VITAMINS

VITAMINS
Vitamins (vita = life) are potent organic compounds needed in minute amounts for growth
and good health. Unlike other organic nutrients, vitamins are not used for energy and do not
serve as building blocks, but they are crucial in helping the body use those nutrients that do.
Without vitamins, all the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats we eat would be useless.

PROVITAMINS
Provitamins are substance that may be converted within the body to a vitamin. Most vitamins
are not made in the body, so we must ingest them in foods or vitamin supplements. The body
can assemble some vitamins if the raw materials, called provitamins, are provided.
For example, vitamin A is produced by the body from the provitamin beta-carotene, a
chemical present in yellow vegetables such as carrots and in dark green vegetables such as
spinach.
Vitamins are found in all major food groups, but no one food contains all the required
vitamins. A balanced diet is the best way to ensure a full vitamin complement.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
Vitamins are divided into two main groups:
 Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose
tissues and hence are called fat-soluble vitamins.
 Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and
cannot be stored in our bodies as they pass with the water in urine. These vitamins must
be supplied to our bodies with regular diets.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMIN VS WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN
Differences Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble
vitamins
Solubility Soluble in fats and organic Water soluble.
solvents.

Digestion & Absorption Requires fat and bile. Easily absorbed in

intestine.

Transport May require protein Travel freely.

carriers.

Storage Stored in the cells Not stored in the body

associated with fats. except vitamin B12.

Excretion Via faeces. Via urine.

Toxicity An overdose can lead to Usually not toxic as it is

toxicity. readily excreted when
given in excess.
Composition Only of carbon, hydrogen With carbon, hydrogen and
and oxygen. oxygen they also contain
nitrogen, sulphur or cobalt.
Requirements Needed in periodic doses Needed in frequent doses
(perhaps weeks or even (perhaps 1 to 3 days).
months).

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF VITAMINS

1. Vitamins are essential for growth, maintenance and reproduction. However, they are
not used for energy production.
2. Fat soluble vitamins are required for normal color vision, blood clotting, bone
formation and maintenance of membrane structure.
3. Most of the water soluble vitamins function as coenzymes or prosthetic groups of
several enzymes involved in carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism etc.
4. Vitamins A and D act as steroid hormones.
5. Deficiency of fat soluble vitamins produce night blindness, skeletal deformation,
hemorrhages and hemolysis.
6. Deficiency of water soluble vitamins produce beriberi, glossitis, pellagra, microcytic
anemia, megaloblastic anemia and scurvy.
7. Some vitamin analogs are used as drugs. For example folic acid analogs are used as
anticancer agents and antibiotics.
8. Moderate consumption of some vitamins is found to decrease occurrence or severity
of some diseases. For example carotenes, Vitamin E and Vitamin D consumption at
moderate level reduces incidence of cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
 9. Consumption of vitamin C in significant amounts reduces severity of cold. They slow
down ageing process also. However, excessive consumption of fat soluble vitamins
leads to toxicity.
10. Vit B12, Folic acid and Vit B6 are beneficial to coronary artery disease patients. They
lower plasma homocysteine levels.

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN A

CHEMISTRY
They are retinol (Vitamin A alcohol), retinal (Vitamin A aldehyde) and retinoic acid
(Vitamin A acid).
They are composed of β-ionine ring (methyl substituted cyclohexenyl ring) and side
chain containing two isoprene units with four conjugated double bonds.
Due to the presence of double bonds in isoprenoid side chain vitamin A exhibits cis-
trans (geometric) isomerism.
Due to the presence of 4 double bonds vitamin A can be oxidized by air or light
slowly.
In nature vitamin A occurs in two forms.
• Retinol esters -In the foods of animal origin.
• Carotenes - In plant foods as provitamin.

CH3 CH3
H3C CH3

R = CH2OH = Retinol
Conjugated double bond R = CHO = Retinal
CH3
R = COOH = Retinoic acid

B-Ionine ring

SOURCES
1. Animal sources.
Marine fish oils like halibut liver oil, cod liver oil and shark liver oils are
excellent sources. Liver of sheep or goat is also excellent source. Butter, egg,
and milk are good sources. Freshwater fish contain Vitamin A2
(dehydroretinol) which is only 40% active.
2. Plant sources. In plant foods vitamin A is present as carotenes. Plant oil like red palm
oil is excellent source.
 Leafy vegetables. Coriander leaves, curry leaves, spinach and cabbage are
good sources.
Yellow vegetables. Carrot, pumpkin and sweet potato and ripe tomatoes also
contain appreciable amounts of vitamin A.
Fruits. Yellow pigmented fruits papaya, mango, jackfruit, banana and oranges
also contain vitamin A in good amounts.

DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 700mcg
Adult male: 900 mcg

ABSORPTION OF VITAMIN A
Beta carotene is cleaved by a dioxygenase to form retinal. The retinal is reduced to
retinol by an NADH or NADPH dependent retinal reductase present in the intestinal
mucosa. Intestine is the major site of absorption.
The absorption is along with other fats and requires bile salts. In biliary tract
obstruction and steatorrhea, vitamin A absorbed is reduced.
Within the mucosal cell, the retinol is reesterified with fatty acids, incorporated into
chylomicrons and transported to liver. In the liver stellate cells, vitamin is stored as
retinol palmitate.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN A
The three major retinoids: retinal, retinol and retinoic acid have unique functions.
1. Retinal is required for normal and color vision.
2. Retinol is required for reproduction and growth.
3. Retinol is required for differentiation and function as steroid hormone.
4. Retinoic acid is required for the synthesis of glycoproteins or mucopolysaccharides.
5. Retinoic acid also act as steroid hormone. It also promote growth and differentiation.
6. Retinol and retinoic acid are involved in regulation of gene expression.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN A
Visual problem
1. Night blindness: Inability to see in dim light.
2. Conjunctival Xerosis: Conjunctiva becomes dry and non-wettable.
3. Bitot's spots: Triangular, pearly-white or yellowish foamy spots on the bolbular
conjunctiva.
4. Corneal xerosis: The cornea appears dull, dry and non wettable and in more
advanced corneal ulceration.
5. Keratomalacia: The cornea may become soft and may burst open.
 6. Corneal Ulcer: Keratomalacia can lead to perforation of the cornea and corneal ulcer
leading to permanent blindness.

Bit ot’s
spot Corneal Ulcer
Other Problem
1. Growth of bone and formation of tooth are defective. Thick and long bones are
formed.
2. Nerve growth also affected. Degeneration of myelin sheath occurs.
3. Keratinisation of mucous secreting epithelial cells (hyperkeratosis) lining respiratory
tract and reproductive tract occurs. Mucous secretion by salivary and lacrymal glands
is also affected.
4. Deposition of keratin in skin (xeroderma) gives rise to characteristic toad skin
appearance.
5. Reproductive disorders like testicular degeneration, resorption of fetus or fetal
malformation are observed.
6. Degenerative changes in kidneys.

VITAMIN D

CHEMISTRY
It is also called sunshine vitamins.
Its active forms are vitamin D2 (ergo calciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).
Calcitriol is the most active form of vitamin D that acts as steroid hormone.
They are formed from provitamins which are sterols.

SOURCES
Vitamin D is mostly present in
foods of animal origin.
Marine fish liver oils like halibut
liver oil, cod liver oil and shark
liver oil are good sources.
Sardines, egg yolk and butter
contains small amounts. However,
milk is a poor source of vitamin D,
Mushrooms contain small amounts
of vitamin D.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 2.5 mcg
Adult male: 2.5 mcg

ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

Dietary vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are absorbed in the small intestine in presence of
bile salts.
Absorbed Vit D is incorporated into chylomicrons and enters circulation via lymph.
Vitamin D is stored in liver and adipose tissue.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN D
1. Major action of calcitriol is to increase absorption of calcium and phosphate in the
intestine particularly in duodenum and jejunum.
2. Calcitriol is required for bone formation and mineralization of bone. It increases
synthesis of osteocalcin a calcium binding protein of bone. Osteocalcin is involved in
deposition of calcium salts in bone.
3. Calcitriol affects calcium and phosphorus excretion by kidney. It reduces the
excretion of calcium and phosphorus.
4. Vitamin D is involved in maintenance of normal muscle tone.
5. Calcitriol is an immune regulatory hormone. It stimulates cell mediated immunity. It
plays a vital role in monocyte/macrophage activation.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN D
1. Rickets. In children vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, results in soft bones. This
leads to deformities in skull, chest, spine, legs and pelvis.

2. Osteomalacia.
Vitamin D deficiency causes osteomalacia in adults. It is seen in pregnant women and
women with inappropriate diet. Skeletal pain is early sign. Deformities of ribs, spine,
pelvis and legs are seen.
 3. Osteoporosis. Vitamin D deficiency causes osteoporosis in old people. Photolysis of
provitamins decreases with age. This and together with decreased sex hormone
production may lead to deficiency. Symptoms are bone pain and porous bones. Bone
fractures are common.

VITAMIN E

CHEMISTRY
Chemically they are tocopherol.
They are derivatives of tocol or 6-hydroxy chromane ring with phytyl side chain.

Chromane ring

HO

Phytyl side chain

Tocopherols are alkaline sensitive and their vitamin activity is destroyed by oxidation.
Among all tocopherols α-tocopherol is most potent and widely distributed in nature.
Cooking and food processing may destroy vitamin E to some extent.

SOURCES
Cereal germ oils like wheat germ
oil, corn germ oil and vegetable
oils like coconut oil, sun flower
 oil, peanut oil, ricebran oil, palm oil, mustard oil, cotton seed oil and soyabean oil are
rich sources of vitamin E.
Vegetables, fruits and meat are relatively poor sources of E.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 8 mg
Adult male: 10 mg

ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

Dietary tocopherols are absorbed in small intestine in the presence of bile salts.
Absorbed tocopherols are incorporated into chylomicrons in mucosal cells of intestine
and enters circulation via lymph.
In plasma tocopherols are released from chylomicrons by lipoprotein lipase.
Liver takes up half of tocopherol and it is stored.
Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue also stores vitamin E.
From the liver tocopherols are transported to other tissues in β-lipoprotein.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E
1. α-tocopherol in cell membrane and cytosol function as antioxidant. It is present in
high concentration in tissues which are exposed to high O 2, pressure like erythrocytes,
lungs, retina etc.
2. It acts as chain breaking antioxidant.
3. Vitamin E is involved in maintenance of muscle tone.
4. Vitamin E increases synthesis of hemeproteins.
5. Vitamin E prevents dietary vitamin A and carotenes from oxidative damage.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN E
1. May cause oxidation of monounsaturated fats, resulting in abnormal structure and
function of mitochondria, lysosomes, and plasma membranes.
2. Possible consequence is hemolytic anemia.
3. Degeneration of the nervous system.

VITAMIN K

CHEMISTRY
Chemically they are quinones.
Vitamin K1 also called as phylloquinone, is the major form of vitamin found in plants
particularly in green leafy vegetables.
 Vitamin K2 also known as menaquinone is the vitamin K present in animals and
synthesized by intestinal flora.
They are derivatives of naphthoquinone and differ in side chain.
Phylloquinone contain phytylside chain whereas menaquinone contains
polyisoprenoid side chain made up of 7 isoprene units.

SOURCES
Plant Sources. Cauliflower, Cabbage,
spinach, turnip greens, peas and soybean
are rich sources.
Animal sources. Dairy products like
cheese, butter and farm products like eggs
and liver are good sources.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adults need approximately 1 microgram a
day of vitamin K for each kilogram of their
body weight.
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT
Vitamin K of dietary origin is absorbed in
small intestine in presence of bile salts.
In mucosal cells of intestine absorbed
vitamin K is incorporated into
chylomicrons.
It reaches liver after entering circulation
through the lymph.
Liver distributes vitamin K to other
tissues.
It rarely accumulates in liver and
peripheral tissues.
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN K
1. Essential vitamin for the formation of prothrombin.
2. Stimulates the production of coagulation factors.
3. Synthesize the required protein for the human body.
4. Acts as the catalyst for activating the enzyme.
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN K
1. Defective blood clotting.
2. Liver damage and anemia.

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN B1
(THIAMIN)

CHEMISTRY
It is a heat labile sulfur containing vitamin. It contains pyrimidine ring and thiazole
ring which are joined by methylene bridge. It is highly alkaline sensitive.

SOURCES
Vegetables abundant in vitamin
B1 are green peas, lima beans,
soybean sprouts, squash, potato,
cauliflower, asparagus, kale,
mushrooms, sunflower seeds,
tomatoes, romaine lettuce,
spinach, tuna, Brussels sprouts
and eggplant.
Fruits like oranges and dairy
products like yoghurt, cheddar
cheese and milk also contain
some quantities of vitamin B1.
Breakfast cereals containing
granola, muesli, oatmeal, whole
wheat, rye etc and grain
products like wheat germ, corn
flour, pasta, granola bars and
bread are abundant in vitamin
B1.
Some animal sources having a
rich source of vitamin B1 are
sea fishes like tuna, mackerel,
salmon, mussels and pork and
beef.
 Some amount of vitamin B1 is also present in nuts like pistachio, brazil nut,
macadamia nuts, pecan nuts, peanuts and in pulses and yeasts.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 1.1 mg
Adult male: 1.2 mg

ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

It is absorbed in small intestine by active transport mechanism and simple diffusion.
Then it reaches liver through circulation.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B1
1. Being a potent antioxidant and neural compound, thiamine plays a significant role in
treating a myriad of ailments and their complications including the brain, nervous
system, muscles, heart and stomach.
2. Thiamine is generally taken by people to alleviate the risks and symptoms of
thiamine deficiency like beriberi, pellagra, inflammation of the nerves outside the
brain or peripheral neuritis.
3. Several types of research suggest that thiamine is extremely beneficial for diabetic
pain, heart problems, alcohol addiction, cataract, glaucoma, motion sickness,
cerebellar syndrome (a type of brain damage), canker sores, diabetic pain, kidney
disease, menstrual problems and AIDS.
4. It is also required for boosting immunity, improving athletic performance and muscle
strength, preventing kidney disease in type 2 diabetic patients and cervical cancer.
5. Thiamine is a powerful antioxidant and helps to remove harmful free radicals from
the body. It also rejuvenates the skin, reduces various signs of ageing like wrinkles,
fine lines, spots, dark circles etc.
6. The supplements and foods containing thiamine are also found to be effective in
treating diarrhoea, ulcerative colitis. It helps in the secretion of hydrochloric acid,
thus improving digestion.
7. Thiamine plays a pivotal role in managing several neural disorders like dementia,
Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Bell’s palsy and a memory disorder called
Wernicke's encephalopathy syndrome. It also improves memory and concentration.
8. Thiamine shots or injections are also given to patients suffering from a coma or those
who are terminally ill. It is also a potent remedy for people who have been diagnosed
with maple syrup urine disease and Leigh’s disease.
9. Known as the anti-stress hormone, it alleviates stress and improves the body’s ability
to withstand high levels of stress. It is also useful in enhancing learning abilities in
children and adults and increasing stamina.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B1
1. Adult beriberi
 Early signs of beriberi are insomnia, headache, dizziness, loss of appetite, muscle
weakness, numbness and pricking sensation in lower limbs and fatigue.
If not treated it leads to-
a. Wet beriberi
In which cardiovascular system is affected and it is characterized by edema.
Edema appears in lower limbs, trunk, face and serous cavities. Blood pressure
becomes abnormal. Heart becomes weak and death occurs due to heart failure.
b. Dry beriberi
In which central nervous system is affected. In addition to early signs severe
muscle wasting occurs. As a result individual is unable to walk and becomes bed
ridden. Death may occur if not treated.

2. Infantile beriberi
In infants thiamine deficiency causes infantile beriberi. It occurs in infants between 2-
10 months of age.

Beri
b eri
 VITAMIN B2
(RIBOFLAVIN)

CHEMISTRY
It contains heterocyclic isoalloxazine ring and ribitol a sugar alcohol. It is sensitive to
light and alkali but stable to heat and acidic medium.

SOURCES
Vegetables include beans,
broccoli, mushrooms,
avocados, dried peas,
Brussels sprouts, soybeans,
sea vegetables, green peas,
bell peppers, sweet potato,
and dark green leafy
vegetables, such as
asparagus, collard greens,
turnip green, mustard
green, celery, romaine
lettuce, and spinach.
Fresh fruits include grapes.
Seeds and grains include
millet, sunflower seeds,
wheat germ, wild rice,
whole grains, wild rice.
Fortified foods include
bread, baby foods,
breakfast cereals, pasta,
and whole-grain products.
Animal sources include
fish like salmon, mackerel,
eel, sardines and meat and
poultry, such as chicken,
turkey, kidneys, and liver.
Milk, cheese and other
dairy products.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 1.1 mg/day
Adult male: 1.3 mg/day

ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

Absorbed in small intestine and distributed to all tissues by circulation.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B2
1. Vitamin B2 or riboflavin plays an integral part in the conversion of energy for various
bodily activities. It also takes part in the conversion of the various other B vitamins
into forms which is acceptable by the body.
2. The B2 vitamin is also essential for the electron transport chain that produces cellular
energy and in turn, facilitates the processing of amino acids and fats. It can also serve
as an antioxidant, which slows the pace of aging.
3. Vitamin B2 plays an important role in improving vision and treating disorders like
keratoconus and different types of eye conditions including cataracts, eye fatigue,
and glaucoma. Regular intake of vitamin B2 reduces the risk of getting infected with
cancer. It also treats different types of headaches and migraines and their underlying
causes.
4. Being a natural antioxidant, it is also used to treat free radical damage due to harmful
UV-rays. It helps to unclog facial pores, increase blood circulation and prevent acne,
pimples and facial pustules. It also helps in reducing the various signs of aging like
wrinkles, fine lines and age spots. Apart from skincare, it also imparts healthy, shiny
hair and nails.
5. Several kinds of research strongly advocate the use of this water-soluble vitamin for
the treatment of memory loss such as Alzheimer's disease, canker sores, burns,
multiple sclerosis, hypertension, liver disease, and sickle cell anaemia. It also plays a
key role in repairing tissues and healing wounds.
6. Including the B2 vitamin in diet considerably reduces the risks of getting infected with
infections like malaria and dengue. Pregnant women are often advised to increase the
intake of food sources containing the B2 vitamin as it reduces the risk of pre-
eclampsia during pregnancy.
7. Intake of vitamin B2 improves the cognitive functioning of the brain, promotes liver
and bone health, and helps in treating cardiovascular diseases, auto-immune diseases,
nightly leg cramps, etc. It is also equally essential for enhancing digestion and
preventing constipation. Regular consumption of vitamin B2 increases the absorption
of essential minerals such as folic acid and iron and vitamins from the food.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B2
In humans riboflavin deficiency causes oral, facial, ocular lesions.
a. Angular Stomatitis. Lesions of mouth particularly at corners of mouth.
b. Cheilosis. Red swollen and cracked lips.
c. Vascularization of cornea and conjunctiva and blood shot eyes.
d. Glossitis. Inflammated magenta colored tongue.
 Cheilosis Glossitis

VITAMIN B3
(NIACIN)

CHEMISTRY
The word niacin refers to two pyridine derivatives. They are nicotinic acid and
nicotinamide.
Both are highly stable to heat and stable to alkali and acid.

SOURCES
Whole grains, peanuts, legumes, yeast, liver, fish and meat are good sources.
Milk and egg are poor source of niacin but rich source of tryptophan.
Vegetables and fruits are poor source of niacin.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 14 mg/day
Adult male: 16 mg/day
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT
Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are absorbed in small intestine and reach various
tissues through circulation where they are converted to NAD and NADP.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B3
1. Lowers LDL Cholesterol
Niacin has been used since the1950s to treat high cholesterol. Infact, it can lower
levels of “bad” LDL cholesterol by 5–20%. However, niacin is not the primary
treatment for high cholesterol due to its possible side effects. Rather, it is primarily
used as a cholesterol-lowering treatment for people who can’t tolerate statins.
2. Increases HDL Cholesterol
In addition to lowering “bad” LDL cholesterol, niacin also raises “good” HDL
cholesterol. Studies show that niacin raises HDL levels by 15–35%.
 3. Lowers Triglyceride
Niacin can also lower triglycerides by20-50%. It does this by stopping the action of
an enzyme that’s involved in triglyceride synthesis. Consequently, this lowers the
production of both LDL and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). Therapeutic doses
are needed to achieve these effects on cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
4. May Help Prevent Heart Disease
Niacin’s effect on cholesterol may help prevent heart disease but newer research
suggests an additional mechanism by which it benefits our heart. It can help reduce
oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are involved in atherosclerosis, or
the hardening of our arteries.
5. May Help Treat Type 1 Diabetes
Type-1 diabetes is an auto immune disease in which our body attacks and destroys
insulin creating cells in our pancreas. There’s research to suggest that niacin could
help protect those cells and possibly even lower the risk of type 1 diabetes in at-risk
children. However, for people with type 2 diabetes, the role of niacin is more
complicated.

On the one hand, it can help lower the high cholesterol levels that are often seen in
people with type 2 diabetes. On the other hand, it has the potential to increase blood
sugar levels. As a result, people with diabetes who take niacin to treat high cholesterol
also need to monitor their blood sugar carefully.
6. Boosts Brain Function
Our brain needs niacin as a part of the coenzymes NAD and NADP to get energy and
function properly. Infact, brain fog and even psychiatric symptoms are associated
with niacin deficiency.
Some types of schizophrenia can be treated with niacin, as it helps undo the damage
to brain cells that occurs as a result of deficiency. Preliminary research shows that it
could also help keep the brain healthy incases of Alzheimer’s disease. However,
results are mixed.
7. Reduce Symptoms of Arthritis
In one preliminary study, niacin helped ease some symptoms of osteoarthritis,
improving joint mobility and reducing the need for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs).
8. Treats Pellagra
Severe niacin deficiency causes a condition called pellagra. Thus, taking a niacin
supplement is the main treatment for pellagra. Niacin deficiency is rare in
industrialized countries. However, it may occur alongside other diseases, such as
alcoholism, anorexia or Hartnup disease.
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B3
1. Niacin deficiency causes pellagra in which skin, gastrointestinal tract and nervous
system are affected.
2. Dermatitis, Diarrhoea and Dementia are
characteristic symptoms of
pellagra.
 Pellagra

VITAMIN B5
(PANTOTHENIC ACID)

CHEMISTRY
It is an amide of β-alanine and dihydroxy dimethyl butyric acid (Pantoic acid).
It is stable to heat but unstable to alkali or acid.

SOURCES
Vegetable sources include broccoli, sweet potatoes, corn, cauliflower mushrooms,
avocado, kale, tomatoes, and legumes like lentils, split peas, and soybeans.
Grain sources include whole-grain bread and cereals.
Dairy sources include egg yolk, milk, yogurt, and milk products.
Animal Sources include chicken and other meat variety and fish sources include
salmon, lobster, and shellfish.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 5 mg
Adult male: 5mg
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

Intestinal phosphatases release pantothenic acid from dietary sources.

Free pantothenate or its salts are freely absorbed in the intestine and reach various
tissues through circulation.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B5
1. Vitamin B5 is a potent antioxidant and a neural compound which helps in boosting the
immune system and neural functions. It also aids in metabolising fat and reducing
stress levels.
2. Vitamin B5 is extremely useful in treating allergies, alcoholism, baldness, autism,
burning feet syndrome, yeast infections, heart failure, carpal tunnel syndrome,
conjunctivitis, respiratory disorders, asthma, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), celiac disease, colitis, convulsions, and cystitis.
3. It plays a pivotal role in the treatment of depression, diabetic nerve pain, boosting
immune function, maintaining blood sugar levels, refining athletic performance,
treating tongue infections, grey hair, dandruff, headache, hyperactivity, insomnia,
irritability, hypotension, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, muscular cramps in
the legs, neuralgia, and obesity.
4. Vitamin B5 plays an active part in the synthesize of the coenzyme A. It converts the
consumed food into fatty acids and cholesterol and hence helps in the synthesis of
fatty acids. It is also necessary for the production of a fat-like molecule known as
sphingosine which in turn helps to conduct chemical transmissions at the cellular
level.
5. Several types of research show that regular intake of vitamin B5 reduces the pain and
inflammation in the case of rheumatoid arthritis. It is also extremely beneficial for
metabolising cholesterol. It keeps a healthy balance of the cholesterol levels in the
blood. It lowers the level of bad cholesterol (i.e. LDL or Low-Density Lipoprotein)
and ups the level of good cholesterol (i.e. HDL or High-Density Lipoprotein).
6. Vitamin B5 plays a crucial role in the synthesis of the hormone called melatonin
which is secreted by the pineal gland located deep inside the brain. It controls the
wake/sleep cycle, prevents insomnia, and helps the body to deal with tiredness and
stress. It is highly beneficial in improving eyesight and reducing pain and
inflammation in case various vision problems like dry eyes.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B5
Vitamin B5 deficiency is extremely rare in people as pantothenic acid is found in nearly all
foods. A healthy and varied diet should provide a person with enough.
Clinical trials have shown, however, that a deficiency may lead to:
 tiredness
 apathy
 depression
 irritability
 sleep disorders
 stomach pains
 nausea
 vomiting
 numbness
 muscle cramps
  hypoglycemia
 burning feet
 upper respiratory infections
A deficiency of B5 can cause an increased sensitivity to insulin.

VITAMIN B6
(PYRIDOXINE)

CHEMISTRY
Three compounds derived from pyridine show vitamin B 6 activity. They are
pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine. Pyridoxine is stable to heat and sensitive to
light and alkali.

SOURCES
Whole grains, legumes, liver and yeast are good sources.
Leafy vegetables, milk, meat and eggs are fair sources.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 1.3 mg
Adult male: 1.3 mg
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT
Pyridoxine is easily absorbed and reaches various tissues through circulation. In the
tissues pyridoxine is converted to pyridoxal and pyridoxamine.
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B6
1. Pyridoxal phosphate is active form. It is formed from pyridoxal by phosphorylation
catalyzed by pyridoxal kinase. Pyridoxal phosphate act as prosthetic group or co
enzyme of enzymes which are involved in transamination, decarboxylation,
transsulfuration, desulfuration and non-oxidative deamination reactions.
2. Pyriodoxal phosphate is coenzyme for enzymes that are involved in the synthesis of
heme, serotonin, catecholamines and coenzyme A synthesis.
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B6
 1. Vitamin B6 deficiency causes peripheral neuropathy and a pellagra-like syndrome,
with seborrheic dermatitis, glossitis, and cheilosis.
2. In adults, deficiency of vitamin B6 can cause depression, confusion,
electroencephalogram abnormalities and seizures.
3. Rarely, deficiency or dependency causes seizures in infants. Seizures, particularly in
infants, may be refractory to treatment with antiseizure drugs.
4. Normocytic, microcytic, or sideroblastic anemia can also develop.

VITAMIN B7
(BIOTIN)

CHEMISTRY
It is a sulfur containing vitamin. It consist of imidazole ring fused to tetrahydro
thiophene with valeric acid side chain. It is stable to heat but alkaline sensitive.

Whole cereals, legumes, groundnuts, milk, meat and fish are good sources.
Vegetables and fruits are fair sources.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 30 mcg
Adult male: 30 mcg

ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

It is absorbed in the small intestine and reaches liver and other tissues through
circulation.
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B7
1. Metabolism
The body needs biotin to metabolize fats, carbohydrates, and protein. It is a coenzyme
for carboxylase enzymes. These enzymes are involved in:
  synthesizing, or creating, fatty acids.
 synthesizing the amino acids isoleucine and valine.
 gluconeogenesis, or generating glucose.

2. Maintaining a healthy pregnancy

Mild biotin deficiency is often seen during pregnancy. It can lead to abnormal
development in the fetus. Folic acid supplementation is recommended both the year
before and during pregnancy. It is sensible to obtain a multivitamin that provides at
least 30 mcg of biotin per day, in addition to folic acid, to decrease the risk of a
deficiency.
3. Nails, hair, and skin
There is some evidence that biotin may improve the strength and durability of
fingernails and enhance hair and skin health.

A study published in 1989 found that among 45 patients who took a supplement of 2.5
mg a day, 91 percent had “firmer and harder finger nails” after 5 months.

Other researchers have concluded that “brittle nail syndrome appears to abate with
supplementation with a 2.5-mg dose of biotin daily or a 10-mg dose of silicon daily.”

Research published in 2015 found that women with thinning hair experienced some
reduction in shedding after taking an oral marine protein supplement (MPS) for 90
days. However, biotin was only one ingredient in this supplement, and the research
was sponsored by a company that sells health and beauty products.

4. Lowering blood glucose

Several studies have tested biotin’s ability to lower blood glucose in people with type
1 and type 2 diabetes. Results have been promising.

In animal studies, biotin was shown to stimulate the secretion of insulin from the
pancreas and subsequently to lower blood glucose.

Research published in 2016 indicated that biotin may assist with glycemic control in
people with type I diabetes.

5. Controlling neuropathy
It may also help reduce nerve damage in people who have diabetes or who are
undergoing dialysis for kidney disease.

In 1990, scientists found that three patients who took a high dose of biotin for 1 to 2
years saw an improvement in symptoms.

Biotin is necessary for the activity of pyruvate carboxylase. Without this, high levels
of pyruvate and aspartate may arise, and this can adversely affect the nerves.
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B7
Biotin deficiency is rare in humans, because biotin is widely available in foods, and the
“good” gut bacteria can normally synthesize more biotin than the body needs. Signs of
deficiency include:
 hair loss, or alopecia
 a scaly, red rash around the eyes, nose, mouth, and genitals
 depression
 lethargy
 hallucinations
 numbness and tingling in the hands and feet
 a loss of control of bodily movements, known as ataxia
 seizures
 impaired immune function
 increased risk of bacterial and fungal infection

VITAMIN B9
(FOLIC ACID)

CHEMISTRY
Folic acid consist of pteridine nucleus, p-aminobenzoic acid and glutamate. It is
sensitive to light and acid but stable to heat and alkali.

SOURCES
Green leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, ladyfinger, curry and mint leaves,
pulses like black gram, green gram, eggs and liver are good sources.
Coconuts, whole cereals and milk are fair sources.
DAILY REQUIREMENTS
Adult female: 400 mcg
 Adult male: 400 mcg
ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT
Folic acid present in natural foods is called as folyl polyglutamate. In the intestinal
mucosal cells hydrolase form folic acid which is reduced to N5- methyl
tetrahydrofolate.
Methyl tetrahydrofolate is the major circulating form probably bound to protein.
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B9
1. It helps the body make healthy new red blood cells, for example. Red blood cells
carry oxygen throughout the body. If the body does not make enough of these, a
person can develop anemia, leading to fatigue, weakness, and a pale complexion.
2. Without enough folate, a person can also develop a type of anemia called folate
deficiency anemia.
3. Folate is also important for the synthesis and repair of DNA and other genetic
material, and it is necessary for cells to divide.
4. It is particularly important to get enough folate during pregnancy. Folate deficiency
during pregnancy can lead to neural tube irregularities, such as spina bifida and
anencephaly.
DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B9
1. Megaloblastic anaemia is the main symptom of folic acid deficiency. It is most
common in pregnant women and in unweaned children.

VITAMIN B12
(CYANOCOBALAMIN)

CHEMISTRY

It has complex chemical structure. It is made up of Tetrapyrrole ring system called as

corrin ring with a central cobalt (Co) atom with molecular formula
(C63H88N14O14PCO).

SOURCES
Vitamin B12 is naturally found in animal products including fish, meat, poultry, eggs,
milk, and milk products.
Vitamin B12 is generally not present in plant foods, but fortified breakfast cereals are a
readily available source of vitamin B12 with high bioavailability for vegetarians.
Some nutritional yeast products also contain vitamin B12. 

DAILY REQUIREMENTS

Adult female: 2.4 mcg

Adult male: 2.4 mcg
ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

The absorption of vitamin B12 takes place in ileum. Transcobalamin II delivers

vitamin B12 to tissues.
Unlike other water soluble vitamins, vitamin B12 is stored in the liver and other
tissues.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B12

1. Vitamin B12 act as prosthetic group or coenzyme.

2. Vitamin B12 is crucial to the normal function of the brain and the nervous system. It is
also involved in the formation of red blood cells and helps to create and regulate
DNA.
3. The metabolism of every cell in the body depends on vitamin B 12, as it plays a part in
the synthesis of fatty acids and energy production. Vitamin B12 enables the release of
energy by helping the human body absorb folic acid.
4. The human body produces millions of red blood cells every minute. These cells
cannot multiply properly without vitamin B12. The production of red blood cells
reduces if vitamin B12 levels are too low. Anemia can occur if the red blood cell count
drops.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN B12

1. Vitamin B12 deficiency carries a serious risk of permanent nerve and brain damage.
Some people with insufficient vitamin B12 have a higher risk of developing psychosis,
mania and dementia.
2. Insufficient vitamin B12 can also lead to anemia. The most common symptoms of
anemia are fatigue, shortness of breath, and an irregular heartbeat.
3. Infants who lack vitamin B12 may demonstrate unusual movements, such as face
tremors, as well as reflex problems, feeding difficulties, irritation, and eventual
growth problems if the deficiency is left untreated.
4. Other symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency include constipation, loss of appetite, and
weight loss.

VITAMIN C

CHEMISTRY
 It is a sugar acid known as hexuronic acid. Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized by
atomospheric O2 to dehydroascarobic acid.

High temperature (cooking) accelerates oxidation.

Light and
alkali also
promotes
oxidation.

SOURCES

Citrus fruits such as orange, kiwi, lemon, guava, grapefruit, and vegetables such as
broccoli, cauliflower, Brussel sprouts and capsicums are rich, natural sources of
vitamin C.
Other vitamin C-rich fruits include papaya, cantaloupe and strawberries.

DAILY REQUIREMENTS

Adult female: 75 mg/day

Adult male: 90 mg/day

ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

Vitamin C is readily absorbed in the intestine by sodium dependent active transport

mechanism and reaches various body tissues through circulation. Ascorbic acid enters
various cells like erythrocytes, leucocytes etc. freely.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN C

1. Ascorbic acid act as antioxidant. It is free radical scavenger. Since it is a strong

reducing agent it protects carotenes, vitamin E and other B vitamins of dietary origin
from oxidation.
 2. It is required for the hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues of collagen. Since
collagen is component of ground substance of capillaries, bone and teeth vitamin C is
required for proper bone and teeth formation also.
3. It participates in hydroxylation reactions of steroid biosynthesis.
4. It is required for catecholamine synthesis from tyrosine.
5. In the liver bile acid synthesis requires ascorbic acid.
6. It is required for the absorption of iron in the intestine. It maintains iron in ferrous
form.
7. Catabolism of tyrosine requires ascorbic acid.
8. Vitamin C is effective in controlling bacterial invasion by inhibiting activity of
bacterial hyaluronidase enzyme. It acts as inhibitor of this enzyme due to structural
similarity to glucuronate of hyaluronin, the substrate of hyaluronidase.

DEFICIENCY OF VITAMIN C

1. In adults deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy. But it rarely occurs in normal people.
The symptoms of scurvy are
(a) Hemorrhages in various tissues particularly in inside of thigh, calf and forearm
muscles. It may be due to capillary fragility.
(b) General weakness and anemia.
(c) Swollen joints, swollen gums and loose tooth.
(d) Susceptible for infections.
(e) Delayed wound healing.
(f) Bone fragility and osteoporosis.
2. Vitamin C deficiency in infants gives rise to infanitle scurvy. It occurs in weaned
infants who are fed on diets low in vitamin.

Scurvy
References:
1. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/287720#health-benefits
2. https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/vitamin-b1-functions-food-sources-
deficiencies-and-toxicity
3. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/219561
4. https://www.healthline.com/health/biotin-deficiency
5. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/listing_of_vitamins
6. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/219853#recommended-intake
7. https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/vitamin-b5-functions-food-sources-
deficiencies-and-toxicity
8. https://www.slideshare.net/RIZWANABBAS3/vitamins-types-and-functions
9. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/195878#types
10. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/vitamin-b12-
deficiencysymptoms#TOC_TITLE_HDR_11
11. https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/vitamin-b12-functions-food-
sourcesdeficiencies-and-toxicity
12. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/vitamin-b12-foods#What-is-vitamin-B12?
13. https://www.healthline.com/health/folate-deficiency#symptoms
14. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/287720#requirements