BRONZE
alloying ingredient in ferrous and
• True bronze is an alloy of copper and
tin which varies only slightly from 90%
copper and 10% tin composition.
• This bronze is a rich golden-brown
metal
• originally worked by forging and
particularly suited for casting since it is
corrosion resistant,
• dense and hard enough to take an
impression of a mold of any delicacy
whatever.
• The term “bronze” however, is no
longer used in this limited sense. In
commercial practice the terms “brass”
and “bronze” may be used without much
regard for their original meanings.
CHROMIUM
 Chromium is a steel-white metal which
takes a brilliant polish and is harder
than cobalt or nickel. It is
nonmagnetic at ordinary temperatures
but becomes magnetic at 13F. It does
not tarnish in air, resists oxidizing
agents, is soluble in acids and strong
alkalis.
 The principal use of chromium is an
nonferrous metallurgy.
NICKEL
 Nickel is an inert silvery metal that is
resistant to strong alkalis and to most
acids. It resembles iron in strength and
toughness and copper in its resistance to
oxidation and corrosion. Nickel takes a
high polish and can be hot and cold
rolled forged, bent, extruded, spun,
punched and drawn.
LEAD
 Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy
metal (the heaviest of the common
metals). It is extremely workable, has a
good corrosion resistance, is easily
recovered from scrap materials, and is
and is relatively impenetrable to
radiation. The corrosion resistance of
lead arises from the fact that metallic
lead does not react with many
compounds or solutions, and with
certain others it forms compounds which
act as protective coatings against further
corrosion.

Lead is available
(1) extruded in the forms of pipe, rod, wire,
ribbon, etc.
(2) rolled into sheet, foil, strip,
(3) cast.
There are several grades of lea metal which
corroding lead, chemical lead and common
desilverized lead are of interest to the architect.
METHODS OF JOINING METALS
SOLDERING
Soldering is a method to join metals, to make
electrical connections, to seal joints hermetically
them in with another, lower melting metal or
alloy called the solder. Since the temperatures
used are comparatively low, there is no alloying
action between the solder and the metals being
joined, which are usually stronger than the
solder itself. Soldered joints have very little
tensile, shear or impact strength; therefore this
method should not be used where a strong joint
is required.
a. Metal Bath Dip Solder
- Metal bath dip soldering is defined as a
metal-joining process where the
workpieces to be joined are immersed in
a pot of molten solder.  Because of the
relatively low melting temperature of
the solder (between 350 and 600 degrees
F), only adhesion between the solder
and the workpieces results.  A flux or
metal cleaner is used to prepare the
workpiece for bonding with the solder. 
Typically, dip soldering is an automated
process used extensively in the
electronics assembly industry.
b. Soldering iron
- In this method the iron piece is
preheated and applied to the joint along
with the solder and the flux (the flux is a
substance used in soldering to clean the
surfaces of the metals to be joined and
to aid fluidity); the heat from the iron
forms the soldered joint.
c. Torch
- The parts to be soldered are heated by
the torch flame and then the solder and
flux are applied. This method is limited
to metals which can be heated without
altering their characteristics.
d. Sweat method
- The heating of the metals to be joined
causes the solder to run into the joint.
 This is the method used for joining
copper tubing and fittings.
- Fluxes for soldering are generally of
three types:
 Corrosive fluxes are known as acid type
and salt type fluxes and include
chlorides of zinc, ammonium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminum and other metal.
Care should always be taken with the
corrosive fluxes. The residue must be
quickly removed, as it is not only
corrosive to the metal being jointed, bit
it is also electrically conductive as a rule
and therefore cannot be used for most
electrical work.
 Neutral fluxes are mild in type and are
used for easily soldered metals such as
copper, brass, lead, and tin plate. Stearic
acid is a typical neutral flux.
 Noncorrosive fluxes leaves residues
which are noncorrosive and
nonconductive and therefore need not
removed. Rosin is the principal flux of
this type. Noncorrosive fluxes are weak
their fluxing action and their use is
limited to the easily soldered base
metals.
BRAZING
- Brazing is a type of soldering in which
the operating temperatures are higher
(but lower than in welding) and in which
stronger and higher-melting alloys are
used to fill the joints, which
consequently are stronger than ordinary
soldered joints. The bond is obtained by
allying between the brazing material and
the surface of the joined metals.
WELDING
- Welding is the process by which two
metals are so joined that there is an
actual union of the interatomic bonds.
This may be brought about by close
contact, heating, pressure, adding
molten metal, or combinations of these
methods. The resulting are as strong or
stronger than the metals joined.
Welding may be divided into two general types:
 pressure welding in which pressure and
heat make the weld; and
 fusion welding, in which the heat and
added metal make the weld. In fusion
welding the methods of heating are gas
flame and electric arc.
RIVETS
- Rivets are devices used to join or fasten
the metals. The rivet, a metal cylinder or
rod which has a head at one end, is
inserted through holes in the materials
being joined, and then the protruding
end is flattened to tie the two pieces of
material together.

METALS FOR CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT
STEEL BARS
- Reinforcement for concrete construction
is mostly in the form of steel bars and
rods of round or square cross section.
The bars may be plain or deformed
(with lugs or projections for better
bonding to the concrete). They are
called billet-steel bars or rail-steel bars.
WIRE FABRIC
Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is
widely used for the reinforcement of concrete
slabs and floors, as well as for stuccoed work.
EXPANDED MESH
- This is manufactured from solid steel
sheets. To form the expanded mesh, the
sheet is first cut or pierced in staggered
slots or patterns; then the sheet is held
by the two sides parallel to the slots and
stretched by pressure until the desired
openings or forms are obtained. Sheets
may also be stamped, perforated or
deformed into an open mesh. The forms
into which sheet can be shaped include
diamond, crimp, herringbone and Z-rib,
to name only a few. Expanded mesh is
therefore free from mechanical and
welded joints., e.g. STEELCRETE.
LATHS
- In addition to the various meshes
mentioned above, permanent centering
or self-centering laths are produced in
many forms. These laths are furnished
either in flat or segmental sheets,
pressed into a series of solid ribs,
between which the metal is stamped,
perforated or deformed into an open
mesh-work. These laths are furnished
painted or galvanized, and in open-
hearth mild steel or in special copper-
bearing or alloy steels, e.g. “RIBPLEX”,
“HYRIB”.
STORAGE & CARE FOR METAL
REINFORCEMENT
Metal reinforcement shall be stored in racks
above the ground and away from moisture and
vegetation. If a large quantity of reinforcement
is stored at the site for an extended period, it is
well to build shed over the storage racks.
A bright-red rust, such as forms in a few days on
reinforcement exposed to rain, is not in any way
detrimental. Actual rust scales, however, may
indicate a reduction in the effective cross section
of the bar.
Deep scaling should be considered a sufficient
reason for condemning the use of reinforce
unless it is first cleaned of mill and rust scale
and used as the equivalent of a smaller size. All
reinforcement should be kept free from oil
which will tend to reduce the bond between
concrete and steel.