Advances in
straight aligned in a 20 kg box.
segmental
concrete lining
To meet the taxing needs of TBM-bored
tunnels, the segmental concrete lining
value chain has over the years continued
to advance its offerings. TJ looks at some
of the advances across three of the main
components that make up this discipline
– fibre suppliers, concrete segment
manufacturers and segment gaskets. In the paper, Twenty years of FRC tunnel final
By Munesu Shoko.
The success of a tunnelling project relies on many
factors, one of the most important being the use
of a suitable segmental concrete lining. Given that
tunnel construction projects are intricate by their very
nature, with variations in soil conditions, different
rock types and high water pressure, among others,
placing high demands on the materials and machines
used, companies in the segmental concrete lining
discipline – fibre suppliers, concrete segment
Projects using manufacturers and segment gasket suppliers – are
FRC segments continuously advancing the development of their
report excellent products accordingly.
durability, The use of fibres has over the years been proved
while handling,
installing damage
to improve the structural performance of concrete
and repairs are segmental linings in tunnels. Benoit De Rivaz of
minimised. Bekaert, says the use of fibre in reinforced concrete
36 Tunnelling Journal
KrampeHarex loose fibres, perfectly
is one of the most promising application for this
material, with a large number of tunnels constructed
today using fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)
segments.
lining: Lessons learnt, design proposal and new
development, De Rivaz notes that steel fibres have
been used to reinforce concrete since the early
1970s. Employed initially for applications such
as industrial flooring, the 1980s saw the start of
deployment in underground applications, firstly in
shotcrete and then in both precast tunnel lining
segments and cast in place final lining.
However, a lack of regulation and standards
hampered the spread of FRC for final tunnel linings.
With the publication of international design guideline,
the Fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010 (Ref
1), this obstacle has been overcome and designers are
gaining confidence in working with fibres.
The use of FCR in precast tunnel segments, he
says, offers several advantages, and among them are:
cracking control during construction phases; higher
impact resistance; durability advantages at final
stage; reduction of costs; sustainability advantages;
and boosting of the production process. “However,
the advantages related to the adoption of FRC
use should be evaluated according to the project
characteristics,” says De Rivaz.
Wilhelm Nell, product & business development
manager at KrampeHarex, says, “We already have
many references worldwide, proving that FRC is
of great interest, working well and offering many
advantages.”
Nell believes that apart from the prominent
steel fibre reinforced concrete, the polypropylene
microfibers have also become important and today
are a proven and accepted material for passive
fire protection in tunnels. “With steel fibres we can
substitute the total amount of reinforcing steel bars
and with polypropylene microfibers we can add a
passive fire protection, fulfilling the requirements of
fire tests and different standards,” he says.

Explaining the significance of gaskets in the
segmental concrete lining value chain, Gilles
Mauchamp, product manager Tunnelling at Dätwyler
Sealing Technologies, says TBM-bored tunnel linings
comprise rings made of several segments, and
segmental linings thus have numerus longitudinal
and radial joints to be sealed against ground water
pressure with elastomer gaskets installed around the
prefabricated segment. During the ring assembly,
segments are pressed against each other and
opposite gaskets are compressed, sealing the joint.
“Tunnel gaskets are designed to perform water
tightness for a different combination of limited
segment misalignment (gap and offset) after the
ring is built. Performance and reliability of a tunnel
gasket depends on its dimension adjusted to the
groove geometry, its design shape and cross section,
together with material properties to be used,”
explains Mauchamp.
Craig Burkitt, marketing manager at VIP-
Polymers Ltd, agrees, saying that a tunnel segment
gasket’s main function is to provide a watertight
seal between each concrete segment to prevent
the ingress of groundwater or the egress of any
medium transported in the tunnel. Typically, they
are manufactured from a synthetic polymer (EPDM)
rubber compound that is selected due to its sealing
performance and resistance to general chemicals,
temperatures and microbial attacks.
Advances in fibres
As far as new developments in fibres are concerned,
Nell says one important advancement over time is
the adapted tensile strength of the steel fibres for the
higher compressive strength of precast segments.
“The pull out behaviour of fibres in the concrete
matrix mainly depends on the bondage and
anchorage. With higher concrete compressive
strengths, a higher tensile strength of the steel fibres
will give much better performance of the steel FRC.
To pull out a fibre during crack opening, you simply
need more energy for the plastic deformation of
the steel. Together with the higher tensile strength
there is usually also a higher elongation. This is still an
ongoing process and all interrelations haven’t been
researched in detail yet,” says Nell.
At the moment, KrampeHarex is undertaking wide-
scale research with many different fibre types, various
steel qualities in different concrete compressive
strengths and concrete mix designs to understand
better the details and the interaction between steel
fibres and concrete, as well as optimising existing
fibre types and to better adapt different fibres to the
requirements of a certain project. The company has
about 40 years’ experience and Nell is confident that
there is still room to do more in this field.
Another important factor, says Nell, is the overall
quality in the whole fibre production process. “We
see a lot of differences in fibre types if we compare
different products. For us, the optimisation of fibre
production in every single step is a matter of course,
all the way from the quality of the raw material we
are purchasing from European sources and the
machinery (accuracy, speed and cutting), through to
the packaging (smart boxes, safety big bags). Every
single step is important to finally achieve best results
ADVANCES IN SEGMENTAL CONCRETE LINING
in segment production and to secure highest overall Beam test in
KrampeHarex’s
quality and performance,” he says.
lab.
In comparison to conventional reinforcement, Nell
says the advantages are diverse. For example, tough
and durable surfaces, reduction in maintenance and
repair cost, overall cost savings, resistance to impact,
higher durability and sustainability, among others.
“With these new developments, an array of
advantages can be realised. There is a trend to
higher concrete compressive strength in segments.
Often we see that a planned C50/60 reaches
>80MPa after 28 days, sometimes we have had
also around 100MPa. So fibres should fit well to
higher compressive strength and developments
in fibres will give higher tensile strength but also
higher elongation. Also further optimisation on
anchorage (angle, geometry, details) can lead to
better performance,” he says, adding that in general,
the key advantage is a safer, more durable and more
economical solution.
The same view is shared by De Rivaz, who says
the main evolution in the fibre space is related
to the concrete mix design and fast demoulding
requirement. Bekaert currently provides fibre for the
tunnel-bored segmental concrete linings with special
properties such as high l/D ratio of 80; low diameter
of 0.75mm to provide network effect more than
10,000 lm/m³ with 40kg; tensile strength greater
than 1,800Mpa and up to 2,200Mpa to avoid any
risk of snapping in high-strength concrete; optimal
hook end to ensure better anchorage; and glued
fibre to facilitate fibre introduction and guarantee
homogeneity in the mix.
“Minimum Network is key for cracking control
but also to guarantee low dispersion in the result.
Characteristic values are required for the structural
design to validate performance based on EN 14651
testing method,” says De Rivaz.
De Rivaz says tunnels could have different
geotechnical conditions along their development.
Even if FRC is the only solution proposed, in some
parts of the tunnel the use of a hybrid solution can
Tunnelling Journal 37

Herrenknecht be convenient, for example, cross passage and
Formwork’s shallow tunnels, to increase the FRC performance.
automated
concrete
“In general, it is convenient to define an FRC that can
supply system cover the great part of the tunnel and adopt a hybrid
in the segment solution in the remaining part,” he says.
factory for the The main advantage, says De Rivaz, is certainly
Albvorlandtunnel
durability and sustainability. After 25 years of positive
project.
return of experience, the recent publication of key
standard endorsed by Fib, ACI, ITA focus on precast
segment and based on MC2010 provides all detail
design recommendations.
Developments in lining segment production
The manufacture of concrete lining segments
for TBM driven tunnels, says Stefan Medel, MD of
Herrenknecht Formwork, has achieved very high
standards of quality and quantity in recent decades.
The most important developments, he says, is the
focus on improving quality of the segments on the
one hand, and on optimising segment production
systems, on the other hand.
“This means providing maximum safety and
increasing production speed at the same time.
However, considering the individual conditions of
every project, flexible and customised solutions have
top priority,” says Medel.
Medel says the following developments are
examples that have led to the improvements
mentioned above:
n Design and layout of turnkey segment production
plants including moulds, carousel systems or
concrete supply systems and automated finishing
lines for stationary production, segment handling
equipment, concrete and reinforcement supply
systems, concrete curing concepts as well as
adequate software tools for monitoring and
steering of the production process.
n Concrete protection: development of corrosion-
resistant and hydraulically optimised segments for
utility tunnels, for example, wastewater tunnels.
Herrenknecht Formwork’s Combisegments®
technology is a true case in point in this regard.
38 Tunnelling Journal
The Combisegments® technology combines
high-precision precast segments with a smooth
but protective liner frame resistant to chemicals
for sewage, water and cable ducts. In one working
step, precisely overmoulded sealing frames achieve
immediate water tightness and concrete protection
subsequent to the ring building. A costly and time-
consuming second lining is thus no longer necessary
to protect the tunnel lining, for example, against
aggressive or abrasive substances.
These new developments, says Medel, are
contributing to the successful execution of
individual projects. For example, Herrenknecht
Formwork’s elaborate concrete distribution system
for a stationary production with different concrete
hoppers running on cranes could be assembled quite
quickly at the Albvorlandtunnel project in Germany
and offered an automated and reliable concrete
supply.
At the same project (Albvorlandtunnel), the
concrete curing system for a stationary production
with individually controlled heating for every mould,
combined with an overall heating for the complete
building, offered constantly perfect curing results
even in case of considerable fluctuations of the
outside temperature.
Elsewhere, the automated finishing line, which has
been adapted to the customer’s building housing
the segment production plant for the Fildertunnel,
Germany, increases safety in handling of the heavy
concrete segments by reducing human involvement
during the individual working steps such as
demoulding, turning, piling, tilting and separating of
the segments as well as gasket gluing.
“The concrete protection system,
Combisegments®, offers concrete protection for
over 100 years. Another advantage, among others,
is an increased production speed as the protective
lining is installed with the concrete segments in
one step. No joints need to be welded,” explains
Medel.
Developments in gaskets
For decades, says Mauchamp, tunnel gaskets were
glued in a dedicated groove on the segment. A major
development in tunnelling gaskets, he says, was the
anchored (or cast-in) gasket developed by Dätwyler
and used for the first time in 2010 for the massive
production of the segments for the Lee Tunnel
project in the UK. Main advantages are the better
bonding to the segment, cost saving, health and
safety at work and environmentally friendliness due
to non-use of solvent glue.
Another recent development from Dätwyler is the
adjusted or Performances Corner, which was first
used in 2015. Mauchamp says customer requirements
for the corner design in machine-operated tunnel
construction have increased significantly in recent
years, both in terms of material and components,
as well as the degree of individualisation and costs
involved.
The special properties of the Performance Corner
are designed to ensure that the tunnel is leak-tight
throughout the various geologies and to withstand
the water pressure. “It is critical here that the right
adjustment is made for the corner geometry from
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40 Tunnelling Journal

which the relevant segment design is derived,”
explains Mauchamp.
This guarantees the perfect fit of the gasket
into the segment. The custom fit results from the
combination of the right cutting angle to the end
of the section and the right adjustments to the
opening and torsion angles, which are taken from
the ring design for the segments. The adjusted angle
of torsion prevents the corner from tilting and the
formation of an additional offset to the adjacent
gaskets which could result in possible leaks.
The Performance Corner comprises EPDM,
which is also the basic material of the extruded
profile section. EPDM has demonstrated excellent
characteristics: it allows for a good connection to
the profile, which guarantees the necessary tear
resistance for the frame corner during the assembly
of the gasket frames and the installation of the
segments.
With regards to the long-term relaxation, EPDM
ensures a structure is leak-tight throughout its
entire service life and has very good ozone, aging
and weather resistance. For special requirements,
for example, soil contaminated with hydrocarbons,
the gaskets Performance Corner can also be
made of chloroprene rubber (CR). Materials with
an antibacterial effect can also be used in the
construction of tunnels for drinking water and waste
water drainage.
The injection molding process is used for
manufacturing the Performance Corner, which
generates significantly higher connection forces to
be generated in the corner area. These connection
forces within the sealing corner are absolutely
necessary so that the high compression force
between the concrete segments that occurs while
erecting them in does not result in tearing or moving
the corner during installation.
Mauchamp explains that during the corner molding
process, the rubber mixture is first warmed on an
injection molding machine in an extruder unit to 80-
100°C and plasticised, and injected into the heated
ADVANCES IN SEGMENTAL CONCRETE LINING
form. There the mixture is cured under high pressure
and at a high temperature.
Thus the individual extruded profiles are connected
to a completed, closed gasket frame. These
individually adjusted corners provide the necessary
seal in the tunnel later on. In addition, only as much
material is used as is actually needed for the relevant
corner.
Dätwyler’s last major development in this field is
the Fibre Anchored gasket. Reinforcing its leading
position in innovation, Datwyler has in recent years
enhanced glued and feet-anchored gaskets. In
contrast to the previous method of linear anchoring
with feet, it is now possible to anchor surfaces
completely with fibres. The new fibre-anchored
gaskets were first used for the South Hartford Water
Project in the US and are currently used for the REM
Montreal LRT Airport Tunnel.
Some of the key advantages include safe and easy
installation; no air pockets in the concrete’s structure
underneath the gasket; better concrete compaction
in the anchoring area; avoiding shifting during ring
installation; improved built-in corner configuration;
improved spalling behaviour; better resilience due
to a completely anchored surface; easier repair;
shortened process in the tubbing factory through the
reduction of the necessary groove preparation and
aftercare; and removal of the assembly adhesive and
the entire gluing procedure.
Major shift
According to Burkitt, rubber gaskets were traditionally
glued into the concrete segments after they were
manufactured. It is becoming more common
for gaskets to be cast into the segments during
manufacture by clipping them into the mould before
pouring in concrete. This, he says, allows for a more
secure fit (as the ‘legs’ in the profiles anchor it into
the concrete), consistent gasket positioning and
brings with it manufacturing efficiencies.
“The profile shape of a Cast-In gasket differs to
that of a Glued-In gasket, with the most obvious
difference being the flat bottom side of the gasket (as
Dätwyler’s
opposed to arches seen on Glued-In profiles) which adjusted or
is common across gasket manufacturers. This is done Performances
in order to ensure that concrete does not ingress into Corner was first
the gasket profile during pouring,” explains Burkitt. used in 2015.
This different profile, however, brings its own
challenges during manufacture. Tunnel segment
gaskets are manufactured to fit a concrete
segment’s profile by joining lengths of rubber profile
together to match the geometric shape of the
segment. Traditionally Glued-In gasket corners are
manufactured using a shot joining process.
This joins lengths of the extruded profile to create
angled corners. With Glued-In gaskets there are
no issues with this method, however, with Cast-In
gaskets this results in rubber filling the gasket voids at
these corners due to the flat bottom of the profile.
“When you have a solid corner profile, the stresses
created during the closing (compression) action
are greatly increased. Rubber is incompressible,
therefore, in a confined or determined space such
as in the segment groove, prevents the gasket
‘spreading’ under load,” explains Burkitt. “If the
volume of rubber in the gasket exceeds this space
Tunnelling Journal 41

Combisegments® then the closure force is greatly increased. If you
for the project cannot close the segment and you are still applying
West Trunk Sewer
P2 Mississauga
closure pressure, the load will then follow the
– Canada. The weakest path which can result in crack through the
protective liner segments and localised spalling art corners.”
and the gasket In 2015, VIP developed a patented manufacturing
frame are directly
process which eliminates the formation of solid
integrated into the
segment during corners and ensures the force needed to collapse
concreting. the gasket corners into the groove is equal to that
needed along the length of the profile.
Case studies
One flagship project where KrampeHarex has
deployed its new fibre innovations is the Stormwater
Tunnel in Dubai, UAE. “We have just finished the
delivery of around 5,000 t of our DE 60/0.9 H in
February 2020. This fibre with 60mm length, 0.9mm
diameter and a tensile strength of >1900MPa in
average fits very well to the requirements of this
demanding mega project,” explains Nell.
Here KrampeHarex has shown the overall
performance of the fibre with continuously good
results on concrete performance tests from the
beginning to the end of the project. After first trials
and understanding the details of the concrete
mix design, performance requirements and high
requirements on durability of 120y, the company’s
choice of fibre was done.
“We demonstrated that we can offer the highest
workability, performance and efficiency, taking
into consideration the layout of production plant,
concrete additives, consistency, deadlines, up to
packaging with our safety big bag,” says Nell.
“The fibre itself has very good workability with
best performance. The anchorage, the hook of
KrampeHarex DE fibres is slightly more marked
compared to other products on the market. We are
using a certain steel quality for the production to
secure highest quality, the high tensile strength and
production speed. All together the development over
years is leading into a high-end product which offers
best results for a specific demand/project,” he adds.
42 Tunnelling Journal
With 150 reference projects worldwide, Bekaert has
seen great successes at all of the projects realised in
Middle East since 2010 around durability requirement.
“In the past 10 years, there has been a number of
major deep gravity sewerage and drainage tunnels
constructed. The projects provide a sustainable
solution to increase the capacity of large sewer/
drainage systems and include the DTSS in Singapore,
the STEP in Abu Dhabi, the IDRIS in Doha, the
Thames Tideway in UK and the Dubai Storm water
project. They are large tunnels, mostly in excess of
5m in diameter, constructed with a segmental lining
and in most cases a secondary in-situ lining,” explains
De Rivaz.
These tunnels, he adds, need to have a long
service life, thus the durability design of the concrete
segmental or in-situ lining to resist the deterioration
mechanisms associated with the ground conditions
and sewerage is of primary importance. “It can be
concluded that SFRC presents an overall improved
durability to corrosion compared with conventional
reinforcement,” says De Rivaz.
For Herrenknecht Formwork, a recent flagship
project, which includes three individual projects, is
the Neubaustrecke Stuttgart- Ulm (Stuttgart-Ulm
Rail Project) in the south of Germany. It includes
three tunnel projects with segmental lining, the
Albvorlandtunnel, the Boßlertunnel and Fildertunnel.
Here, Herrenknecht Formwork developed different
customised segment production plants according to
the project requirements.
After its completion, with a length of 8,176m, the
Albvorlandtunnel, near Kirchheim unter Teck, will be
one of the 10 longest railway tunnels in Germany.
It is a section of the new line between Stuttgart and
Ulm, expanding a trans-European east-west main
line for high-speed traffic. The tunnel consists of two
single-track tunnel tubes, which are being lined with
a total of around 60,000 segments (outer diameter
10.5m, width 2m). Mechanised tunnelling has been
underway since November 2017 and completed
in October 2019 with two EPB Shields from
Herrenknecht AG.
A project of note where the Combisegments®
system has proved its worth is the Mississauga
in Canada. Here, Herrenknecht Formwork’s
Combisegments® Type II with a 5mm thick HDPE
Sure Grip Liner were successfully installed over a
length of 110m in the inlet and outlet area of a shaft
structure.
As a result the increased corrosion loads can be
permanently withstood while reducing maintenance
costs. This section was realised as part of the 3.8km
long sewer tunnel “Mississauga West Trunk Sewer
Phase 2” (ID 3m), Mississauga. As with standard
segments, handling and installation in the tunnel are
carried out by means of a vacuum or mechanical
erector. The segment gasket designed specifically
for the project is positively integrated into the
Combisegments® protective lining, which has saved
working steps in segment production.
As far as the application of gaskets is concerned,
VIP’s Cast-In profile is currently being used on
London’s Thames Tideway project along different
sections, including the main tunnel and supporting
tunnels which feed into it.
 For the Thames Tideway East (Main) and
Greenwich Connection Tunnel, VIP supplied its
35mm and 28mm Cast-In profiles. The company
also provided its 28mm profile for the Frogmore
connection tunnel and the Beckton Siphon which
was manufactured from NBR due to the chemical
resistance required.
Located in Somerset, UK and owned by EDF
Energy, Hinckley Point C is the first new nuclear
power station to be built in the UK in over 20 years.
Here, VIP’s Cast-In profile is being used in both the
Intake and Outfall tunnels.
“Nuclear power stations require large volumes
of water for cooling and both tunnels make up the
cooling system that will be an integral part of the
nuclear power station, transporting sea water from
Bridgwater Bay to and from the power station. Here
we supplied our 35mm Cast-in profile for both
tunnels,” explains Burkitt.
Dätwyler’s Performance Corner gaskets are
currently being used on a number of worldwide
projects, including the St. Petersburg Collector, a
5km tunnel with 3.5m ID - 26mm anchored gasket;
Buenos Aires’ Rio Subterraneo a Loma, a 13.5km
tunnel with 3.9m ID - 26mm anchored gasket
designed for the specific project; and the Melbourne
Metro, a 16km tunnel with 6.3m ID - 26mm anchored
gasket.
Other projects where the Performance Corner
gaskets are in use include the Grand Paris Express
Metro Line – 14, 15, 16 and 17 of the Paris Metro
network with more than 80km tunnel currently
running with 8.7m ID - 33mm anchored gasket; the
Virginia (US) CBBT Thimble Shoals, a 2km tunnel with
11.9m ID - 44mm glued gasket; as well as the New
York Rondout Water bypass (US), a 4km tunnel with
5.54m ID - 44mm special new design (40 bar) glued
gasket.
To the future
Looking to the future, as far as developments in
this discipline are concerned, De Rivaz believes that
developments in FRC for underground application
will continue apace. “We can see a momentum
around Permanent Spray Concrete and high
performance steel fibre as 4D 65/35BG will be one of
the key drivers of this development,” he says.
According to Medel, besides the range of
automation systems and tools mentioned earlier
for optimising the whole production process and
at the same time tailored to the requirements of
each project, Herrenknecht Formwork’s current
developments focus on further, more general
automation.
“We recently developed a robot supported
moulding system together with Swiss construction
company, Marti. The system includes a robot hanging
on a crane bridge which is able to do relevant
working steps before concreting, such as opening
and closing the moulds, cleaning, oiling and placing
inserts. Additionally, there are developments ongoing
with regards to the moulds themselves in order to
reach an even higher level of safety and precision,”
says Medel.
Besides innovation and automation, Medel
says, sustainability plays an important role in the
company’s recent and future business. “We are A VIP Polymer
increasing the re-use of refurbished components by gasket which
is cast into
offering the same high-quality standards compared a complete
to new equipment,” he says. segment.
Moving to segment gaskets, Burkitt says VIP is
working on some new profiles based on feedback
from precasters who have used the company’s and
other gasket manufacturer’s profiles. “It is important
to listen to the voice of the customer to provide
solutions that are of benefit to the design and
construction of tunnels and their components,” he
says.
Elsewhere, Mauchamp says improvements in
concrete mix as well as segment reinforcement
means that segments are becoming thinner. In fact,
the current trend in tunnelling is a move towards
thinner segments to reduce the total costs and to
increase the TBM speed.
“Consequently, gaskets are moving towards
the extrados side, having influence on the risks or
spalling and cracks. In the meantime, tightness
performances required remain the same or higher.
The next generation of gaskets should consider
such factors for durable sealing of tunnels with
smaller width of profile, thinner internal shape
geometry, higher performance of the rubber used
and new or different bonding on segments method,”
says Mauchamp.
More and more studies, says Mauchamp, are
considering segment lining for very deep or high
cover tunnel projects. “That will be, for sure, another
challenging development for gaskets as well as
testing methods due to very high water-tightness
requirements and higher ground temperatures
having an influence on the ageing of gasket
materials,” says Mauchamp.
Last but not least, Mauchamp notes that new
tunnel lining development itself or ring assembly
methods are having a direct impact on the gasket
and the company is closely working together
with designers in order to offer the most efficient
products.
Tunnelling Journal 43