ISSN 10757007, Studies on Russian Economic Development, 2015, Vol. 26, No. 4, pp. 403–412. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.

, 2015.
Original Russian Text © S.V. Podkoval’nikov, V.A. Savel’ev, L.Yu. Chudinova, 2015.

FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS

Prospects of ElectricEnergy Cooperation

Between Russia and Northeast Asian Countries
S. V. Podkoval’nikov, V. A. Savel’ev, and L. Yu. Chudinova
Melentiev Energy Systems Institute, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Lermontovskaya ul., 130, Irkutsk, 664033 Russia
email: spodkovalnikov@isem.sei.irk.ru
Received April 17, 2014; in final form November 28, 2014

Abstract—The article shows trends in the development of interstate electrical connections and interconnec
tions around the world and potential energyeconomic effects of their creation. The current situation and
problems of the functioning of the electricpower industry in northeast Asian countries, including eastern
regions of Russia, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mongolia, and the Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea, and their potential role in formation of interstate power interconnection in the region has been ana
lyzed. The potential directions and projects of transboundary power transmission between national and local
electric energy systems of these countries have been shown. The role of renewable power sources (water, wind,
and solar energy) in the development of interstate electrical connections and interconnections, including the
Asian Super Grid interconnection, is analyzed.
DOI: 10.1134/S1075700715040085

Purposes of integration and trends in the global
power industry. The uptodate development of the
power industry is marked by the incessant growth of
energy consumption in developed and, especially,
developing countries and regions. The satisfaction of
growing need for fuel and electric energy is causing
increasing difficulties. This is related to the depletion
of domestic stocks of organic fuel and water power in
developed countries due to their heavy use, the growing
differentiation of countries by natural energy resource
endowment, and environmental problems. The situation
is accentuated by nuclear energy development morato
rium in certain countries. As consequence, the trade of
international energy resources (crude oil, natural and liq
uefied gas, coal, nuclear fuel, and electric energy) is
expanding, and pipe, rail, and maritime transport sys
tems are developing.
The development of interstate electrical connec
tions and the extension of the electric energy trade are
carried out by constructing transboundary power
transmission lines (TPTLs). The purposes of these
TPTLs can be differentiated for border trade, export
ing electric energy from specially constructed plants,
and connecting national or local electric energy sys
tems (EESs) of neighboring countries for networking
(or parallel operation). As a rule, they include overhead
and cable DC transmissions or AC power transmission
lines with DC converting stations (links). In the process
of connecting EESs for networking interstate electric
energy interconnections (IEEIs) are formed. Nowadays,
there are no regions in the world where these IEEIs do
not exist or their creation is not planned [1]. IEEI is the
technical and technological infrastructure of interna
tional electric energy markets; i.e., the development of
their institutional framework and regulatory base leads to
the creation of common electric energy space of appro
priate regions.
The largest global IEEI are Eastern and Western Grid
in the United States, ENTSOE (European network of
transmission system operators for electricity) in
Europe, IPS/UPS of CIS and Baltic countries, the
interconnection of MERCOSUR countries in South
America and SAARC countries in Central Asia, etc.
[1]. As a model of common electric energy area can
serve the electrical energy complex of the European
Union. The functions of its legislative and coordinat
ing body are fulfilled by European Energy Commis
sion, and development management and functioning
are coordinated by ENTSOE.
The formation of IEEI as unified technical systems
and the creation of common electric energy space
enables one to obtain a wide range of integrated (syn
ergistic) effects, ranging from energyeconomic to
political characteristics[1, 2]. In general, these include
mutually advantageous electric energy trade, the
enhancement of reliability and continuity of the power
supply, improved use of power plants of various types at
the interconnection of EESs with different structures
of generating capacities, the utilization of the cheapest
conventional and renewable energy resources, the use
of the most effective equipment and clean technolo
gies, the possibility of joint power construction, and
the approval of generation and development in various
countries with regard to environmental problems.

403
404 PODKOVAL’NIKOV et al.

Sakhalin
Sea of Okhotsk
Russia
YuzhnoSakhalinsk

Irkutsk Sapporo
520 km Vladivostok Japan
Sea of Japan
Ulaanbaatar 430 km Tokyo
Shenyang North Korea
Mongolia 1130 km 215 km Republic 880 km
Dandong of Korea
745 km Osaka
Pyongyang Seoul
225 km
Beijing 550 km
Gobi Desert 610 km 215 km Fukuoka
1065 km Qingdao Pusan
Yinchuan
China East China Sea
Shanghai

Fig. 1. Panoramic sketch of the Asian Super Grid interconnection.

In addition, the formation of interstate intercon
nections may strengthen integrated effects becoming
apparent with increasing sizes of energy systems and
their interconnections, i.e. so called economies of
scale are observed [1–3]. This effect, along with
decreasing demand for installed capacities, is related
to the possibility to concentrate electric energy pro
duction due to the construction of power plants with
larger installed capacity, with larger units, as well as
electric power supply centralization by means of cre
ation of power transmission lines of higher voltage
with big transmission capacity and length of electric
energy transportation.
Implementation of these effects requires the cre
ation of unified strategic and operational authorities
united by national and local EES of cooperating coun
tries, as well as harmonization of laws and regulations
of this management. Conditions for this depend on
technical possibilities and energyeconomic feasibility
of construction of certain transboundary power trans
mission lines, as well as on the economic and energy
cooperation of the appropriate countries and political
environment in the region.
Initially, interstate electric energy interconnections
developed mainly on the limited territory of a couple
or a few countries. Over the course of time, they have
swept the regions. Nowadays, there is a tendency to
form interregional, continental, and intercontinental
IEEIs. These interconnections are also projected
across the Eurasian continent. There are proposals for
creation of Eurasian, South Asian, and other inter
connections [1–2; 4].
The extensive use of renewable energy resources,
i.e, wind, solar, and water, becomes an important fac
tor that promotes the creation of IEEIs and their
development in recent times, inter alia for the purpose
of overcoming of conventional energy resources deficit
and solution of environmental problems. As is known,
wind energy is actively developing in northern Europe
[5], mainly with seabased wind power plants. The
creation of solar complexes in order to export electric
energy to ENTSOE is planned at the territory of
Middle East and North Africa (DESERTEC project)
[5]. Wind and solarpower complexes (parks and
farms) are actively being constructed in China [6].
There are proposals for constructing these complexes
in the Gobi desert in Mongolia (Gobitec) with a focus
on electric energy export to other countries of north
east Asia and the formation of Asian Super Grid inter
connection on this basis (Fig. 1) [4].
The role of IEEIs as a factor in the extension of the
use of renewable energy sources (RES) lies in the cre
ation of conditions for overcoming the nonuniformity
of the energy generation of wind and solar power
plants in highenergy interconnections and for growth
in the scale of developing conventional environmen
tally friendly renewable energy.
In addition to the creation of interstate electrical
connections and interconnections and electric energy
trade, another important direction in the cooperation
in the world electricpower industry under the influ
ence of economic globalization is energy and electrical
equipment, as well as the trade of electricenergy
assets. Furthermore, scientific and technical links are
developing in this field.
Cooperation in the field of electricpower industry
provides the “growth of activity, predictability, and sta
bility of world power markets, the improvement of

STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Vol. 26 No. 4 2015

 PROSPECTS OF ELECTRICENERGY COOPERATION 405

Table 1. General characteristics of the electricpower industry in regions of Russia and countries of northeast Asia

People’s Russia
South Korea Japan MPR North Korea
Index Republic Siberia* Far East* (2013) (2012) (2012) (2012)
of China (2013) (2013) (2013)
Territory, mln sq. km 9598 5115 6169 99 373 1565 121
Population, mln ppl. 1357.4 19.3 6.3 50.0 127.6 2.8 24.8
Electric power consumption, TWh 5322.3 205.3 31.61 474.9 991.6 5.2 1.2
Ditto per capita, kWh/pers. 3921 10637 5017 9498 7771 1857 734
Electric energy production, TWh 5347.4 197.4 35.2 517.1 1094.0 5.2 21.5
Installed capacity of power plants, GW 1247.4 49.3 9.1 91.0 287.3 1.02 7.22
incl. TPP: 796.4 25.0 5.7 56.3 188.9 0.97 2.96
coal TPP 758.1 24.2 5.2 24.5 50.9 0.88 2.76
gas and fuel oil TPP 38.3 0.8 0.5 31.8 138.0 0.09 0.2
HPP 280.0 24.3 3.3 6.5 48.9 0.03 4.26
NPP 14.6 – – 20.7 46.1 – –
RES 86.8 – – 3.5 3.4 0.01 –
* Production and consumption of electric energy and installed capacity are given for Interconnected Energy Systems of Siberia and the
Far East, correspondingly.

investment climate in energy industry, effective energy
use and energy conservation, diversification energy
sources structure, the decrease of impact of electric
power industry on climate, and guaranteeing sustain
able social development” [4].
Conditions of cooperation between countries of
Northeast Asia in the field of the electricpower indus
try. The development of interstate cooperation in elec
tricpower industry is still in the initial stage.
Nowadays, in this area, there are separate trans
boundary power transmission lines with a predomi
nant voltage of 110–220 kV and with transmission
capacity of 100–150 MW for border electricenergy
trade. These TPTLs exist between Russia and Mongo
lia, Russia and China, and China and North Korea [1,
2]. In 2011, the export TPTL Amurskaya substation
(Russia)–Heihe substation (People’s Republic of
China) with a voltage of 500 kV and a transmission
capacity of 750 MW with a DC link was built.
At the same time, since the early 1990s, there have
been studies of the efficiency and prospects of TPTL
construction, and electrical connections between certain
countries and the formation of regional IEEI in north
east Asia [1, 3, 7–12]. Research institutes of Russia,
including Melentiev Energy Systems Institute, the Sibe
rian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Republic of Korea, the People’s Republic of China,
Japan, Mongolia, and other countries, as well as Asia
Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC) in Tokyo
(Japan) participate in these studies, which are financed
by state budgets of the Russian Federation and Republic
of Korea, as well as the World Bank, Skolkovo Institute of
Science and Technology, and Russian holding compa
nies (Evrosibenergo, InterRAO EES, and RusHydro).
The prospects of development of international
cooperation and integration in the electricpower
industry in northeast Asia are conditioned by the dif
ferences in endowment of the countries with domestic
natural energy resources and in the level of their use,
different demand for these resources and final energy
carriers, as well as acuteness of environmental prob
lems in individual countries of the region.
The general characteristics of electricpower
industry in the eastern regions of Russia and countries
in northeast Asia in 2012–2013 are shown in Table 1.
Table 2 shows conventional endowment of these
countries with natural energy resources. As for fossil
fuel, presented data are related to the proven recover
able stocks [13–16, etc.].
As seen from these tables, the leading role in the
electricpower industry in northeast Asia belongs to
the People’s Republic of China. With regard to the con
sumption growth rates of electrical energy and the
degree of development of this sector, China greatly
exceeds many countries and, in electric energy pro
duction, it has been a world leader since 2011.
The People’s Republic of China has considerable
stocks of natural energy resources, including coal,
water, oil, and gas. However, coal (87.4% of total
potential) prevails in the structure of these stocks. The
share of hydropower is 9.5%, while that of oil is 2.8%.
There are large stocks of offshore gas, but they are not
currently used because they are inaccessible. Wind and
solar energy have the greatest potential.

STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Vol. 26 No. 4 2015

406 PODKOVAL’NIKOV et al.

Table 2. Endowment of regions of Russia and countries of northeast Asian with energy resources
People’s Russia
Index Republic ROK Japan MPR
of China Siberia* Far East*

Stocks of coal, billion tons 114.5 153.8 20.2 0.126 0.350 21.5
Stocks of conventional oil, billion tons 2.5 3.5 1.0 – 0.006 0.206
Stocks of conventional gas, trillion cubic meters 3.1 6.1 3.0 0.007 0.040 N/A
Technical potential of water energy resources, billion kWh 2474 757 684 26 136 9
Technical potential of wind energy, GW 2750 900 1200 60 1500 1100
Technical potential of solar energy, GW 2200 1100 1400 N/A 150 1500
* Within the boundaries of a Federal District.

The prevalence of coal in the structure of conven
tional natural energy resources has determined pre
dominantly coal orientation of the fuel and energy bal
ance of China. Nowadays, the share of coal in total
energy consumption is about 60%; it plays a vital role
in electric energy production. In 2010, the total capac
ity of coal thermal power plants reached 70% of the
total installed capacity in the country (Table 1). The
share of hydroelectric power plants was 21.8%, while
the share of nuclear power plants was only 1.1%. At the
same time, coal thermal power plants (TPP) provided
80% of total electric energy production in the country,
while and HPP provided 14%. The coal orientation of
Chinese energy industry will inevitably remain in the
foreseeable future [17, 18].
A serious consequence of this situation is cata
strophic environmental pollution with coal combus
tion byproducts, which is aggravated by road transport
emissions in cities and towns. That is why the topical
current problem for the People’s Republic of China is
the full reduction of CO2 emission and contaminants
of the atmosphere and bodies of water. In order to solve
this problem, China is planning to extend TPP construc
tion with aggregates with extra and ultra supercritical
steam parameters and to develop nuclear and renewable
energy (water, wind, and solar) [6]. By 2023, the share of
NPPs is expected to increase to 16.4% in the structure of
the generating capacities of the People’s Republic of
China; and RES and HPP share, up to 44% [4]. Further
more, it is planned to commission the main generating
capacities in highpower (dozens of GW) coal, wind, and
solar energy complexes on the territory of northern, north
eastern, and northwestern China.
It causes two interrelated problems. The first prob
lem is necessity to transport capacities of these com
plexes to the areas (eastern, central, and southern
China) that have significant and increasing demand
for electric energy, but poor energy resources. The sec
ond problem is to provide the effective use of stochas
tically nonuniform energy generation of wind and
solar power plants. In order to solve these problems,
these complexes should be connected to electric
energy systems with the appropriate capacity. This will
require the People’s Republic of China’s significantly
strengthen the national electric network to extra and
ultrahigh voltages of 500 and 1000 kV (AC) and of
±400, ±600, and ±800 kV (DC). The development of
electrical connections of national energy network of
China with inter connections of the eastern regions of
Russia and other countries may play a certain role in
the solution of these problems.
Thus, the extension of electrical connections with
the countries of northeast Asia, especially with Russia,
should be considered a key direction in the develop
ment of China’s electric energy industry. At the same
time, China’s shortterm energy policy will have a
direct impact on the conditions and possibilities of the
formation of interstate electric power interconnection
of countries of northeast Asian.
The Russian Federation also shows high interest in
developing interstate electrical connections with
countries of northeast Asia. Moreover, the export of
electric energy from eastern regions to neighboring
countries is often considered a factor that stimulates
the acceleration of the development of natural
resources on undeveloped territories, the strengthen
ing and extension of the power base, and the economic
development of these regions in general [3].
The export potential of Siberia and the Russian Far
East is determined by heavy stocks of conventional
energy sources, including coal, water energy, and nat
ural gas (Table 2). These reserves not only guarantee
the increased demands for fuel and electric energy, but
also sell fuel and electric energy to other countries, in
particular to East Asia. In turn, these countries express
interest in developing electrical connections with the
IPS of Siberia and IPS of the East, as well as the
receipt of the generation of ecologically clean electric
energy by HPP and, in prospect, by Tugurskaya tidal
power plant [3].
As mentioned above, electric energy is supplied
from Russia to northeastern provinces of People’s
Republic of China and to Mongolia, but on a relatively
small scale. In 2012 they amounted to 2.63 billion
kWh; and in 2013, 3.5 billion kWh.

STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Vol. 26 No. 4 2015

 PROSPECTS OF ELECTRICENERGY COOPERATION
Nevertheless, the further development of interstate
electrical connections between Russia and countries
of northeast Asian is restricted by internal and external
reasons.
First, construction of electric power facilities and
especially the creation of HPPs in eastern areas of
Russia are being carried out in remote and undevel
oped territories with severe climates. It requires the
creation of transport, power, and social infrastructure;
along with the cost of construction works, this signifi
cantly increases project expenditures. As a result, elec
tric energy export from Russian HPP is often non
competitive. Usually, it is only effective in the case of
the sale of electric energy overstock from functioning
power plants that do not require investments for
capacity developments. Thus, in the presence of inter
state electrical connections, it would be possible to sell
surplus electric energy from the newly commissioned
Boguchanskaya HPP.
Second, the creation of this infrastructure and the
development of natural resources in these regions
requires government support. So far, funds allocated
for these purposes have not been sufficient even to
implement small projects. Furthermore, exportori
ented coal, gas, and oil projects are implemented in
the first place.
Third, integrated effects in the case of the intercon
nection of EES of Russia and other countries of north
east Asian for networking significantly increase the
efficiency of transboundary power transmission lines
creation. The greatest effect can be achieved by means
of decreased the demand for generating capacities due
to variations in seasonality and time of the annual peak
load in eastern areas of Russia and in territories with
hot climates (South Korea, Japan, and a considerable
part of China) [1, 3].
The consequences of the accident in Fukushima1
NPP in Japan in March 2011 might have a serious
impact on the development of interstate electric con
nections in northeast Asia [4]. Until 2010, with regard
to the level of electricpower industry development,
this country ranked second in the region after China
(Table 1). At the same time, it came out on top in
northeast Asia by nuclear energy development. NPP
provided nearly one third of country’s electric energy
production, but 60% of its production fell on oil, gas
and coalbased power plants. This is why there is great
demand for coal imports from Russia and Australia, as
well as liquid gas and oil, predominantly from the
Middle East and South America. As a result, the coun
try’s electricpower industry faced two problems, i.e.
dependence on imported energy resources and the
negative environmental effects of the thermal electric
power. In order to mitigate these problems, the exten
sion of construction of NPP and power plants based
on renewable energy resources were planned.
This accident has fundamentally changed the situ
ation in the Japanese electricpower industry. Since
STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
407
2012, all nuclear power plants have been shut down.
The termination of this part of electricenergy pro
duction had to be compensated for by an additional
load of all thermal power plants in the country and sig
nificant growth of gas and oil import. As a conse
quence, the electric energy costs increased drastically.
Hence, in the country, a conflict developed between
the population, which strongly opposes NPP opera
tion because of real social and environmental threats,
and manufacturing enterprises, for which electric
energy costs have a significant impact on the compe
tiveness of their production in global markets.
Despite the population’s protests, Japanese spe
cialists have justified the need for persisting function
ing of nuclear power plants with a total capacity of
about 30 GW [17], with higher requirements to equip
ment reliability and reducing the risk of nuclear radia
tion. Due to the lack (for technical and economic rea
sons) of possibilities for wide development of renew
able energy in shortterm, the country will also have to
develop thermal electricpower industry keeping
organic fuel export. Under these conditions, it could
be possible to significantly improve environmental sit
uation with the development of interstate electrical
connections with neighboring countries and with
import of ecologically clean electric energy from Rus
sia and China. Various projects of transboundary
power transmission between Japan and these countries
are offered [4, 7–12], a comparison of which requires
additional studies.
The Republic of Korea (ROK), where electric
energy production per capita is higher than in other
countries of northeast Asian, has a very high level of
electricpower industry development. The structure of
generating capacities in ROK (Table 1) is analogous to
Japan. Besides, it has the same problems with energy
resources endowment, as island Japan.
The Republic of Korea shows interest in develop
ing electrical connections with Russia at the state level
[7]. Furthermore, as studies by the Melentiev Energy
Systems Institute Siberian Branch of the Russian
Academy of Sciences and KERI have shown, the
interconnection of East’s IPS and ROK’s EES is tech
nically feasible and very effective, especially for the
Korean part. However, the unstable political situation
on Korean Peninsula is a serious obstacle for it. The
above is also true of transboundary power transmis
sions with Northeast China.
The role of Mongolia in the development of the
interstate electrical connections in northeast Asia,
despite the relatively weak development of its electric
power industry (Table 1), is significant. Works in with
Russia in the field of electric power supply have been
in progress for a long time. The Gusinoozerskaya
TPP–Darhan–Ulaanbaatar line is functioning. Now
adays, MPR is actively developing its electric connec
tions with China. Through its territory could go a tran
sit power transmission line between Russia and Peo
Vol. 26 No. 4 2015
408 PODKOVAL’NIKOV et al.

Table 3. Potential interstate electrical connections between northeast Asia counties

Transmis Estimated
Direction of interstate Energy transmis
Length, km Voltage, kV sion capacity, cost, billion
electrical connections sion, TWh per year
GW USD
Russia–China
Bratsk–Ulaanbaatar–Beijing 2250 ±600 5–6 18 1.8
Bureiskaya HPP–Harbin 700 ±400 1.0 3 2.2
Project of largescale electric energy 3400* ±600 10* 60* 18*
export
Erkovetskaya TPP–Shenyang 1300 ±600 3.6 20 8.8
DC system Ust’–Ilimsk–Khabarovsk 5000 ±750 10.0 40 16.5
Russia–Korean Peninsula
Vladivostok–Chongjin 370 ±500 0.5 3 0.13
Vladivostok–Pyongyang–Seoul 1150 ±500 4.0 7 4.8
SouthYakutian HPP–Shenyang–Seoul 2400 ±750 5.0 20 10.5
Russia–Japan
Sakhalin–Hokkaido–Honshu 1850/1400** ±600 4/3 24 9.6
Sakhalin–Hokkaido 500/50** ±500/±400 4.0 24 6.7
Asian Super Grid
Gobitec–Mongolia, Russia, China, 7300 ±800 100* 200* 56.7*
Korea, Japan
* General figures of the project.
** Numerator shows the total length, denominator shows the length of the underwater cable.

ple’s Republic of China. In the case of the creation of
the Asian Super Grid, this country can play a defining
role in the formation of an IEEI of northeast Asian
countries [4].
A potential energy market for Russia and other
countries of the region is North Korea, which always
incurs a deficit of fuel and electric energy. However, so
far, the interrelations in the field of electric power have
been restricted for political and financial reasons.
Possible directions of interstate electrical connec
tions in the Northeast Asia. In the course of studies of
integration prospects in electricpower industry of
northeast Asian countries a number of projects of
development of interstate electrical connections and
formation of a regional interstate electric power inter
connection are under consideration [1–4, 7–12].
These projects are distinct in purposes of cooperation
(border trade, export of electric energy, and intercon
nection of national and local EES), electric energy
sources on sending end, directions, and technical per
formance of power transmission lines between cooper
ating countries.
Table 3 and Figs. 1–2 [3, 9] give a general idea of
the main projects of interstate electrical connections
in northeast Asia.
The data shown in Table 3 for the cost of certain
projects are preliminary. As a rule, they were obtained
at the preproject stage and at various times. Signifi
cant differences in these figures can be explained by
the fact that some projects are only related to trans
boundary power transmissions and other include
export power plants construction.
Let us turn our attention to certain projects. First of
all, let us consider interstate electric connections
between Russia and China.
The project of Bratsk–Beijing transboundary
power transmission is focused on solving two tasks,
i.e., organizing the export of surplus power of func
tioning and new power plants in IPS of Siberia and its
interconnection with EES of North China with imple
menting integrated effects. The main project consists
of decreasing the commission of new generating
capacities in both EESs due to the variations in the
seasonality of annual peak load in a given EES.
According to the studies, the capacity effects
amounted to 9–11 GW, and investment savings upon
implementing the interconnection project were esti
mated at 6–7 billion USD [1].
Projects of TPTL Erkovetskaya TPP–Shenyang,
Bureiskaya HPP–Harbin, and South Yakutian HPP–
Shenyang are exports, and they suppose the construc
tion of exportoriented thermal power plants at the
edges of surface coal mines and HPPs, including the
SouthYakutian hydropower complex [3].
The project of largescale electricenergy exports
from Russia to China belongs to the largest export
thermalpower projects [3]. According to the agree
ment of 2005 between RAO UES of Russia and the

STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Vol. 26 No. 4 2015

 PROSPECTS OF ELECTRICENERGY COOPERATION
Russia
Yakutsk
Ust’Ilimsk
Krasnoyarsk
Irkutsk UlanUde
Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia
Beijing
China
Fig. 2. Possible directions of transboundary power transmission lines in northeast Asia.
State Grid Corporation of People’s Republic of
China, it was supposed to construct in Transbaikalia
and Amur oblast, several coal thermalpower plants
with a total capacity of 10–11 GW, and the appropri
ate AC/DC power transmission lines at the territories
of Russia and People’s Republic of China (Table 3)
with final export volumes up to 60 billionkWh of elec
tric energy. The first stage of the project is mostly fin
ished; currently, this enables IPS of the East to sell up
to 3.5 billion kWh electric energy per year to the south
east provinces of China. However, the implementation
of subsequent stages has been ceased due to costs. As for
the actions stipulated by this project, it now remains possi
ble to complete construction of the Erkovetskaya TPP in
Amur oblast with a capacity of 3000 MW with transport of
20 billion kWh electric power to Shenyang by DC power
transmission line with voltage of ±600 kV by 2025.
As an alternative to thermal power projects of inter
state electrical connections between Russia and coun
tries of northeast Asian, projects somehow related to
the use of new, functioning Siberian and FarEastern
hydro power plants are considered [1, 3].
Currently, as a rule, Russia sells electric energy of
Bureiskaya HPP from IPS of the East to the People’s
Republic of China. A number of projects of electric
energy transfer from IPS of Siberia to China are
largely oriented at utilizing excessive seasonal produc
tion by HPPs of the Angara–Yenisei cascade (Table 3).
New HPPs, the construction of which can be related
to the creation of interstate electrical connections with
EESs of East Asian countries, include Mokskaya HPP
with its counterregulator and Ivanovskaya HPP in IPS
of Siberia, as well as Kankunskaya and Nizh
STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
409
Sakhalin
Khabarovsk
Vladivostok
North Korea
Pyongyang
Tokyo
Seoul
Republic
of Korea Japan
netimptonskaya HPP in South Yakutian hydropower
complex (Table 4) in the IPS of the East.
Among exportoriented projects, there is construc
tion of the Tugurskaya tidal power plant [3]. In partic
ular, it is a base of the DC system Ust’Ilimskaya
HPP–Khabarovsk project [3]. This project suggests
that the abruptly variable energy generation of this
tidal plant is flattened by the capacities of relatively
cheap additional aggregates of functioning Bratskaya,
Ust’Ilimskaya, Zeiskaya, Bureiskaya, and the future
Mokskaya and SredneUchurskaya HPP. This will
enable one to concentrate over 70 TWh of ecologically
clean electric energy to provide Siberian and Far
Eastern consumers and to export it to any East Asian
country.
The conducted studies have shown that connection
of the IPS of the East with the energy system of the
Republic of Korea, i.e., Vladivostok–Pyongyang–Seoul
TPTL, is most effective. Compared with other projects of
interstate electrical connections in northeast Asia
(Table 3), this project is the most developed. The Melen
tiev Energy Systems Institute Siberian Branch of the Rus
sian Academy of Sciences and KERI studies [1, 8–9] jus
tified not only the feasibility and efficiency, but also the
technical capabilities of creating this connection. The eco
nomic effect of the project will reach 14 billion USD in
investments and nearly 2 billion USD in annual
expenditures. Furthermore, the yearly economic ben
efit for Russia can reach 450 million USD [10].
High efficiency of this project at the maneuver
mode of transboundary power transmission can be
explained by sufficient possible saving of generating
capacities (8 GW) due to the variation in seasonality of
Vol. 26 No. 4 2015
410 PODKOVAL’NIKOV et al.

Table 4. Export waterpower projects of Eastern Siberia and the Far East
Longterm annual aver Estimated
Location, Installed
Project title age electric energy pro cost, billion
(region, river) capacity, MW
duction, TWh USD
Mokskaya and Ivanovskaya Buryatia, Vitim river 1421 7.8 3.5
SouthYakutian hydropower Republic of Sakha, basin 9050 39.0 27
complex, totally of the Lena river
Incl.:
Kankunskaya Timpton River 1200 4.9
Nizhne Timptonskaya '' 930 3.8
Sredne Uchurskaya Uchur River 3330 15.0
Uchurskaya '' 360 2.2
Verkhnealdanskaya Aldan River 1000 4.5
Olekminskaya Olekma River 2000 7.6
NizhneOlekminskaya '' 230 1.0
Tugurskaya tidal Sea of Okhotsk 5120–6800 16.1–18.5 11–14

occurrence of annual peak load. An important role in
the implementation of this effect can play the func
tioning Zeiskaya and Bureiskaya HPP in Amur energy
system. However, the implementation of the project
and safe TPTL operation requires the solution of
political problems on Korean Peninsula and the cre
ation of conditions for strong economic and technical
partnership between Russia and the ROK.
Nowadays, a topical problem is exporting electric
energy from Russia to Japan. The idea of this project
of Sakhalin–Hokkaido–Honshu transboundary
power transmission appeared as early as in the 1990s.
It was supposed to build exportoriented TPP (the first
stage consisted of Solntsevskaya coal plant with a
capacity of 4 GW and the second stage consisted of
Vakhrushevskaya combined cycle power plant) and the
Sakhalin–Sapporo–Tokyo DC power transmission
line with a voltage of ±400 kV with a length of 1600 km
with two underwater cable ducts through La Perouse
Strait with a length of 50 km and through Tsugaru
Strait with a length of 40 km [10].
As an alternative to this project, the project of an
energy bridge between Russia and Japan was proposed
[11]. It supposed the construction of a combined cycle
power plant on Sakhalin with a capacity of 4 GW,
aerialcable DC power transmission line with a voltage
of ±600 kV with a length of 1800 km (1400 km of
underwater cable) from Sakhalin to Honshu, and con
verting substations in Sakhalin with a capacity of
4 GW, Hokkaido with a capacity of 1 GW, and Honshu
with a capacity of 3 GW. The extension of this TPTL
to Khabarovsk would enable to unite IPS of East and
EES of Japan and obtain the effect of variations in
times of the annual peak load in these systems.
According to the studies, it would cause a power effect
of 1.6 GW and investment savings of 1 billion USD
[12]. A longerterm project is oriented toward export
ing the capacity and electric energy of SouthYakutian
HPP and Tugurskaya tidal plant to Japan (Fig. 2).
However, so far, these projects have been very expen
sive because they are both long term and the under
water cable covers a long distance.
Now the initial project is revived, but with certain
changes [19]. It supposes the construction of export
oriented power plants in Sakhalin (at the first stage, two
coal plants with a capacity of 1050–1200 MW near the
settlement of Nikol’sk in Uglegorsk raion; at the second
stage, a combined cycle plant with a capacity of 800 MW
at the south of the island), AC power transmission line at
the territory of Sakhalin, and DC power transmission
line through La Perouse Strait with a converting substa
tion in the northern part of energy system of Hokkaido
Island. This project is actively supported by the authori
ties of neighboring regions of Russia and Japan.
An alternative direction of electrical connections
between Russia and Japan is the construction of a
TPTL through China and countries of Korean Penin
sula. However, the implementation of this project is
hindered by the abovementioned problems in the
Korean Peninsula.
Lately, among other possible areas of interstate
electrical connections in northeast Asia, the transpor
tation of electric energy from the wind and solar energy
complex in the Gobi Desert is under consideration. This
project includes the creation of Gobitec complex with a
total capacity of 100 GW based on wind and solar power
plants (in equal proportion) and DC TPTL in order to
transport their energy generation to China, the Republic
of Korea, Japan, and Russia. The creation of these lines
will lead to the formation of interstate electric network
Asian Super Grid (Table 3 and Fig. 1) [4]. It is clear that
this project can be implemented in the long term and
with very high costs. Furthermore, the suggested prelim
inary arrangement of this interconnection requires seri
ous modification.

STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Vol. 26 No. 4 2015

 PROSPECTS OF ELECTRICENERGY COOPERATION
As the efficiency studies of IEEI formation in
northeast Asia first conducted by Melentiev Energy
Systems Institute Siberian Branch of the Russian
Academy of Sciences have shown, system effects
obtained as a consequence of the creation of this inter
connection amount to more than 24 billion USD per
year related to cost saving for IEEI functioning and
development (taking into account expenditures for
electric energy infrastructure), over 65 GW of installed
generating capacities saving, and nearly 80 billion
USD of investment saving. The fuel effect of the inter
connection reaches 10 billion USD per year. Further
more, the share of Russia in formation of these effects
is 30–40%.
Stages of the formation of interstate electric energy
interconnections in Northeast Asia. The creation of
interstate electric energy interconnections begins with
the construction of transboundary power transmission
lines [1] providing the joint functioning of national or
local energy systems of two or more rarely three coun
tries. Such power transmissions should function in
varying mode that enables to implement some of men
tioned in the beginning of this article synergistic
effects. As a comparison of expenditures for develop
ment and operation of EES of neighboring countries
in case of their interconnection and at their indepen
dent functioning shows, these electric connections are
especially effective. The examples are Bratsk–Ulaan
baatar–Beijing and Vladivostok–Pyongyang–Seoul
TPTLs, which connect energy systems with different
seasons of the occurrence of the annual peak load.
However, at the first stage, the crucial role belongs, not
to economic factors, but rather to the political situa
tion and the readiness of countries, EES of which are
connected, to cooperation in the field of statutory reg
ulation in order to support their power security.
The formation and development of a regional
interstate interconnection of northeast Asian coun
tries as a unified whole according to the described plan
of NEAREST, Asian Super Grid, or any other plan
consist of several stages, the succession and duration
of which will depend on various conditions. At the
same time, as mentioned above, the efficiency and
technical capability of the formation of, e.g., NEAR
EST IEEI, is confirmed by Melentiev Energy Systems
Institute and KERI studies [1, 7–8].
It should be mentioned that the efficiency of the
development of interstate electrical connections in
various countries depends significantly on the level of
development of their electricpower industry and sizes
of connected energy systems. In this regard, EES of
eastern regions of Russia (Table 1) are behind the most
developed East Asian countries such as China, the
Republic of Korea, and Japan. The efficiency of inter
state electrical connections for our country can
increase in the case of the creation of Eurasian inter
connection.
STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
411
However, in the near term, the IPS of Siberia and
East with a glance to their geographic position are des
tined to play an important role in the formation and
the development of the electric grid infrastructure of
IEEIs in northeast Asia.
The extension of interstate electrical connections
has an effect on the development of energy systems of
eastern regions of our country, primarily due to the
creation of conditions for the more comprehensive
utilization of power resources, the development of
installed capacities of certain power plants, and the
use of higherpower, more ecologically and economi
cally effective generating equipment produced in
countries of northeast Asian.
The extension of directions and the improvement
of tools for cooperating in the electricpower industry
in Russia and countries of northeast Asian have
important general economic significance.
CONCLUSIONS
The aforementioned means that the extension of
interstate electrical connections between eastern areas
of Russia and countries of East Asia is one of the major
problems of the prospective development of electric
power industry in our country. At the same time, a spe
cial role will be played by the use of renewable energy
resources, i.e., water, wind, and solar power. At the
same time, the solution of this problem faces signifi
cant difficulties.
On one hand, there are favorable energyeconomic
premises in the development of interstate electrical
connections between certain countries and creation of
an interstate electric power interconnection in north
east Asia. On the other hand, the possibilities of their
formation in the short term are limited due to formi
dable political and economic obstacles, including the
global economy stagnation.
Against this background, the task of energy policy
in the east of Russia is the promotion of energy coop
eration with countries of northeast Asian. The projects
of transboundary power transmission between IPS of
Siberia and the East and power systems of the north
and northeast provinces of China, Japan, and the
Republic of Korea are the most elaborated and have
the most favorable conditions for their implementa
tion. Some of them will seemingly be implemented in
the first place.
REFERENCES
1. L. S. Belyaev, S. V. Podkoval’nikov, V. A. Savel’ev, and
L. Yu. Chudinova, Effektivnost’ mezhgosudarstvennykh
elektricheskikh svyazei (Efficiency of Interstate Electri
cal Connections), Novosibirsk: Nauka, 2008 [in Rus
sian].
2. Yu. Kucherov, O. Kucherova, L. Kapoii, and
Yu. Rudenko, Nadezhnost’ i effektivnost' funktsioniro
vaniya bol’shikh transnatsional’nykh EES (Reliability
Vol. 26 No. 4 2015
412 PODKOVAL’NIKOV et al.
and Efficiency of Functioning of Big Transnational
EES, Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1996 [in Russian].
3. Vostochnyi vektor energeticheskoi strategii Rossii. Sovre
mennoe sostoyanie, vzglyad v budushchee (Eastern Vec
tor of Russian Energy Strategy. Current State and
Prospection), Novosibirsk: Geo, 2011 [in Russian].
4. S. Mano, B. Ovgor, Z. Samadov, et al., Gobitec and
Asian Super Grid for Renewable Energies in Northeast
Russia. 2014. http://www.encharter.org/filead
min/user_upload/Publications/Gobitec_and_the_Asian_
Supergrid_2014_ENG.pdf
5. H. Bahar and J. Sauvage, CrossBorder Trade in Elec
tricity and the Development of RenewablesBased
Electric Power: Lesson from Europe.
http://search.oecd.org/officialdocuments/public
displaydocumentpdf/?cote=COM/TAD/ENV/JW
PTE(2012)20/ FINAL&docLanguage=En
6. W. Chandler, Ch. Shiping, H. Twin, L. Ruosida, and
W. Yanjia, China’s Future Generation. Assessing the
Maximum Potential for Renewable Power Sources in
China to 2050. http://awsassets.panda.org /down
loads/chinas_future_generation_report_final__1_.pdf
7. Interconnection in APEC Region. Current Status &
Future Potential, Tokyo: Asia Pacific Energy Research
Center, 2000.
8. J. Y. Yoon, D. W. Park, and H. Y. Kim, The PreFeasi
bility Results of NEAREST Between the RK, and the
North Korea, and RF, in Proceeding of 6th International
Conference  Asian Energy Cooperation: Forecast and
Realities ( Irkutsk, Russia), 2008, September, nos. 7–
11.
9. L. S. Belyaev, Kh. E. Kim, T. Kh. Lyu, S. V. Podk
oval’nikov, and Dzh. E. Yun, Comprehensive Assess
ment of Interstate Electrical Connections in northeast
Asia, in Energetika Rossii v XXI veke: strategiya
razvitiya  vostochnyi vektor. Energeticheskaya kooper
atsiya v Azii: Chto posle krizisa? Sb. dokladov ob"edinen
nogo simpoziuma 30 avgusta–3 sentyabrya 2010 g.
(Energy Industry in Russia in 21 Century: Develop
ment Strategy–Eastern Vector. Energy Cooperation in
Asia: PostCrisis Situation. Book of Reports of Joint
Symposium of August 30–September 3, 2010), Irkutsk:
Melentiev Energy Systems Institute SN RAS, 2010 [in
Russian].
10. L. S. Belyev, L. Yu. Chudinova, O. V. Khamisov, et al.
Power Integration in northeast Asia: Stadies and Pros
STUDIES ON RUSSIAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
pects, in Proceeding of the 2th Conference on Energy
Integration in northeast Asia, Irkutsk: ISEM, 2001.
11. L. A. Koscheev, Y. N. Kucherov, N. Sakemi, and
K. Natori, RussiaJapan Power Bridge, in Proceeding of
International Conference on Energy Integration in north
east Asia, Irkutsk, 2000.
12. S. V. Podkovalnikov and N. I. Voropai, Electric Power
Cooperation and Trading in Asia Pacific Region: Rus
sian View. http://aperc.ieej.or.jp/file/2013/3/22/S32
1_Prof._Nikolai_Voropai.pdf.
13. World Energy Resources. 2013 Survey.
http://www.worldenergy.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/
09/Complete_WER_2013_Survey.pdf
14. BP Statistical Review of World Energy. June 2014.
http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/excel/Energy
Economics/statisticalreview2014/BPStatistical_
Review_of_world_energy_2014_workbook.xlsx.
15. On State and Use of Mineral Resources in the Russian
Federation in 2012. State Report.
http://www.mnr.gov.ru/upload/iblock/7e9/pekymlop
kidwolgdsu%201.rar.
16. Gosudarstvennyi balans zapasov poleznykh iskopaemykh
Rossiiskoi Federatsii na 1 yanvarya 2012 goda (State
Balance of Natural Resources Stocks in the Russian
Federation as of January 1, 2012). Moscow: Minister
stvo Prirodnykh Resursov i Ekologii Rossiiskoi Feder
atsii, Federal’noe agentstvo po nedropol’zovaniyu,
Rossiiskii Federal’nyi geologicheskii fond, 2012, no. 91
[in Russian].
17. Y. Hou and J. Zhong, Challenges Ahead. Current Sta
tus & Future Prospects for Chinise Energy, IEEE Power
& Energy, 2012, vol.10, no. 3.
18. Strategic Energy Plan. http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/
en/category/others/basic_ plan/pdf/4th_strategic_
energy_plan.pdf
19. Sakhalin has become our near Europe… Agency of gas
ification and infrastructure development of Sakhalin
oblast. Cited March 14, 2014. URL: hppt:gas.admsath
lin.ru /page.pgp?news=101
Podkoval’nikov, Sergei Viktorovich,
Cand. Sci. (Tech.), head of laboratory
Savel’ev, Vladimir Aleksandrovich,
senior researcher
Chudinova, Lyudmila Yur’evna,
Cand. Sci. (Tech.), senior researcher
Translated by E. Bataeva
Vol. 26 No. 4 2015