the variations were not critical. Thus, suggesting that
thermal stability of bio-oil has to be carefully monitored for gas turbine
applications [39]. Utilization of low-grade low-cost biomass feed stocks
though devolatisation at higher temperature rated of 800 °C was also
investigated [27].
2.4. Liquefaction of biomass
Liquefaction is a thermo-chemical conversion process at a low
temperature (250 – 400 °C) and high pressure (2–5 MPa). Fig. 4 Shows a
conceptual bio-refinery based on oil palm biomass. Biomass is con-
verted into three products namely; solid residue fraction, gas fraction
and bio-oil fraction in water or another solvent [40]. A recent study on
direct liquefaction of biomass suggested that biomass and solvent types
are the two primary factors that determine the properties and dis-
tribution of the liquefaction products. Bio-ethanol is the most promising
organic solvent due to its renewable nature and high biomass lique-
faction yield [40]. In a direct-liquefaction of sawdust in petroleum
ester, a study investigated the effect of temperature, time, hydrogen
pressure and amount of catalyst on production distribution. Maximum
46
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
bio-oil yield was obtained at 370 °C under 3.0 MPa H2 pressure, with
reaction time of 40 min and 5% catalyst [41]. Another study in-
vestigated the feasibility of municipal solid waste (MSW) liquefaction in
the piedmont region, Italy [42]. Results showed that the potential re-
coverable energy was about 35.99 × 106 GJ/year. Oil palm residues
such as palm kernel shell (PKS), empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm
mesocarp fibre (PMF) have also been investigated. Liquefaction of oil
palm biomass was successful, using subcritical and super critical water
to obtain bio-oil. However, optimum liquefaction condition was
achieved with supercritical water at 390 °C and 25 MPa, resulting in
maximum bio-oil yield of 38.53% for PKS, followed by 37.39% for EFB
and 34.32% for PMF [43].
The effects of various solvents (ethanol, water and acetone) on the
liquefaction of biomass to produce fuels and chemical feedstock, reveals
that employing different solvents could change the relationship abun-
dance and distribution of produced compounds. Maximum oil yield of
26.5% from pine wood was achieved when using ethanol while acetone
produced the highest conversion rate [44]. Higher yields (above 70%)
were reported for other types of biomass such as kenaf, sorghum and
wheat straw residues in a catalytic liquefaction [45]. Non–catalytic
hydrothermal liquefaction was also studied on different type of biomass
fuels such as spruce needles, reed, peat and kukersite oil shale [37].
2.5. Transesterification production process
Transesterification or alcoholises can be defined as displacement of
alcohol from an ester which is similar to hydrolysis processes with
exception that instead of water, alcohol is used. Transesterification
reaction is shown in Eq. (3):
RCOOR′ + R′′OH ⇌ R′COOR′′ + ROH
Ester Alcohol Ester Alcohol (3)
Transesterification process utilises vegetable oils and alcohol as the
process input. The problems of neat vegetables attributed to poly-sa-
turated characteristics, low viscosity and low volatility are reduced by
the transesterification processes [46].
Methanol and ethanol are the most commonly used alcohols, while
other types such as propanol, butanol, isopropanol, tert-butanol,
branched alcohols and octanol were also used but at a higher cost
[47,48]. The catalysed production of biodiesel is the most common
method with high biodiesel yield and faster conversion rates. However,
the process includes purification of the esters, separation and recovery
of unreacted reactants and catalysts [49]. Whereas, non-catalysed
production simplifies the process and eliminates some unwanted by-
products such as fatty acid salts and free fatty acids, resulting in higher
production yield [50]. In this approach, alcohol is heated to super-
critical temperature of about 275 °C with pressure elevation above
10 MPa [51,52]. Other types such as dimethyl carbonate [53] tert-butyl
I.I. Enagi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55

Fig. 4. A conceptual bio refinery based on oil palm biomass [23].

methyl ether [54] and methyl acetate [55] in supercritical conditions comparable with the traditional systems.
were also tested. The most commonly used catalysts are the homo-
geneous alkaline metal hydroxides and alkoxides as well as sodium or
potassium carbonates [56,57]. Acid homogeneous catalysts also include 3. Direct fired gas turbine systems with liquid bio-fuels
sulphuric, hydrochloric, sulfonic and phosphoric acids for high free
fatty acids (FFA) feedstock. This process showed an advantage of The design of gas turbine being one of the prime sources of clean
varying biodiesel properties based on the fatty acids percentage in the electric energy through CHP production continue to receive attention
feedstock. However, this method is sensitive to the presence of water due to its high efficiency [74]. The current gas turbine systems have
that can affect biodiesel yield significantly [58,59]. Two-step acid then large power ranges with flexible multi-type-fuel supply systems. Al-
alkali catalysts are used for very high FFA content in the feedstock though, they are capable of burning such fuels, their developments are
[60,61]. Another type of catalysts is the heterogeneous catalysts that normally based on a single specific fuel such as diesel fuel or natural gas
can be recycled and re-used for several times [62–64]. In addition, [75]. For conventional electrical power generation, gas turbine tech-
renewable and environment friendly sources such as eggshell, lime- nology is currently dominating the global market compared to the
stone calcite, cuttlebone, dolomite and hydroxyapatite have been used steam turbine technology in terms of the number of units produced
[65,66]. Third type of catalysts is the bio-catalysis enzyme or lepase annually as shown in Fig. 5 [76]
produced by microorganisms, animals and plants. This type has the Numerous studies have investigated variety of methods to increase
advantage of higher yields, absence of side reactions, low reaction gas turbine efficiency and power output capacity. Most common
temperature range (30 – 40 °C) and easier glycerol recovery, but at re- methods are the combined cycle configuration [77,78], regenerative
latively higher production cost [67,68]. cycle [79], and inlet air-cooling [80]. Increasing turbine inlet tem-
Recently, the use of radio frequency ultrasound in biodiesel pro- perature is another major aspect to achieve higher efficiency but with
duction has been getting more attention in the research community the concern of turbine blades damaging and corrosion. Recent devel-
[69,70]. The idea is to create a cavitation of bubbles near the phase opment of material requirements used in natural gas engines are also
boundary between alcohol and oil phases leading to intensive mixing applicable to that of syngas engines despite some difficulties in design
with localised increase in temperature in the form of micro jets. This issues [81]. A study on a combined cycle fuelled by low heating value
technology increases the chemical reaction speed and output biodiesel
yield through an efficient molar ratio of methanol-to-oil. However, the
rest of transesterification process remains the same with catalyst usage,
which requires water wash and treatment, etc.
The use of membranes in chemical reactions and flows is widely
utilised to enhance the efficiency of mixing and separation processes.
Higher purity of output biodiesel is achieved by this approach with
easier separation and no side reactions. A study showed that the use of
column rector could achieve high biodiesel yield without any catalytic
materials [71]. However, the higher initial and operational costs,
mainly liquid pumping at high pressure, might present a downside for
the system. Another new trend in biodiesel production is the use of
reactive distillation [62,72,73]. This technique can deal with low purity
and high FFA oils without the necessity of using excessive amounts of
alcohol. The addition of a reactive distillation column (RDC) gives a
continuous removal of by products and enhances the purity of output
biodiesel. The additional RDC also eliminates the necessity for con- Fig. 5. Comparing the annual production rate of gas turbines with steam tur-
ventional mechanical separation units, hence, the lower cost that is still bines [76].

47
I.I. Enagi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55

fuel showed that the use of turbine blade air cooling, from compressor

[157,158]

[104,159]
bleeding, resulted in a higher overall cycle efficiency compared to

[155]
[156]

[158]

[160]
[94]

[94]
[94]
Ref
under-firing turbine cooling [82].

[5]
Although, utilizing liquid biofuels in gas turbine is a major goal to

Useful heat (KW)

achieve lower carbon footprint, many concerns such as fuel properties,
flashback hazards, combustion stability and pollutant emissions have

200–250
been addressed in literatures. Many experimental studies have in-

168.2
4083
vestigated the spray and combustion characteristics of different liquid

150

5.6
60

–
–
–
biofuels on gas turbines and MGTs. Dimethyl ether (DME) fuel provided
stable combustion with low pollutant emissions. However, observations

Electrical power supplied

showed a higher potential of flashback due to the low ignition tem-
perature and high flame speed. New injector design was proposed to
prevent flash-back risk [83–85]. The effect of the higher fuel viscosity
and surface tension for biodiesel [86] and pyrolysis bio-oil [87] on
spray characteristics, combustion stability and emissions have been

101.6
experimentally investigated. High vegetable oil blends up to 75 vol%

(KW)

1383

5,32
70

70
30
with diesel provided acceptable fuel spray characteristics with stable

6
–

–
combustion. The tests results of fuel blend performed on MGT engine

Efficiency (%)
indicated stable engine operation with efficiency comparable to that of

10 − 15
a diesel fuel [88]. Another study showed that preheating vegetable oils

25.9
21.8
23.0

19.1
up to 120 °C provided stable MGT operation with CO emissions com-

20

14

15
24
–
parable to those of diesel fuel [89]. MGT operation with vegetable oil
has also been reported without any fuel preheating, and it showed that
fuel injection pressure doubled compared to diesel with a drop in en-

Down Draft gasifier

10kWe ET10 MGT

500KWe axial Gas
3LD Trunk Turbo
Bottoming (ORC)
Gas turbine type
gine speed [90].

100KWe MGT
30KWe MGT

50KWe MGT
Investigating aldehydes emission from alternative and renewable

Tubec T100
Tubec T100
aviation fuels showed that formaldehyde was a major aldehyde specie

Charger

Turbine
emitted with a fraction of about 60% of total measured aldehyde [91].
Similarly, using a blend of butanol/Jet A in gas turbine indicated that
this blend was a promising alternative to the Jet A fuel with less CO and
NOX emissions [92]. Other studies used computational fluid dynamics
Pressure ratio

(CFD) simulation to investigate combustion stability and emissions of

3.9–3.75

different type of biofuels with exhaust gas recirculation technique for

4.5–4.0

4–3.5
4–3.8
2–2.1

4.5–1
(bar)

NOx emission reduction [93].

12

–
4. Externally fired systems with bio-fuels
Nickel based Alloy

Structure Steel
Ceramic Type

Externally fired thermal engines such as the EFGT, steam Rankine

Shell & Tube

Shell & Tube

Shell & Tube
Shell & tube

Metal tubes
HTHE type

Steel Type

cycle and organic Rankine cycle (ORC) utilize atmospheric furnaces

Gas-Air

Tubes
with the flexibility to burn solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, as well as
other thermal sources such as solar, geothermal and nuclear [64].
Majority of the research work on the EFGT concept is concentrated on
TIT (°C)

biomass either in its solid form or after converting into gaseous form
850
850
800

850
830
694

800

800

900
–

since it is well adapted for the utilization of biomass [94]. There is a

Steam Rankine Cycle

lack of studies on the use of liquid biofuels in EFGT. However, nu-

Joule-Brayton Cycle

merous studies have investigated the utilization of liquid biofuels with

Organic Rankine

Organic Rankine

other externally fired thermal engines especially in steam boilers.

Brayton Cycle

Brayton Cycle
Brayton Cycle

Brayton Cycle

Brayton Cycle
Brayton Cycle
Cycle type

Tables 2a and b summarise several studies on EFGT systems using

biomass fuels and other externally fired systems using liquid biofuels.
Cycle

Cycle

Petroleum diesel or Petro-diesel fuel is one of the preferable fuels for

boilers due to its convenient handling and storage without preheating.
Olive tree & prunnings
Olive industry wastes

There has been intensive experimental investigation [95–103] on the

Various externally fired systems with biomass.

Nat. Gas /Biomass

utilization of biodiesel in the existing boiler fired by petro-diesel in the

Off-cut furniture-
Bio-fuel source

past decade due to its positive effect on carbon footprint and lower
Wood Chip

sulphur content that reduces SO2 emissions significantly. In general,

Biomass

Biomass

Biomass
Various EFGT systems with biomass

Biogas
woods

Wood

biodiesel shows similar behaviour to petrol-diesel when changing

combustion parameters such as pressure, equivalence ratio and swirl
angle with slightly lower CO and NOx emissions for the latter
Universiteit Brussel Belgium
University of florence USA

[95,98,99]. Numerous studies have also investigated the use of petrol-

Universiti Sains Malaysia
Politecnico de-Bari Italy

Andalusian POES Spain

Province of Joen-Spain

diesel/biodiesel blends from B0 up to B100 in boilers [98–101] and its

Universiteit Muchen

effect on emissions. Other studies investigated the home heating oil-

University of Pisa

fuelled boilers with oil/biodiesel blends [96] and pyrolysis/ethanol

Exheat Project

Germany

blends [102]. From the economic point of view with the currently high
Talbot UK
Developer
Table 2a

prices of biodiesel, up to B20 blends are still economically viable.

However, with global trend moving towards the use renewable alter-
native fuels, running boilers on biodiesel can be realized in the near

48
I.I. Enagi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55

future [103].

[100]

[101]

[102]

[103]
[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]
Ref
Fig. 6 shows the EFGT system at school of Mechanical Engineering
Combustion efficiency University of Science Malaysia and Exheat Project CHP-EFGT with
ET10 MGT. The former is a small-scale turbocharger based EFGT fired
micro gas turbine. It is a batch fuel unit, which consists of a dual
chamber gasifier –combustor with single flame and a thermal output
power of 100 kW. A high temperature stainless steel heat exchanger

90–93.5
was used to elevate air temperature up to about 700 °C. [104]. The

68–74

40–70

40–65

56–74
(%)

latter is an experimental test of EFGT based on ET10 MGT with heat

–

–
recovery unit and fuelled by biogas. The system has achieved about
6 kW electrical power output with electrical efficiency of 24% [94].
CO emissions

3.19 –12.19
5. Combustion of biofuels in gas turbines
> 1500

> 6000

> 5000
0–3000

0 –120
(ppm)

9–158
> 10

Gas turbine has the advantage of continuous flow combustion pro-

80

cess with steady flame. This feature provides clean combustion and
allows the use of different fuels, robust mechanical design, moderate
NOx emissions

compression ratios and versatile combustor. The properties of biofuels

have influence on combustion design, efficiency and NOX emissions of
0–1000
(ppm)

gas turbines [75]. As alternative fuel for gas turbines, palm methyl ester
10–70

30–60

40–60
> 70

> 70
110

(PME) showed combustion characteristics similar to those of diesel fuel

13

with reduced NOX emission [105]. Similarly, the combustion perfor-

Fuel nozzle angle

mance of biodiesel and diesel/vegetable oil and animal fat resulted in a

slightly higher CO emissions compared to diesel [106]. Another study
investigated the catalytic contribution in a hybrid lean combustion for
(degree)

30–60°

gas turbines [107], where both NOX emissions and lean combustion
60°

60°

60°

60°

60°

60°

stability were improved. Furthermore, studying the thermodynamic

–

performance of a lean burn catalytic combustion in gas turbine showed

Fuel mass flowrate

a higher thermal efficiency for lower regenerator effectiveness at lower

pressure ratios [108].
Ultra-low NOx combustor designs for MGT have been widely in-
(kg/h)

vestigated. Different techniques were used to control NOx emissions

10–38

4.5–8

4–10

4–10
1.86

1.86

such as multi-stage premixed chambers with preheated air [109] as well

–

as recuperation and exhaust gas recycling [110]. Several other techni-

Biodiesel blends (B0–

Ethanol/pyrolysis oil
Biodiesel and Blends

Biodiesel and Blends

Biodiesel Blends (B5

Biodiesel Blends (B5

ques have been tested to reduce NOX emission such as the flameless
Biodiesel and Home
Bio-fuel source

premixed combustion with an annular nozzle [111], and the MILD

combustion [112]. Moreover, the effects of number and location of
heating oil
Biodiesel

Biodiesel

stabilizer jets on the combustion characteristics showed significant re-

– B100)

– B100)

Blends
B100)

ductions in NOX emission [113].

In an experimental analysis of combustion behaviour in gas turbine
combustor, oxy-fuel flames achieved higher stability compared to
RIELLO R138 Two stage
U.K Sterling 90 pressure

90 U.K Spec liquid fuel

90 U.K Spec liquid fuel

KADET-Tronic (ROCA)

Bubbling fluidised Bed

normal air-fuel flames [114]. Several works on liquid biofuel in gas

Pressure pulverization

Experimental Boiler

turbine have achieved better combustion stability using low swirl fuel
nozzle [115], fuel-air mixture [116], and atmospheric diffusion of oxy-
70 kW Burner
Burner type

combustion flame [117]. The enhanced thermal radiation in oxy-fuel

combustion were predicted using different radiation models [118].
burner.

Burner

Burner

Burner

Burner

Burner
burner

Another aspect is the impact of spray quality on the combustion of

viscous biofuel in MGT that can be significantly improved by fuel
Low volume waste oil (LVWO)

preheating [10]. In addition, the case of lean premixed pre-vaporised

Combustion Laboratory unit

(LPP) combustor showed a great promise in reducing pollutant emission

AR/25 GT (ROCA) Boiler

AR/25 GT (ROCA) Boiler

CSTR Laboratory Reactor
Various externally fired systems with liquid biofuels.

Semi- industrial Boiler

[119]. The investigations on gas turbines also showed stable combus-

Semi Industrial Boiler
-PA Hilton England
Water jacket Boiler

tion with alternative fuels using air assisted pressure swirl atomiser for
Various externally fired systems with biofuels

Fire tube Boiler

Jatropha oil and Jatropha methyl ester [120].

Boiler type

The exploitation of refuse derived fuels was achieved with opti-

mised fuel injection nozzle, regenerative thermodynamic cycles and
model

model

Boiler

high fuel preheat temperatures [121]. Furthermore, for liquefied spruce

wood, the rate of mixture formation, emission formation and droplet
penetration depth were greatly influenced by different velocities, tem-
Universidad de Extremadura

Eastern Regional Research

peratures and flow conditions [122]. A new FLOX- combustion system

Universidad de Valladolid

University of Ahvaz, Iran

University of Pudua Italy
University of Ahvaz Iran

University of Ahvaz Iran

University of Ahvaz Iran

University of Ahvaz Iran

for low calorific fuels was reported to have met the emission limits over
the whole operating range, from 80% to 100% turbine speed [123].
centre USA

However, for inter stage combine combustor, a new type of combustion

- a trapped-vortex combustion technology was used to improve the
Developer

Spain

Spain
Table 2b

efficiency of gas turbine [124]. The effect of vortex generator in swirl

combustor on combustion and emission characteristics was also in-
vestigated and the results showed that the vortex generator affected

49
I.I. Enagi et al.
Fig. 6. Showing the EFGT system at school of Mechanical Engineering University of science Malaysia (left) [104], Exheat Project CHP-EFGT with ET10 MGT [94].
combustion and emission characteristics positively [125].
5.1. Colourless distributed combustion (CDC)
The aim of research on distributed combustion is mainly to improve
the performance of gas turbine combustors. That includes, alleviation of
combustion instability, ultra-low NOX /CO emission, higher efficiency,
enhanced stability, lower noise and uniform thermal field in the entire
chamber at high combustion intensity [2]. Using variety of fuels, the
combustor fuel flexibility without modifications to the combustor in-
jectors was achieved while maintaining high performances [2]. Butyl
nanonoate liquid biofuel provided a promising behaviour for future
energy needs when tested in CDC mode in gas turbine combustor [126].
CDC allows the increase in temperature of fresh mixture stream and
decrease in oxygen concentration through internal entrainment of hot
reactive species within the combustor. The critical component that fa-
cilitates distributed combustion includes the internal entrainment and
subsequent adequate mixing prior to ignition. The distributed com-
bustion reactions have the characteristics of a lower reaction rates over
the entire volume of the combustor. Table 3 shows various input and
operational parameters for CDC. From the table, it shows that there is
an increase in the combustion stability and reduction in the pollutants
emission for liquid biofuels utilization. In CDC, not only the formation
of thin reaction zone is avoided, but also the hot flames, which reduces
thermal NOX formation and emission [127].
Several studies on CDC were mainly focused on the applications for
gas turbine combustors. The effect of flow field in CDC using four dif-
ferent sample configuration showed that the reaction zone was uni-
formly distributed over the entire combustor volume once visible flame
signatures approached CDC mode [128]. The effect of hydrogen addi-
tion to methane-air mixture has extended the operational limits of the
CDC combustor [129], and also the lean operational limits of combustor
with stable combustion [130]. In addition, CDC with ultra-high thermal
intensity combustors with enhanced performance has been developed
to investigate the effect of fuel dilution and liquid fuel combustion
[131]. Ultra low NOx emissions were achieved by applying CDC in-
tensive combustion [132]. Moreover, flow field design, mixture
50
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
preparation in non-premixed combustion and injection location have
proven to be crucial to the pollutants emission values [133]. Extra-high
thermal intensity in the range of 270–420 MW/m3-atm, resulted in
ultra-low NO emission of 5 ppm and 2 ppm for non-premixed and novel
premixed modes, respectively [134]. For the effects of velocity and
turbulence on high intensity distributed combustion, there was a no-
ticeable reduction of NO emission [135]. Likewise, the impact of in-
ternal entrainment of product gases on flame structure and behaviour
with gases, showed a significantly enhanced reaction distribution
[136]. In consideration of clean technology development strategies
[137], a better radiation heat transfer and higher heat capacity are
observed in the system. Furthermore, a study on impact of internal
entrainment of hot reactive gases on thermal field uniformity [138],
showed that reduced temperature variations and enhanced thermal
field uniformity provided ultra-low emissions. However, increase in
pressure without flow field and velocities can lead to departure from
achieving colourless combustion and at the same time increase in
emissions [139].
Another important parameter for CDC was found to be the swirling
intensity [140]. Using swirl combustion in simulated gas turbine com-
bustion conditions resulted in ultra-low NOX emission for both pre-
mixed and non-premixed modes [141]. Furthermore, investigation on
forward flow distributed combustion using three different flow field
configurations showed that significant recirculation of gas was present
due to the confinement [142]. The enhanced mixture preparation as-
sociated with new air and fuel dilution technique resulted in reduced
emissions [74]. In addition, for a guideline to achieve ultra-low emis-
sion distributed combustion, distributed combustion is achieved at
oxygen concentration of 9.5% for hot reactive entranced gases having
temperature of 1800 K [127]. A distribution index (DI) was proposed to
describe the distributed reaction within the combustor for extra-low
emission and enhanced efficiency [143].
5.2. High temperature air combustion (HiTAC)
HiTAC technology utilises preheated air in excess of 1000 °C and
have greatly contributed to the simultaneous reduction of oxides of
I.I. Enagi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55

nitrogen and carbon dioxide emissions [144]. Furthermore, this tech-

[128]
[140]
[141]
[129]
[131]

[132]

[130]
[134]
[135]
[15]
Ref
nology has demonstrated extremely low-level emissions with reduced
fuel consumption in many practical applications to different combus-

mixed (ppm)
tors and furnaces for many industries [144].
Non- pre Many experimental studies have shown tremendous reduction of
NOx emissions through high temperature diluted air combustion.

100

100
20 Studies of NO formation in a coaxial jet flame showed that preheating
10
70

30

21
–

–
the inlet air increased the combustion intensity and thus extended the
CO emissions

stable combustion region [145]. An effective way to burn and ignite

Pre mixed

efficiently the low-heating value liquid fuels was found to be by pre-

(ppm)

heating air prior to the combustion [146]. Investigation of combusting

100

100
20

49

30

11
8

9
–

–
low-calorific waste oil in high temperature air resulted in NOx and CO
emissions lower than 60 ppm and 50 ppm, respectively. Numerical
mixed (ppm)

analysis and CFD simulation were also used to investigate the influ-
Non- pre

ences of air preheating temperature and oxygen concentration on NOx

emission in furnaces [147,148].
10
7

3
4
8

5
–

–
Fig. 7 shows schematic diagrams of CDC combustion facility on the
NO emissions

left and regenerative HiTAC technology on the right. The combustor

Pre mixed

was operated at heat load of 25 kW with heat release intensity of 5 MW/

m3 atm. The CDC had optional quartz windows from three sides and the
(ppm)

2.2

2.8
3.2

5.6

forth side had ports for physical diagnostic probes and for ignition of
7
5

1
3

mixers in the enclosed combustion chamber. The NO concentration was

Equivalent ratio

measured using chemi-luminescence NO-NOX gas analysers [128].

Furthermore, the schematic diagram for HiTAC technology worked
using the regenerators in burners to complete heat exchange between
0.7–0.9
0.5–0.8

0.5–0.8

0.5–0.8

0.6–0.7

the high –temperature fume exhausted and the combustion air. At the
0.7

0.6

0.6
0.5
0.8

same time, it achieved lower emission with energy savings as well as

efficiency enhancement [149].
velocity (m/s)
fuel injection

5.3. Moderate or intensive low oxygen dilution (MILD) combustion

114 – 146

128– 205
128–124

46–103

MILD combustion operates at elevated temperature of reactants and

137
92

92

46

low temperature increase in the combustion process. The inlet tem-

–
–

perature of the reactant mixture should be higher than the mixture of

self-ignition temperature in this combustion process. In addition, the
Inlet fuel injection

increase in the maximum allowable temperature with respect to inlet

velocity (m/s)

temperature is lower than self-ignition mixture temperature [17]. A

review on MILD combustion showed that at relatively low pressures,
97 – 136
73 – 133

61 –97

the pressure-temperature range extended with depression in oxidation

Various input and operational parameters for Colourless distributed Combustions (CDC).

194

110

whereby a clean and clearing combustion processes are identified

97
97
97

96
Various imput and operational parameters for colourless distributed combustions (CDC)

[150]. An experimental study on MILD combustion of evaporated li-

quids fuels showed that the combustion stability was highly dependent
Thermal Int. range

on fuel type and pressure, and the measured CO emissions are very low
(MW/m3-atm)

[150]. In addition, NOX emissions were found to be sensitive as well to

the combustion pressure, and ultra-low emissions could be achieved by
22.5– 27

156–198

53–85

27–36

22–36

the MILD combustion [112]. Another study investigated the impact of

36
85

27
42

external operating parameters on the performance of a cyclonic burner

–

with high level of internal recirculation under MILD combustion. The

Comb. heat load

results presented a promising strategy to stabilise the oxidation process

that limit system temperatures to reduce pollutant emissions while
3.91–6.25

ensuring high process efficiency [151]. Similarly, the application of

(KW)

MILD oxy-fuel combustion technology provided an increase in the

6.25
6.25
6.25

6.25
4.72
6.25
6.25
4.7
25

overall net efficiency by about 2% [152].

Methane +Inert
Methane +H2

5.4. Catalytic fuel combustion

Type of fuel

Methane
Methane
Methane

Methane

Methane
Methane
Methane
Methane

The catalytic fuel combustion concept is based on the catalytic

Gas

combustion zone followed by a homogeneous combustion zone. The

mechanism depends on the elevation of pressure at the homogeneous
Low calorific value fuel

combustion zone that triggers the reaction at reasonably low tem-

Velocity &Turbulence
Swirling air injection

peratures in the range of 800 – 900 °C and complete the combustion

Hydrogen addition

Hydrogen addition
Reverse C/Section
Input parameter

Flow field effect

[18]. Catalytic combustion is one of the promising technologies in gas

geometry
Swirling flow

Novel mixing
Fuel dilution

turbines to reduce NOX emissions, at the same time keeping CO and

unburnt hydrocarbons very low. Catalytic combustion have shown to be
Table 3

much more stable at reduced power, which results in a greater turn-

down ratio with low emissions [18]. The studies on status and

51
I.I. Enagi et al.
Fig. 7. A line diagram of CDC test combustion facility (left) [128], and a schematic diagram of regenerative HiTAC technology (right) [149].
perspectives of catalytic combustion for gas turbines demonstrated that
the catalytic combustion was viable for natural gas–fired gas turbine
commercial service [153]. In addition, a study on optimal combustion
dimensions for catalytic combustion of methane –air mixtures demon-
strated the significant role of combustion dimensions in combustion
stability [154].
6. Summary
Liquid biofuels are among the prospective alternatives for fossil
fuels with comparable heating values and combustion properties. With
liquid biofuels, the main combustion difficulties associated with solid
biomass such as the low energy density and high moisture and ash are
avoided. Therefore, the trend is moving towards the production of
biofuels and converting biomass into liquid biofuels. The main con-
version techniques for biomass conversion into liquid biofuels include
gasification, pyrolysis, liquefaction and transesterification processes.
The development of catalysts to enhance biofuels production has also
been one of the most studied areas recently. The main concern about
the utilization of biofuels in gas turbines is on the fuel properties and its
combustion characteristics and emissions. Also, the effect of fuel, and
combustion products on the turbine and the path of hot gasses has been
extensively investigated. The techno-economic aspects including the
heat recovery, CHP configuration and fuel co-firing have a considerable
influence on the biofuel utilization in gas turbines. EFGT, on the other
hand, is characterized by the high temperature heat exchanger with
lower turbine inlet temperature of 700–900 °C, which presents the main
challenge for this technology. There is a lack of studies on EFGT with
liquid biofuels and it is commonly investigated with solid biomass or
gaseous biofuels.
The most studied biofuel in gas turbines is biodiesel especially in
small-scale MGT engines due to its similar combustion characteristics
compared to petro-diesel. Many new combustion technologies have
been developed to enhance combustion performance and stability of
lower grade fuels and reduce pollutant emissions. One of the new
techniques in combustion is the colourless distributed combustion that
can achieve extremely high thermal intensity resulting in an ultra-low
emission of NOx and CO. Another widely used technique in gas turbine
combustors is the high temperature air combustion. By elevating air-
temperature at the chamber inlet above 1000 °C, gas turbine can
achieve significant reduction in NOx and CO emissions. In addition, this
technique provides the possibility of utilizing liquid biofuels with lower
heating values at stable combustion and low emissions. Other tech-
nologies are the moderate or intensive low oxygen dilution combustion
and catalytic combustion. These technologies have also shown a pro-
mising reduction in NOx and CO emissions when tested in gas turbines
52
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
combustors.
Acknowledgements
The authors gracefully acknowledge the Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Research University Individual (RUI) grant (PMEKANIK: 814282) for
the financial support.
References
[1] Szalay D, Fujiwara H, Palocz-andresen M. Using biodiesel fuel for gas turbine
combustors. LANDBAUFORSCHUNG 2015;65:65–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3220/
LBF1443169529000.
[2] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Fuel flexible distributed combustion for efficient and clean
gas turbine engines. Appl Energy 2013;109:267–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2013.04.052.
[3] Hossain AK, Davies PA. Pyrolysis liquids and gases as alternative fuels in internal
combustion engines – A review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;21:165–89.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.12.031.
[4] Guo M, Song W, Buhain J. Bioenergy and biofuels: history status and perspective.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;42:712–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.
2014.10.013.
[5] Barsali S, De Marco A, Giglioli R, Ludovici G, Possenti A. Dynamic modelling of
biomass power plant using micro gas turbine. Renew Energy 2015;80:806–18.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.02.064.
[6] Raheem A, Azlina WAKGW, Tau YH, Danquah MK. Thermochemical conversion of
microalgal biomass for biofuel production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2015;49:990–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.186.
[7] Xd TX, Sikarwar S. Progress in biofuel production from gasi fi cation Shah d. Prog
Energy Combust Sci 2017:61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2017.04.001.
[8] Bergthorson JM, Thomson MJ. A review of the combustion and emissions prop-
erties of advanced transportation biofuels and their impact on existing and future
engines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;42:1393–417. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.rser.2014.10.034.
[9] Pilavachi P a. Power generation with gas turbine systems and combined heat and
power. Appl Therm Eng 2000;20:1421–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1359-
4311(00)00016-8.
[10] Sallevelt JLHP, Gudde JEP, Pozarlik AK, Brem G. The impact of spray quality on
the combustion of a viscous biofuel in a micro gas turbine. Appl Energy
2014;132:575–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.07.030.
[11] Joshi G, Pandey JK, Rana S, Rawat DS. Challenges and opportunities for the ap-
plication of biofuel. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;79:850–66. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.185.
[12] Baina F, Malmquist A, Alejo L, Palm B, Fransson TH. Analysis of a high-tem-
perature heat exchanger for an externally-fired micro gas turbine. Appl Therm Eng
2015;75:410–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.10.014.
[13] Kautz M, Hansen U. The externally-fired gas-turbine (EFGT-Cycle) for decen-
tralized use of biomass. Appl Energy 2007;84:795–805. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.apenergy.2007.01.010.
[14] Costea M, Feidt M, Alexandru G, Descieux D. Optimization of Gas Turbine
Cogeneration Systemfor Various Heat Exchanger Configurations. Oil Gas Sci
Technol Rev d′IFP Energ Nouv 2012;67:517–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.2516/ogst/
2011140.
[15] Khalil AEE, Arghode VK, Gupta AK, Lee SC. Low calorific value fuelled distributed
combustion with swirl for gas turbine applications. Appl Energy 2012;98:69–78.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.02.074.
[16] Xing F, Kumar A, Huang Y, Chan S, Ruan C, Gu S, et al. Flameless combustion with
I.I. Enagi et al.
liquid fuel: a review focusing on fundamentals and gas turbine application. Appl
Energy 2017;193:28–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.02.010.
[17] Cavaliere A, Joannon M De. Mild combustion. Prog Energy Combust Sci
2004;30:329–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2004.02.003.
[18] Kuper WJ, Blaauw M, Berg F Van Der, Graaf GH. Catalytic combustion concept for
gas turbines. Catal Today 1999:47.
[19] Anuar MS, Al-attab KA, Zainal ZA. Gasifier-torrefier using syngas as the thermal
agent. Energy Convers Manag 2017;149:79–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2017.06.085.
[20] Sung Y, Lee S, Kim C, Jun D, Moon C, Choi G, et al. Synergistic effect of co-firing
woody biomass with coal on NOx reduction and burnout during air-staged com-
bustion. Exp Therm FLUID Sci 2016;71:114–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
expthermflusci.2015.10.018.
[21] Ã KE. Co-firing — A strategy for bioenergy in Poland? Energy 2007;32:1838–47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2007.03.011.
[22] Kang JY, Kang DW, Kim TS, Hur KB. Economic evaluation of biogas and natural
gas co-firing in gas turbine combined heat and power systems. Appl Therm Eng
2014;70:723–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.05.085.
[23] Chew TL, Bhatia S. Catalytic processes towards the production of biofuels in a
palm oil and oil palm biomass-based biorefinery. Bioresour Technol
2008;99:7911–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.03.009.
[24] French R, Czernik S. Catalytic pyrolysis of biomass for biofuels production. Fuel
Process Technol 2010;91:25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.08.011.
[25] Yakovlev V a, Khromova S a, Sherstyuk OV, Dundich VO, Ermakov DY,
Novopashina VM, et al. Development of new catalytic systems for upgraded bio-
fuels production from bio-crude-oil and biodiesel. Catal Today 2009;144:362–6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2009.03.002.
[26] Damartzis T, Zabaniotou a. Thermochemical conversion of biomass to second
generation biofuels through integrated process design – a review. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2011;15:366–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.08.003.
[27] Anastasakis K, Kitsiou I, de Jong W. Fast devolatilization characteristics of “low
cost” biomass fuels, wood and reed. Potential Feedstock Gasif Fuel Process Technol
2016;142:157–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2015.10.018.
[28] Ail SS, Dasappa S. Biomass to liquid transportation fuel via Fischer Tropsch
synthesis – technology review and current scenario. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2016;58:267–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.143.
[29] Catalysis in C1 Chemistry.pdf n.d.
[30] Zhang Y, Ma L, Wang T, Li X. MnO2 Coated Fe2O3 spindles designed for production
of C5 + hydrocarbons in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Fuel 2016;177:197–205.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.03.023.
[31] Li J, Yang G, Yoneyama Y, Vitidsant T, Tsubaki N. Jet fuel synthesis via Fischer –
Tropsch synthesis with varied 1-olefins as additives using Co / ZrO2–SiO2 bimodal
catalyst. Fuel 2016;171:159–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.12.062.
[32] Zeng S-H, Su H-Q, Ding N, Yu S-Y, Liu K-W. Fischer-Tropsch synthesis catalyst
towards diesel fraction. Ranliao Huaxue XuebaoJ Fuel Chem Technol
2014;42:449–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1872-5813(14)60021-9.
[33] Shivananda A, Mukunda HS, Mahapatra S, Dasappa S. Fischer-Tropsch route for
the conversion of biomass to liquid fuels – technical and economic analysis. Energy
2017;130:182–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.04.101.
[34] Wang S, Bi X, Wang S. Thermodynamic analysis of biomass gasification for bio-
methane production. Energy 2015;90:1207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2015.06.073.
[35] Balu E, Lee U, Chung JN. High temperature steam gasification of woody biomass –
a combined experimental and mathematical modeling approach. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2015;40:1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.08.085.
[36] Brachi P, Chirone R, Miccio F, Miccio M, Picarelli A, Ruoppolo G. Fluidized bed co-
gasification of biomass and polymeric wastes for a flexible end-use of the syngas:
focus on bio-methanol. Fuel 2014;128:88–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.
2014.02.070.
[37] Kruusement K, Luik H, Waldner M, Vogel F, Luik L. Gasification and liquefaction of
solid fuels by hydrothermal conversion methods. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis
2014;108:265–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2014.04.006.
[38] Sharma A, Shinde Y, Pareek V, Zhang D. Process modelling of biomass conversion
to biofuels with combined heat and power. Bioresour Technol 2015;198:309–15.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.09.014.
[39] Boucher ME, Chaala a, Pakdel H, Roy C. Bio-oils obtained by vacuum pyrolysis of
softwood bark as a liquid fuel for gas turbines. Part II: stability and ageing of bio-
oil and its blends with methanol and a pyrolytic aqueous phase. Biomass Bioenergy
2000;19:351–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0961-9534(00)00044-1.
[40] Huang H, Yuan X. Recent progress in the direct liquefaction of typical biomass.
Prog Energy Combust Sci 2015;49:59–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2015.
01.003.
[41] Liu D, Song L, Wu P, Liu Y, Li Q, Yan Z. Direct hydro-liquefaction of sawdust in
petroleum ether and comprehensive bio-oil products analysis. Bioresour Technol
2014;155:152–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.12.076.
[42] Bensaid S, Conti R, Fino D. Direct liquefaction of ligno-cellulosic residues for liquid
fuel production. Fuel 2012;94:324–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.11.
053.
[43] Chan YH, Yusup S, Quitain AT, Uemura Y, Sasaki M. Bio-oil production from oil
palm biomass via subcritical and supercritical hydrothermal liquefaction. J
Supercrit Fluids 2014;95:407–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2014.10.
014.
[44] Liu Z, Zhang F-S. Effects of various solvents on the liquefaction of biomass to
produce fuels and chemical feedstocks. Energy Convers Manag 2008;49:3498–504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2008.08.009.
[45] Meryemoğlu B, Hasanoğlu A, Irmak S, Erbatur O. Biofuel production by
53
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
liquefaction of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) biomass. Bioresour Technol
2014;151:278–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.10.085.
[46] Agarwal AK, Das LM. Biodiesel development and characterization for use as a fuel
in compression ignition engines. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2001;123:440–7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1364522.
[47] Yusuf NNAN, Kamarudin SK, Yaakub Z. Overview on the current trends in bio-
diesel production. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52:2741–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.enconman.2010.12.004.
[48] Marchetti JMÃ, Miguel VU, Errazu AF. Possible methods for biodiesel production.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2007;11:1300–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.
2005.08.006.
[49] Al-attab K, Wahas A, Almoqry N, Alqubati S. Biodiesel production from waste
cooking oil in Yemen: a techno-economic investigation. Biofuels 2017:7269.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2016.1196326.
[50] Salvi BL, Panwar NL. Biodiesel resources and production technologies – a review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:3680–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.
2012.03.050.
[51] Lim S, Hoong SS, Teong LK, Bhatia S. Bioresource technology supercritical fluid
reactive extraction of Jatropha curcas L. seeds with methanol: a novel biodiesel
production method. Bioresour Technol 2010;101:7169–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.biortech.2010.03.134.
[52] Farobie O, Matsumura Y. Bioresource Technology A comparative study of biodiesel
production using methanol, ethanol, and tert -butyl methyl ether ( MTBE) under
supercritical conditions. Bioresour Technol J 2015;191:306–11. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.biortech.2015.04.102.
[53] Ilham Z, Saka S. Bioresource Technology Two-step supercritical dimethyl carbo-
nate method for biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas oil. Bioresour Technol
2010;101:2735–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.10.053.
[54] Farobie O, Yanagida T, Matsumura Y. New approach of catalyst-free biodiesel
production from canola oil in supercritical tert-butyl methyl ether ( MTBE). Fuel
2014;135:172–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.06.049.
[55] Goembira F, Saka S. Effect of additives to supercritical methyl acetate on biodiesel
production ☆. Fuel Process Technol 2014;125:114–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.fuproc.2014.03.035.
[56] Cai Z, Wang Y, Teng Y, Chong K, Wang J, Zhang J, et al. A two-step biodiesel
production process from waste cooking oil via recycling crude glycerol esteri fi
cation catalyzed by alkali catalyst. Fuel Process Technol 2015;137:186–93. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2015.04.017.
[57] Duc P, Takenaka N, Luu B Van, Ngoc L. Co solvent method produce biodiesel form
waste cooking oil with small pilot plant. Energy Procedia 2014;61:2822–32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.303.
[58] Ullah Z, Bustam MA, Man Z. Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil by acidic
ionic liquid as a catalyst. Renew Energy 2015;77:521–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.renene.2014.12.040.
[59] He B, Shao Y, Ren Y, Li J, Cheng Y. Continuous biodiesel production from acidic oil
using a combination of cation- and anion-exchange resins D261. Fuel Process
Technol 2015;130:1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.09.027.
[60] Karabas H. Biodiesel production from crude acorn ( Quercus frainetto L.) kernel
oil: an optimisation process using the Taguchi method. Renew Energy
2013;53:384–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.12.002.
[61] Almeida VF De, García-moreno PJ, Guadix A, Guadix EM. Biodiesel production
from mixtures of waste fish oil palm oil and waste frying oil: optimization of fuel
properties. Fuel Process Technol 2015;133:152–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
fuproc.2015.01.041.
[62] Boon-anuwat N, Kiatkittipong W, Aiouache F. Chemical engineering and proces-
sing: process intensi fi cation process design of continuous biodiesel production by
reactive distillation: comparison between homogeneous and heterogeneous cata-
lysts. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 2015;92:33–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.cep.2015.03.025.
[63] Chen G, Shan R, Shi J, Liu C, Yan B. Biodiesel production from palm oil using
active and stable K doped hydroxyapatite catalysts. Energy Convers Manag
2015;98:463–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.04.012.
[64] Baskar G, Aiswarya R. Bioresource technology biodiesel production from waste
cooking oil using copper doped zinc oxide nanocomposite as heterogeneous cat-
alyst. Bioresour Technol 2015;188:124–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.
2015.01.012.
[65] Farooq M, Ramli A, Naeem A. Biodiesel production from low FFA waste cooking
oil using heterogeneous catalyst derived from chicken bones. Renew Energy
2015;76:362–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.11.042.
[66] Vadery V, Narayanan BN, Ramakrishnan RM, Kochiyil S, Sugunan S, Narayanan
DP. Room temperature production of jatropha biodiesel over coconut husk ash.
Energy 2014;70:588–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.04.045.
[67] You Q, Yin X, Zhao Y, Zhang Y. Bioresource Technology Biodiesel production from
jatropha oil catalyzed by immobilized Burkholderia cepacia lipase on modified
attapulgite. Bioresour Technol 2013;148:202–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
biortech.2013.08.143.
[68] Su E, Wei D. Improvement in biodiesel production from soapstock oil by one-stage
lipase catalyzed methanolysis. Energy Convers Manag 2014;88:60–5. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.08.041.
[69] Hajinezhad A, Abedi S, Ghobadian B, Noorollahi Y. Biodiesel production from
Norouzak ( Salvia lerifolia) seeds as an indigenous source of bio fuel in Iran using
ultrasound. Energy Convers Manag 2015;99:132–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2015.04.034.
[70] Zhang F, Fang Z, Wang Y. Biodiesel production directly from oils with high acid
value by magnetic Na2SiO3@Fe3O4/C catalyst and ultrasound. Fuel
2015;150:370–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.02.032.
I.I. Enagi et al.
[71] Wulandani D, Ilham F, Indra A. Modification of biodiesel reactor by using of triple
obstacle within the bubble column reactor. Energy Procedia 2015;65:83–9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.01.036.
[72] Noshadi I, Amin NAS, Parnas RS. Continuous production of biodiesel from waste
cooking oil in a reactive distillation column catalyzed by solid heteropolyacid:
optimization using response surface methodology ( RSM). Fuel 2012;94:156–64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.10.018.
[73] Nguyen N. Using thermally coupled reactive distillation columns in biodiesel
production. Energy 2011;36:4838–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.
05.020.
[74] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Toward ultra-low emission distributed combustion with fuel
air dilution. Appl Energy 2015;148:187–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2015.03.066.
[75] Gupta KK, Rehman A, Sarviya RM. Bio-fuels for the gas turbine: a review. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:2946–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.
025.
[76] A forcast international Inc., Industrial and Marine Gas & Steam Turbine Market
Data _ PowerWeb. Powerweb.com; 2016.
[77] Carapellucci R. A unified approach to assess performance of different techniques
for recovering exhaust heat from gas turbines. Energy Convers Manag
2009;50:1218–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2009.01.034.
[78] Chacartegui R, Sánchez D, Muñoz De Escalona JM, Jiménez-Espadafor F, Muñoz a,
Sánchez T. SPHERA project: assessing the use of syngas fuels in gas turbines and
combined cycles from a global perspective. Fuel Process Technol
2012;103:134–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.11.004.
[79] Editor C, Editor C-C, Board EE. Enhancement of Marib Gas Turbine Power Station
Using Recuperator. J Eng Sci 3 8 –8, December ISSN 2312–9999 2014;3:8–8; 2014.
[80] Momin AE, Al-attab KA, Alshaghdri MA, Al-nehari HA. Enhancement of marib gas
turbine power station using air cooling fogging system. J Sci Technol 2016:62–74.
http://dx.doi.org/10.20428/JST.21.1.6.
[81] WRIGHT I, GIBBONS T. Recent developments in gas turbine materials and tech-
nology and their implications for syngas firing. Int J Hydrog Energy
2007;32:3610–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.08.049.
[82] Kwon IH, Kang DW, Kim TS. Using coolant modulation and pre-cooling to avoid
turbine blade overheating in a gas turbine combined cycle power plant fired with
low calorific value gas. Appl Therm Eng 2013;60:285–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.07.008.
[83] Lee MC, Seo S Bin, Chung JH, Joo YJ, Ahn DH. Combustion performance test of a
new fuel DME to adapt to a gas turbine for power generation. Fuel
2008;87:2162–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.11.017.
[84] Lee MC, Seo S Bin, Chung JH, Joo YJ, Ahn DH. Industrial gas turbine combustion
performance test of DME to use as an alternative fuel for power generation. Fuel
2009;88:657–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.10.027.
[85] Chul M, Yoon Y. Development of a gas turbine fuel nozzle for DME and a design
method thereof. Fuel 2012;102:823–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.
05.017.
[86] Tung C, Hochgreb S. Flame structure, spectroscopy and emissions quantification of
rapeseed biodiesel under model gas turbine conditions. Appl Energy
2017;185:1383–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.01.003.
[87] Kurji H, Valera-medina A, Runyon J, Giles A, Pugh D, Marsh R, et al. Combustion
characteristics of biodiesel saturated with pyrolysis oil for power generation in gas
turbines. Renew Energy 2016;99:443–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.
2016.07.036.
[88] Hoxie A, Anderson M. Evaluating high volume blends of vegetable oil in micro-gas
turbine engines. Renew Energy 2017;101:886–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2016.09.054.
[89] Chiaramonti D, Rizzo AM, Spadi A, Prussi M, Riccio G, Martelli F. Exhaust emis-
sions from liquid fuel micro gas turbine fed with diesel oil biodiesel and vegetable
oil. Appl Energy 2013;101:349–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.
01.066.
[90] Cavarzere A, Morini M, Pinelli M, Spina PR, Vaccari A, Venturini M. Experimental
analysis of a micro gas turbine fuelled with vegetable oils from energy crops.
Energy Procedia 2014;45:91–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.01.
011.
[91] Li H, Altaher M a, Wilson CW, Blakey S, Chung W, Rye L. Quantification of al-
dehydes emissions from alternative and renewable aviation fuels using a gas tur-
bine engine. Atmos Environ 2013;84:373–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2013.11.058.
[92] Mendez CJ, Parthasarathy RN, Gollahalli SR. Performance and emission char-
acteristics of butanol/Jet A blends in a gas turbine engine. Appl Energy
2014;118:135–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.12.011.
[93] Cameretti MC, Tuccillo R, Piazzesi R. Study of an exhaust gas recirculation
equipped micro gas turbine supplied with bio-fuels. Appl Therm Eng
2013;59:162–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.04.029.
[94] Al-attab KA, Zainal ZA. Externally fired gas turbine technology: a review. Appl
Energy 2015;138:474–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.10.049.
[95] Bazooyar B, Hassan S, Shariati A. NOX formation of biodiesel in utility power plant
boilers; Part B. Comparison of NO between biodiesel and petrodiesel. Fuel
2016;182:323–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.05.018.
[96] Macor A, Pavanello P. Performance and emissions of biodiesel in a boiler for re-
sidential heating. Energy 2009;34:2025–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.
2008.08.021.
[97] Bazooyar B, Ghorbani A, Shariati A. Combustion performance and emissions of
petrodiesel and biodiesels based on various vegetable oils in a semi industrial
boiler. Fuel 2011;90:3078–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.05.025.
[98] José JS, Al-kassir A, López JA, Gañán J. Analysis of biodiesel combustion in a
54
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
boiler with a pressure operated mechanical pulverisation burner. Fuel Process
Technol 2011;92:271–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2010.05.020.
[99] Ghorbani A, Bazooyar B, Shariati A, Mohammad S, Ajami H, Naderi A. A com-
parative study of combustion performance and emission of biodiesel blends and
diesel in an experimental boiler. Appl Energy 2011;88:4725–32. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.06.016.
[100] Ghorbani A, Bazooyar B. Optimization of the combustion of SOME ( soybean oil
methyl ester), B5, B10, B20 and petrodiesel in a semi industrial boiler. Energy
2012;44:217–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.06.035.
[101] Gonza J. ScienceDirect Study of combustion process of biodiesel/gasoil mixture in
a domestic heating boiler of 26.7 kW. Biomass Bioenergy 2013:0. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.10.024.
[102] Martin JA, Boateng AA. Combustion performance of pyrolysis oil/ethanol blends
in a residential-scale oil-fired boiler q. Fuel 2014;133:34–44. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.fuel.2014.05.005.
[103] Bazooyar B, Shariati A, Hassan S. Economy of a utility boiler power plant fueled
with vegetable oil biodiesel petrodiesel and their prevalent blends. Sustain Prod
Consum 2015;3:1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2015.06.001.
[104] Al-attab KA, Zainal ZA. Performance of high-temperature heat exchangers in
biomass fuel powered externally fired gas turbine systems. Renew Energy
2010;35:913–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2009.11.038.
[105] Hashimoto N, Ozawa Y, Mori N, Yuri I, Hisamatsu T. Fundamental combustion
characteristics of palm methyl ester (PME) as alternative fuel for gas turbines. Fuel
2008;87:3373–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2008.06.005.
[106] Panchasara HV, Simmons BM, Agrawal AK, Spear SK, Daly DT. Combustion per-
formance of biodiesel and diesel-vegetable oil blends in a simulated gas turbine
burner. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2009;131:31503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.
2982137.
[107] Carroni R, Griffin T. Catalytic hybrid lean combustion for gas turbines. Catal
Today 2010;155:2–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2010.04.009.
[108] Yin J, Weng Y. Investigation of combustion and thermodynamic performance of a
lean burn catalytic combustion gas turbine system. Energy Convers Manag
2011;52:1711–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2010.10.036.
[109] Adachi S, Iwamoto A, Hayashi S, Yamada H, Kaneko S. Emissions in combustion of
lean methane-air and biomass-air mixtures supported by primary hot burned gas
in a multi-stage gas turbine combustor. Proc Combust Inst 2007;31(II):3131–8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.239.
[110] Cameretti MC, Reale F, Tuccillo R. Cycle optimization and combustion analysis in
a Low-NO[sub x] micro-gas turbine. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2007;129:994.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2718232.
[111] MI J, LI P, ZHENG C. Numerical simulation of flameless premixed combustion with
an annular nozzle in a recuperative furnace. Chin J Chem Eng 2010;18:10–7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1004-9541(08)60316-X.
[112] Kruse S, Kerschgens B, Berger L, Varea E, Pitsch H. Experimental and numerical
study of MILD combustion for gas turbine applications. Appl Energy
2015;148:456–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.054.
[113] Zeinivand H, Bazdidi-Tehrani F. Influence of stabilizer jets on combustion char-
acteristics and NOx emission in a jet-stabilized combustor. Appl Energy
2012;92:348–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.11.033.
[114] Kutne P, Kapadia BK, Meier W, Aigner M. Experimental analysis of the combustion
behaviour of oxyfuel flames in a gas turbine model combustor. Proc Combust Inst
2011;33:3383–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2010.07.008.
[115] Koyama M, Tachibana S. Technical applicability of low-swirl fuel nozzle for liquid-
fueled industrial gas turbine combustor. Fuel 2013;107:766–76. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.01.038.
[116] Yoon J, Kim MK, Hwang J, Lee J, Yoon Y. Effect of fuel-air mixture velocity on
combustion instability of a model gas turbine combustor. Appl Therm Eng
2013;54:92–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.01.032.
[117] Nemitallah MA, Habib MA. Experimental and numerical investigations of an at-
mospheric diffusion oxy-combustion flame in a gas turbine model combustor. Appl
Energy 2013;111:401–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.05.027.
[118] Kez V, Liu F, Consalvi JL, Ströhle J, Epple B. A comprehensive evaluation of dif-
ferent radiation models in a gas turbine combustor under conditions of oxy-fuel
combustion with dry recycle. J Quant Spectrosc Radiat Transf 2015;172:121–33.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2015.11.002.
[119] Temme JE, Allison PM, Driscoll JF. Combustion instability of a lean premixed
prevaporized gas turbine combustor studied using phase-averaged PIV. Combust
Flame 2014;161:958–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2013.09.
021.
[120] Hashimoto N, Nishida H, Ozawa Y. Fundamental combustion characteristics of
Jatropha oil as alternative fuel for gas turbines. Fuel 2014;126:194–201. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.02.057.
[121] Seljak T, Katrašnik T. Designing the microturbine engine for waste-derived fuels.
Waste Manag 2015:1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.06.004.
[122] Seljak T, Oprešnik SR, Kunaver M, Katrašnik T. Effects of primary air temperature
on emissions of a gas turbine fired by liquefied spruce wood. Biomass Bioenergy
2014;71:394–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.09.016.
[123] Zornek T, Monz T, Aigner M. Performance analysis of the micro gas turbine Turbec
T100 with a new FLOX-combustion system for low calorific fuels. Appl Energy
2015;159:276–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.08.075.
[124] Zhang RC, Fan WJ, Xing F, Song SW, Shi Q, Tian GH, et al. Experimental study of
slight temperature rise combustion in trapped vortex combustors for gas turbines.
Energy 2015;93(2):1535–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.09.122.
[125] Kim G, Lee YD, Sohn CH, Choi KW, Kim HS. Experimental investigation on com-
bustion and emission characteristics of a premixed flame in a gas-turbine com-
bustor with a vortex generator. Appl Therm Eng 2015;77:57–64. http://dx.doi.
I.I. Enagi et al.
org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.11.073.
[126] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Clean combustion in gas turbine engines using Butyl
Nonanoate biofuel. Fuel 2014;116:522–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.
08.022.
[127] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Fuel property effects on distributed combustion. Fuel
2016;171:116–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.12.068.
[128] Arghode VK, Gupta AK. Effect of flow field for colorless distributed combustion
(CDC) for gas turbine combustion. Appl Energy 2010;87:1631–40. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.032.
[129] Arghode VK, Gupta AK. Hydrogen addition effects on methane-air colorless dis-
tributed combustion flames. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36:6292–302. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.02.028.
[130] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Hydrogen addition effects on high intensity distributed
combustion. Appl Energy 2013;104:71–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.
2012.11.004.
[131] Arghode VK, Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Fuel dilution and liquid fuel operational ef-
fects on ultra-high thermal intensity distributed combustor. Appl Energy
2012;95:132–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.02.020.
[132] Arghode VK, Gupta AK, Bryden KM. High intensity colorless distributed combus-
tion for ultra low emissions and enhanced performance. Appl Energy
2012;92:822–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.08.039.
[133] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK, Bryden KM, Lee SC. Mixture preparation effects on dis-
tributed combustion for gas turbine applications. J Energy Resour Technol
2012;134:32201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.4006481.
[134] Khalil AEE, Arghode VK, Gupta AK. Novel mixing for ultra-high thermal intensity
distributed combustion. Appl Energy 2013;105:327–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.apenergy.2012.12.071.
[135] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Velocity and turbulence effects on high intensity distributed
combustion. Appl Energy 2014;125:1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.
2013.11.078.
[136] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Internal entrainment effects on high intensity distributed
combustion using non-intrusive diagnostics. Appl Energy 2015;160:467–76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.09.053.
[137] Hosseini SE, Bagheri G, Wahid MA. Numerical investigation of biogas flameless
combustion. Energy Convers Manag 2014;81:41–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2014.02.006.
[138] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Thermal field investigation under distributed combustion
conditions. Appl Energy 2015;160:477–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.
2015.09.058.
[139] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Impact of pressure on high intensity colorless distributed
combustion. Fuel 2015;143:334–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.11.
061.
[140] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Distributed swirl combustion for gas turbine application.
Appl Energy 2011;88:4898–907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.06.
051.
[141] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Swirling distributed combustion for clean energy conver-
sion in gas turbine applications. Appl Energy 2011;88:3685–93. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.03.048.
[142] Arghode VK, Gupta AK. Investigation of forward flow distributed combustion for
gas turbine application. Appl Energy 2011;88:29–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2010.04.030.
[143] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK. Towards distributed combustion for ultra low emission
using swirling and non-swirling flowfields. Appl Energy 2014;121:132–9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.01.081.
55
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (2018) 43–55
[144] Hiroshi, T, Ashwani K. High temperature air combustion from energy conservation
to pollution reduction; 2001.
[145] Lee KW, Choi DH. Analysis of NO formation in high temperature diluted air
combustion in a coaxial jet flame using an unsteady flamelet model. Int J Heat
Mass Transf 2009;52:1412–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.
2008.08.015.
[146] Wu S, Chen C, Chung I, Lee H. Combustion of low-calorific waste liquids in high
temperature air. Fuel 2011;90:2639–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.
04.001.
[147] Ai-hua W, Jiu-ju C. Numerical simulation of combustion characteristics in high
temperature air combustion furnace. J Iron Steel Res Int 2009;16:6–10. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/S1006-706X(09)60019-4.
[148] Dai-fei LIU, Feng-qi D, Hong-liang Z, Wen-bo Z. Numerical simulation of high
temperature air combustion in aluminum hydroxide gas suspension calcinations.
Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China 2008;19:259–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S1003-6326(08)60262-9.
[149] Pei P, Wang Q, Wu D. Application and research on regenerative high temperature
air combustion technology on low-rank coal pyrolysis. Appl Energy
2015;156:762–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06.070.
[150] Ye J, Medwell PR, Varea E, Kruse S, Dally BB, Pitsch HG. An experimental study on
MILD combustion of prevaporised liquid fuels. Appl Energy 2015;151:93–101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.04.019.
[151] Sorrentino G, Sabia P, Bozza P, Ragucci R. Impact of external operating parameters
on the performance of a cyclonic burner with high level of internal recirculation
under MILD combustion conditions. Energy 2017:1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2017.05.135.
[152] Stanek W, Czarnowska L, We G. Thermodynamic assessment of an integrated
MILD oxyfuel combustion power plant. Energy 2017:1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.energy.2017.05.117.
[153] Forzatti P. Status and perspectives of catalytic combustion for gas turbines. Catal
Today 2003;83:3–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0920-5861(03)00211-6.
[154] Chen J, Song W, Xu D. Optimal combustor dimensions for the catalytic combustion
of methane-air mixtures in micro-channels. Energy Convers Manag
2017;134:197–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.12.028.
[155] Riccio G, Chiaramonti D. Design and simulation of a small polygeneration plant
cofiring biomass and natural gas in a dual combustion micro gas turbine
(BIO_MGT). Biomass Bioenergy 2009;33:1520–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
biombioe.2009.07.021.
[156] Camporeale SM, Pantaleo AM, Ciliberti PD, Fortunato B. Cycle configuration
analysis and techno-economic sensitivity of biomass externally fired gas turbine
with bottoming ORC. Energy Convers Manag 2015;105:1239–50. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.08.069.
[157] Vera D, Jurado F, Carpio J. Study of a downdraft gasifier and externally fired gas
turbine for olive industry wastes. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:1970–9. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.05.017.
[158] Vera D, Jurado F, de Mena B, Schories G. Comparison between externally fired gas
turbine and gasifier-gas turbine system for the olive oil industry. Energy
2011;36:6720–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.10.036.
[159] Al-attab KA, Zainal ZA. Turbine startup methods for externally fired micro gas
turbine (EFMGT) system using biomass fuels. Appl Energy 2010;87:1336–41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.08.022.
[160] Gaderer M, Gallmetzer G, Spliethoff H. Biomass fired hot air gas turbine with
fluidized bed combustion. Appl Therm Eng 2010;30:1594–600. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.03.015.