 Petroleum reservoir rock may be composed can range from very loose and

unconsolidated sand to a very hard and dense sandstone, limestone, or dolomite

 The grains may be bonded together with a number of materials, the most common
of which are silica, calcite, or clay.
 Two main categories of core analysis tests that are:

- Routine core analysis tests

 Porosity

 Permeability

 Saturation

- Special tests
 Overburden pressure

 Capillary pressure

 Relative permeability

 Wettability

 Surface and interfacial tension

To provide an understanding of:
 The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
 The difference between original (primary) and induced
(secondary) porosity
 The difference between total and effective porosity
 Laboratory methods of porosity determination
 Determination of porosity from well logs
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the bulk volume of a
material (rock) that is occupied by pores (voids ).
Porosity is an intensive property describing the fluid storage
capacity of rock
Porosity is a static property – it can be measured in the
absence of flow
• Rock matrix is the grains of sandstone,
limestone, dolomite, and/or shale that do not
make up the supporting structure.
• Matrix is the non-pore space

• Pore space is filled with fluids.

•water
•oil
•natural gas
Rock matrix Pore space
Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas
 Vma is often showed as Vg (grain volume)

 Vb = Vg + Vp
 IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
The three major rock types are sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic
rocks. Their classification is based on their origins.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles derived from igneous,

metamorphic or other sedimentary rocks by weathering and erosion.
Sedimentary rocks provide the hydrocarbon source rocks and most of the oil
and gas reservoir rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed from molten material which is either ejected from
the earth during volcanic activity (e.g., lava flows, and ash falls), or which
crystallizes from a magma that is injected into existing rock and cools
slowly, giving rise rocks such as granites. Igneous rocks are of minor
importance for oil exploration. Rarely, hydrocarbon is produced from
fractured igneous rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any of the three rock types to
high temperatures and pressures, that alter the character of the existing
rock. Common examples of metamorphic rocks are marble derived from
limestone and slate derived from shale. Due to the high temperature and
pressures there is very little organic matter or hydrocarbons in
metamorphic rocks.
• Clastics

•Carbonates

•Evaporites
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers

4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE

Matrix
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material

Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
 COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
“matrix” CONSISTS OF QUARTZ, FELDSPAR, CEMENT AND CLAY

PORE
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)

(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY
•Developed at deposition
•Typified by: Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates, AND Intercrystalline and fenestral
pores of carbonates
•Usually more uniform than induced porosity

SECONDARY (INDUCED) POROSITY

 Developed by geologic processes after deposition
(diagenetic processes)
 Examples: Grain dissolution in sandstones or
carbonates, Vugs and solution cavities in
carbonates, Fracture development in some
sandstones, shales, and carbonates
PRIMARY
 Particle sphericity and angularity
 Packing
 Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
 Cementing materials
 Overburden stress (compaction)
 Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
 In the geology section, we show core photographs with examples of porosity.
For now, it is useful to note these effects:

 Porosity increases as angularity of particles increases.

 Porosity increases as the range of particle size decreases. In contrast, porosity

decreases as the volume of interstitial and cementing material increases.

 Porosity decreases as the compaction increases (greater depth generally

means higher overburden stresses, higher compaction forces, and lower
porosity)

 Vugs and fractures will contribute to porosity, but to understand their affect
on effective porosity requires careful study of cores and special logging
measurements.
 ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY
OF CLASTIC GRAINS
Porosity

High

Low

Very Sub- Sub- Well-

Angular Angular Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Angular
ROUNDNESS

Porosity
 GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact

This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48%
 Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

 Matrix volume =
4  r3
3 volume
 Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix
 Pore Volume
Porosity 
Bulk Volume

Bulk Volume  Matrix Volume


Bulk Volume

8 r3  4 / 3  r3 
  1  47.6%
8r 3
2 3 
RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 27 %
 Sorting (variable grain sizes)

Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 14%
 Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted

SORTING
TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape Change of Orientation

Change of Packing
 PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular Irregular Bioturbated Sandstone
Layers Layers (Whole Core)

Mottles Mottles Homogeneous

(Distinct) (Indistinct) Deposits
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
POROSITY

 Cementing materials

 Overburden stress (compaction)

 Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

 Caused when a rigid rock is strained beyond its elastic limit-it
cracks
 The forces cauing it to break are in a constant direction. Hence
all the fractures are also aligned.
 Important source of permeability in low porosity carbonate
reservoirs.
 Classed either being vertical or horizontal. But can also appear
in any angle. Can penetrate from oil column down into the
water, as it have very high permeability, can cause production
problems.
 Defined as non-connected pore space
 Do not contribute to the producible fluid total.
 Caused by dissolution of soluble material such as shell
fragments after rock has been formed
 Have irregular shapes.
 Not connected to each other in any producible manner and
hence do not contribute to formation productivity.
 Fractures  Vugs
 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
 DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
1. Primary and secondary “matrix” porosity system
2. Fracture porosity system

FRACTURE DISSOLUTION
PORE

PORE

(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)

(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Porosity in Sandstone
Pore Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Quartz Variation in Grain Size
Grain Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons

Pore Throats Restrict

Flow through pores

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
Pore

Intergranular Pores
Microporosity Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids

Quartz Micropores Contain

Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain
Irreducible Water

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Partially Dissolution of
Dissolved Framework Grains
Feldspar (Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Pore Enhance the
Interconnected
Quartz Detrital Pore System
Grain
This is Secondary
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina Porosity

Photo by R.L. Kugler

 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Partially Effective Pore System
Dissolved
Feldspar

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Photo by R.L. Kugler
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
 CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported
Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate
Dissolution of Cements and Grains
 Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic

Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework

Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug

Breccia Boring Burrow Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective

(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)

CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic
Pores
• Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)

Moldic • Isolated pores

Pore
• Low effective porosity

Calcite • Low permeability

Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light

Blue areas are pores.
Smackover Formation, Alabama (Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE
Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores • Combination pore system

• Moldic pores formed through

dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)

• Connected pores

Moldic • High effective porosity

Pore
• High permeability
Thin section micrograph
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
 Some void spaces become isolated due to excessive
cementation thus many void spaces are interconnected
cementation, thus many void spaces are interconnected and
others are isolated.
 This leads to the following classification:
1) Absolute (total) porosity
2) Effective porosity
 Absolute porosity is the ratio between the total pore volume
(interconnected pores and isolated ones) and the bulk volume:

 Effective porosity is the ratio between the interconnected pore

volume and the bulk volume:
 Effective porosity indicates the percentage of the total volume
of reservoir rock where the void space is connected by flow
channels.
 If the porosity of a rock sample was determined by saturating
the rock sample 100% with a fluid of known density and then
determining, by weighing, the increased weight due to the
saturating fluid, what would this yield?
 If the porosity of a rock sample was determined by saturating
the rock sample 100% with a fluid of known density and then
determining, by weighing, the increased weight due to the
saturating fluid, what would this yield?

Effective porosity measurement

 If the rock sample were crushed with a mortar and pestle to
determine the actual volume of the solids in the core sample,
what would this yield?
 If the rock sample were crushed with a mortar and pestle to
determine the actual volume of the solids in the core sample,
what would this yield?

Absolute porosity measurement

 Isolated Void Space
 This sandstone would not be an acceptable reservoir rock,
regardless of the value of its porosity and the hydrocarbon
saturations, because each void is isolated from the other void
spaces.
 This sandstone has
a high absolute porosity
but a zero effective porosity
 Interconnected Void Space
 This sandstone would be an acceptable
reservoir rock because of the interconnected
pore spaces and hydrocarbon saturation.
 This sandstone has a high
absolute porosity and
a high effective porosity
 Total porosity, t = Total Pore Volume
 Effective porosity, e = Bulk Volume

Interconnected Pore Space

Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity – of great importance;
contains the mobile fluid
 Very clean sandstones : e  t

 Poorly to moderately well -cemented

intergranular materials: t  e

 Highly cemented materials and most

carbonates: e < t
1. Core samples (measure two of: Vb, Vp, or Vm)
- RCA
-SCAL
2. Openhole wireline logs
MATRIX DENSITIES (ΡM) OF TYPICAL PURE
COMPONENTS OF RESERVOIR ROCK
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
 Known or assumed matrix density
 Accurate only if matrix density is known and not assumed
 Core samples are often mixtures of several components with varying
matrix densities, so density must be measured
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)

• Assumed matrix (grain) density
• Displacement method
• Boyles Law

(Vp)
3. Pore volume
 MATRIX VOLUME FROM
DISPLACEMENT METHOD

 Reduce sample to particle size

 Measure matrix volume of particles by
 Volumetric method
 Archimedes method (gravimetric measurement)
CALCULATE THE POROSITY OF A CORE SAMPLE
USING THE DISPLACEMENT METHOD AND MATRIX
VOLUME
The core sample from previous example was stripped of the
paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a container
with liquid. The volume of liquid displaced by the grains was 7.7
cm3. Calculate the matrix volume and the core porosity. Is
this effective porosity or total porosity? (It is total porosity)

Bulk Volume, Vb = 9.9 cm3

Matrix Volume, Vma = 7.7 cm3

Vp Vb  Vma = 9.9 cm3 – 7.7 cm3 = 0.22 or 22%
Porosity    
Vb Vb 9.9 cm3
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)

• Assumed matrix (grain) density
• Displacement method
• Boyles Law (Gas Expansion)

(Vp)
3. Pore volume
 MATRIX VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

 Involves compression of gas into pores

 Uses Boyle’s law

p1 V1  p2 V2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA

 Initial conditions, with volumes of 2 cells known

 Place core in second cell, evacuate gas (air) from second cell

 Open valve
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
Initial conditions
P1

V1 Core

Valve Evacuate
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA
P1 Final conditions
P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE VMA

 Vf = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2 - Matrix Volume of Core

 Vt = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2

 Vm = Vt - Vf
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
 Displacement method - Very accurate when
core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
 Gas expansion method - Very accurate,
especially for samples with low porosities

Neither method requires a prior knowledge of

core properties
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)
3. Pore volume (Vp)
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)

Vp = Wsat - Wdry
fluid

2. Boyle’s Law:
• (Gas expansion)

p1 V1  p2 V2
 PORE VOLUME FROM
SATURATION METHOD
 Measures the difference between the weight of a core sample
saturated with a single fluid and the dry weight of the core

 Pore volume,

Wsat  Wdry
Vp 
f
ARCHIMEDES METHOD OF
CALCULATING
POROSITY A CORE SAMPLE

Using the gravimetric method with the following data,

calculate the pore and bulk volumes and the porosity. Is
this porosity total or effective?

Dry weight of sample, Wdry = 427.3 g

Weight of sample saturated with water, Wsat = 448.6 g

Density of water (f ) = 1.0 g/cm3

Weight of saturated sample submerged in water, Wsub =

269.6 g
ARCHIMEDES METHOD OF CALCULATING
POROSITY A CORE SAMPLE

Wsat – Wdry = 448.6 – 427.3 g

Vp = f = 21.3 cm3
1.0 g/cm3

Wsat – Wsub 448.6 – 269.6 g

Vb = f = = 179.0 cm3
1.0 g/cm3

Vp
Porosity   
21.3 cm3
= = 0.12 or 12%
179.0 cm3
Vb
 APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY
OF PORE VOLUME
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Saturation (Archimedes) method
 Accurate in better quality rocks if effective pore
spaces can be completely saturated
 In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely
saturate sample
 Saturating fluid may react with minerals in the
core (e.g., swelling clays)
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Wsat - Wdry
Vp = fluid

2. Boyle’s Law:
• (Gas expansion)
p1 V1  p2 V2
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD
Initial conditions

P1

V1 Core

Valve
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

Final conditions
P1

P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
 SUMMARY

To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume
 use in determining the original hydrocarbon volume in place.
 In case of large variation in the porosity vertically and no or small
variation horizontally or parallel to the planes, then the arithmetic
average or thickness-weighted average porosity is used:

 Due to the change in sedimentation or depositional conditions Due

to the change in sedimentation or depositional conditions can
cause porosity in one portion of the reservoir to be greatly different
from that in another area, so the areal-weighted average or the
volume-weight average can be used:
CORES
 Allow direct measurement of reservoir
properties
 Used to correlate indirect measurements, such
as wireline/LWD logs
 Used to test compatibility of injection fluids
 Used to predict borehole stability
 Used to estimate probability of formation
failure and sand production
 SOME KEY FORMULAS

Vp Vb  Vma
Porosity  φ  
Vb Vb
V V V
b m p

V   (V )
p b

V  (1   )(V )
m b

m  (  )(V )