© § 1.1. INTRODUCTION An expression of the form agx” + ayx"~ ds are constants and nis a Positive integer, is called a polynomial in xof degree n The values of x for which fn (x) = Oare called the zeroes or the roots Of fn (x). Every po degree has exactly n zeroes. Geometrically speaking, the zeroes of fy (x) are vali graph of f,, (x) cut the x-axis, If , (x)is purely a polynomial in s, then f, (x) = Ois called an algebraic eq contains trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential functions ete. then fy transcendental equation. ‘Synthetic Division by Linear Expression : Suppose we are required to divide f,(x) by x-c. Let Q(x) and Rbe remainder, then 14. +ay_1x+ dq, denoted by ff ays x-0 0) =a fn (2) = (x ~ a) Q(x) + R = age” +ayx"~1+...4 dy e+ dq = (=a) (bgx” 1 + bya” +. where Qa) = box”! 4 bx” 2 4 Comparing the coefficient of like powers of x, we obtain ag = by a, = by — boot dy = by ~ bya.NUMERICAL METHODS-1 1s If f(xo) = ec ¢ — feo) a = egret Toot is xo. But if f(x) # 0, then the root either lies between - ‘0 OF Xp and accor ing as f(xo)is positive or negative, we again bisect the interval as above and process is repeated until the root is obtained to the desired accuracy, s ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES _Bxample 1. Find a real roo five stages, 1t of the equation f(x) 2x - 5 = 0, using bisection method in Solution. Let Here f(2)= f(x) = x3 - ox ~ 5, ve and f(3)=16=+ve. Therefore, a root lies between 2 and 3. The first approximation to the root, xy = 1 (24 3)= 2-6, 2 Now fo) = f(2-5) = (2-.5)3 — 2(2-5)- 5 = 5.625 =+ve. So the root lies between 2 and xp i.e., between 2. and 2-5, The second approximation to the root x = ; (242-5) = 2-25 Then (1) = f(2- 25) = (2- 25)3 - 22.25) - 5=1-89=+ ve. The root lies between 2 and x. The third approximation to the root x9 = ; (24 2-25) = 2-125, Then (xq) = f(2-125) = (2-125)3 — 2(2-125) - 5=0-346=+ ve The root lies between 2 and xp. The fourth approximation to the root x3 = ; (2+ 2-125) = 2.0625 Then flees) = f(2- 0625) = (2: 0625)° - 2(2- 0625) - 5= - 0-35 = - ve. Hence the root lies between x2 and x5. Hence the fifth approximation to the root : me =i + 9) = 5 (2-125 + 2- 0626) 194 correct to 3 places of decimal. Example 2. Find a real root of the equation f(x) = x — 4x - 9 = 0,using bisection method in four stages. ‘ Solution. Here f(x) = x” - 4x - 9. Clearly f(2) = - 9= - ve and f(3) = 6 = + ve, soone root lies 1 i- between 2 and 3. So x9 “avr 3)= 2-5. fig) = - 3-375, so the root lies between xo (i.e.,2-5) and 8. Now proceed as example 1 above. Fourth peeeeiaon to the root = 2: 6875. i 3 He -1=0 Example 3. Find a real root of x" — x . Solution. Proceed as example 1. Fifth approximation to the root = 1-34375.——————— tate of Convergence of Newton's Method Suppose ais the exact value of a root of f(x) = Oand let x» differs from a by a small quantity ¢, hen x, =a+e, and x, , 1 =@+€,,, ;,then Newton-Raphson formula ie., flan) Rot 7,3 O+e,,,;=0+8, - [eee in ‘Oe, = - fla+ tn) 7 es One = en Paral = () Now expanding f(a +e, )and f” eee ae fla + €,)= fla) +e, ras 1 (@)+.. Shir Ty % PG) +. [since f(a) = 0} nd ('@+e,)=f'@+e,f"@)+.... Substituting these values in (1), we get 2 tnf'@)+ f(a) +... a2 tbe trons en ~ } (@)+e,f ee OF ens 3a) + en fl p, A r ii 5 wef a, Ce] seed ‘diana sienedas Relation (2) vs that subsequent error is proportions othe square ofthe previous errora ~ | os ne Mang 3x4 +10 3(1-871)4 419 . ion xy 7 1 8% For n= 1,the second approximation 82 = 9 4 gaya 56 +10 3(1-856)* + 10 = ; 1. 856, 1 4(1-856)° -1 For n = 2,the third approximation Xj Ax, Since xy = xy, the required root = 1-856. ei tion x” + 4 sin Example 2. Find the real root of the equatio by using Newton-Raphson method. Solution. Let fay=x? +4sinx, + f'()= e+ 4 cos x x = Ocorrect to four places Since x° is always +ve for all real values of x, so the equation /(x) = Ois sati isfied by negative values of x. We have f(- 1-9) =- 0-17520, f(- 2) = 0- 36281. Therefore, the root lies between - 1-9 and — 2. Let Xp =-1-9, i fin) Xf + 4 sin x, Newton-Raphson formula is x, 4 1 =x, — Fie) 2 ea aie For n = 0. the first approximation x, is given by ee xy +4 sin x (— 1.9)? in (-1- PSs 2 = 1.9.6 1-9)? +4 sin 1.9) 10 + 4.608 x -9)+ 4 cos (1-9) (0.17520) S=1- 9. ee a (5-09816) ~~ 198440 For n = 1, the second approximation %2 from (1) is given by 4? + 4sinx, y= x - 2x +A con x, ~ 1.93449 ~ ©1-93440)? + 4 sin (— 1.93440) 2 *.98440)" + 4 sin (— 1.93440) 2 1.98440) + 4 cos (~ 1.93440) =~ 1-93449- 0.00342 _ (- 6 29138) ~~ 193376. For n = 2, the third @pproximation %y, from (1) ig given bys 93375)" 4 4 93375) 1.93375) + 4 eos © 1.93375) =~ 193375 ~ © 0- 00002) © 5-2aa) ~~ 1- 90375, Since x» = x5. The desired sg 9 root ig ~ 1. i. (rounded . correct to four decimal places, ea see 1888 : a : *3 =~ 1-93375——————e SS NUMERICAL METHODS-1 Apply Newton-Raphson method to solve 3x = cos x + | Example 3. {R.G. Dee, 2002, June 2004, Dec. 2006) Solution. Let _ f(x) = 3x - cos x-1=0,f’(x)= 3+ sin x Clearly by trial we see that one root is near 0. 60,80 that x = 0-6. The Newton-Raphson formula is wn) Tn) ~~ 84 6in x, ‘Taking n = 0, the first approximation x, is given by Bip ~c28 9-19, 900 34+ sinxp =X - For n = 1, second approximation -1 8(0- 6071) ~ cos (0-607 3+ sin (0: 6071) 6071. xy = 0-6071~ Since x; = xy, the real oot of the given equatinn correct to four decimal places = 0 6071. Example 4. Evaluate V12 to four places of decimal by using Newton-Raphson (i. iterative) method. Solution. Let x = 12 so that x” - 12 = 0. Hence, x -12=0, Let fla) =x? - 12, so f’(x) = 2x. e., Newton the value of 12 is the root of the equation From Newton’s-Raphson Method, we have wil } eal) Xn+1=%n ~ Xn Now /(3) = - 3 and /(4)= 4 so that root of x” - 12.= 0 lies between 3 and 4. ‘Taking xp = 3-5in (1), the first approximation x; is given by sal Similarly successive approximations x2, x3,...are 1 12 xg ==| 3: 4643+ =3- 4 il rad sah 1 12 xg =—| 346414 =3- 3 z( i) 3-4641. Since xg=xg +. ¥12=3-4641 Ans. ; as 5. Find the cube root of 2 approximately by Newton-Raphson method correct to five decimal places. {R.G.7.U., M.C.A. 2001]3 ence, the value 2yu: ata sn Ses x* =2 Hence, the value of (2)u3 is thy Solution. Let x= o-2g=20 hae! _9, 80 f'(x) = 3x”. Let 9) = 6s0 that root of x® - 2= Olies between lang fd) = - Land f(2) = 60 & Now /() = .wton-Raphson method, we have fen) = x, — Fa4 Fn pre) From Ne’ = 1.5in (1), the first approximation x, is Taking xp a 21 1.5+—L_ }=1-29630. => aL aa? : Pe ore Similarly, successive approximation 2 aoe lee : = |1-29630 +.” | = 1. 26093, aie} f (1- 29630)? | x3 =2| 1.26093 + — |- 1: 25992, 3 (1- 26093) x4=2] 1.259024 1 = |=1-25992 3 (1. 25999) Since Xg = x4 «(2% = 1.25992, Example 6. Find to four places of decimal the smaller root to the equation e~* — sin: Newton's method. Solution. Let - f(x) = ¢* _ sin x, “ f'@)=-e7* — cos x, From Newton's-Raphson method, we have (x, Te aes, : on e* + cos x_ ‘ow (0) = 1, fl) =~ 9. é i “pproximation x, f ae aa! 0 that root lies between 0 and 1. Taking x9 = 0° sine = aoa n i 1 = 0.542 °° ~sin(o.5) nO) oy 1271 9. a "+ 08 ay © 4 c08(0-5) 1.48411 Sim: SY, Successive approximati M 9, x, %) = 0- 58565 4 dang = 280-5866 aes in (058565 e- OBR 0-.00400 _ 9. 58853 + 608 (0: 53565) = 9° 58565 + ie canga —sin (0. bags; 58863 0-0000 _ 9. * 608 (0. 58853) = 0-58853 + 7738690 a . Pe ee! a ~ 0 5 = 0- 5885 4&7 0588 e- ObBEER Since xy = xy, hence the reqJUMERICAL METHODS-1 un > § 1.2. (C) REGULA FALS! METHOD (OR METHOD OF FALSE POSITION) This is the oldest method of finding the approximate numerical value of a real root of an quation f(x) = 0. In this method, we select two points x; and xy such that {x,) and f(x) are of opposite signs i.e ,the graph of the curve = f(x) crosses the axis of x between these points. Hence a yot of the equation f(x)=0 lies between x; and x9, mnsequently f(x) f(g) < 0. This method is based on the principle that any small ssition BC of the smooth curve is replaced by chord BC and ence the point of intersection D of the chord BC with the axis Fig. 52 ry gives an approximate value of the desired root. Now we pall derive a formula to compute the root. The equation of the chord BC is given by fixe) - fe) %y y Bex, fl) “Cry, fle) y- f)= (x-). ‘The chord cuts the axis of x at D where x = x3 (say) and y = 0,therefore, flea) ~ flex) mon 3 — fla) = Fe AD (5 — 1) 9 23 = 1-2 fe) fon Oo aaa : ae afl) - x2fle) | wl) Hein) Flos) roximation to the root. To find the better approximation, we evaluate then the root lies between x, and xa.Replacing x. by x3 to the root, The process is repeated until the root is Formula (1) gives an app: (xq). IE fly) and fle) are of opposite signs, : (1) we obtain the next approximation 4 btained to the desired accuracy. ILL E Example 1. Find the real root of the equation x logq .e.,regula falsi method), correct to four decimal places. Solution. Let f(x) = x logy x- 1-2 (2) = 2logyy 2- 1+2=~ 0-59794; f(3) = 8 logyg 3 - 1-2 = 0-23136 x — 1:2= Oby the method of false position [R.G.T.U. Dee. 2002, Dec. 2007] Here Here f(2) and f(3) are of opposite signs. One root lies between 2 and 3. Taking 1 = 2,9 = 8, fl) = - 0- 59794, fxg) = 0- 23136. From method of false position, we have ik, ee at 84 eta fx. a 1x 59794) 82930 %3 = 2- = 2.72102.ENGINEERING MATHIAS ” 9 Now fxg) = f(2- 72102) = (2: 72102) logig 2 ar ne since f(2- 72102) and /(3) are of opposite sign, 80 the root ue ce on a. Taking x 72102, xy = 3, f(x) =- 0 01708, Ata) = 0. 2318 ey = 2.72102 - 3= 272102 (_ 9.01709) = 2.74021 2 0.24845 Now f(xy) = — 0: 00088 Since fxg) (x4) < 0, 0 the root lies ee 2- ad and 3. Taking x; 74021, xy = 3, f(xy) = — 0- 00038, f(x) = 0-23136in (1), we ge xs = 2: 74021 - a wee 0-00038) = 2: 74064, Now /(a;) = - 0: 00001. Proceeding as above 0:25936 9. 99901) = 2.74065. 0- 23137 xg = 2-74064 - Hence the root correct to four decimal places is 2- 7406. Example 2. Find a real root of the equation x® — 9x + 1 = 0 by the method of false position Solution. Let f(x)=x° - 9r+1 Here f(2)=—- 9, f(3)=1; 8 root lies between 2 and 3. [Since f(2) and /(8) are of opposite signs} Taking x; = 2, x) = 8so that f(x) =— 9, i = aa Te 7a ie 9 30772 10 The method of false position, givesx3 = Putting values in (1), we get x3 = 2- 372 AG )=2+ Now Flag) = f(2-9) = (2- a 9(2-9)+1=-0-711 Clearly, f(x). flxz)< 0, therefore, the root lies between 2-9 and3. = 2-9,x9 = 8, f(x) =- 0-711 »f(%g) = lin (1), the better approximation x4 i is giver Taking x, =2 oot 0- % Teo © OD =2-9416 Now fe4)= f(2- 9416) = (2.9416) ~ 9(2.9416) 41 =~ 0. 0207. Clearly, f(x2) x4) < 0,80 the root lies between 2: 9416 and 3. Taking x, = 2. 9416, x9 = 3, f(x) =- 0. an fe) = Lin (1), we have %5 = 2.9416 — 0S? 5 Cee 0.0207) = 2. 9498 Now f(x5) =- 9. 0008, Proceeding as above 0-0572 X@ = 2-9428_ &, F T0008 © 0- 0003) = 2. 9428 Hence the root is 2. 942 correct to three decimal places.NUMERICAL METHODS: Example 3. Find the root of the equation xe* = cos x by regula falei method correct to four decimal places. Solution. Let f(x) = cos x ~ xe* = 0. Here (0) =1, fQ) = cos 1- e One root lies between 0 and 1. Taking x, = 0 xy = 1, f(xy) = 1, flta)= By Regula-falsi method 0. 54030 ~ 2, 71828 = - 2-17798 = 2.17798. x3 f(x) AL) 1) 1- 2 x3 = 0- (1 314 3 ee ce 0. 31467. Now flag) = cos 0- 31467 - 0- 31467 31467 = 0.51986, Since /(0- 31467) and f(1) are of opposite signs, so the root lies between 0- 31467 and 1. Taking x; = 0-31467, x9 = 1, f(x) = 0-51986, f(x) =- 2-17798in (1), we get x4 = 0-31467- es ee (0: 51986)= 0: 44673 = 2.17798 - 0-51986 f(xq) = f(0- 44673) = 0- 20354. Now taking x, = 0- 44673, xp = 1, f(x;)=0- 20354, f(x) =- 2-17798in (1), we get oer eee 38154 (0- 20354) = 0- 49402. Proceeding as above, the successive approximations are xg = 0-50995, x7 =0°51520, xg = 0- 51692 xg = 0° 51748, xy = 0-51767, x1) = 0- 81775 and so on. Hence the root correct to four decimal places is 0- 5177. Ans. Example 4. Apply false position method to solve the equation 3x ~ cos x = 1 = Q. Solution. Let /(x) = 3x - cos x ~ 1. Here f(0- 60) = ~ 0: 02634, (0: 61) = 0-01035, One root lies between 0: 60 and 0: 61 Taking x = 0:60, xy = 0-61, /(x1) =~ 0-02534, flxy)=0-01035 in the method of felse on oi cone mrt mE 7a oA) 0 we get x= 060-5 £0 sao 0- 02534) = 0- 60710. Now fg) = (0- 60710) = ~ 0- 00001.ENc 0-61, f(%)=~-9-00001, fix, 0-01 Taking x; =0-60710, xg approximation is given by 0.00290 #4 = 060710 ~ Foag (- 0.00001) = 0. 60710, i ces in 0- 6071, Hence the root correct to four decimal places in e deci laces of the equation yf _ 1, Find a real root which lies between 2 and 3 upto three decimal place qt a a bisection method, ® Find a real root ofthe following equations correc? to three decimal places by the method of method (i.¢ , by false position) ; @ #-2x-5=09 (v) 2x-logx=6 sf Red t= Gi) xe* = cos x Gil) x® -4 ~ 8 129 (iv) 42-905 (vi) xe ~sin x=0 5 Find the approximate value of the real root Of x logig x ~1:2=0 correct to five decimal Newton-Raphson mothod. RGU, Dy 4 Find by Newton-Raphson method a root of the following equations correct to 3 decimal places @ 2~5x+2=0 Gi) log, x= cos x (iil)? ~6x44=0 (iv) ~ 3x4 125 IR.G.TU. Dec. 2001, Dee #21329 (Wi) ~52 439 (ii) xsin x+ cos x=0 which is near x=, (ii) & = 2 + cos 252 which ig near x= &) tanx= [R.G.T.U. Dee 5 ix) tan x= xwhich ig near x=4.5 (i) 10¥ + x-4=9 “Sx which is near x=1.5 5. Evaluate (i) /28 (ii) Jag ii) V30 by Newton's R; 8. The equation x= 4 3 41 has one root between 1 and 2. Find this root to four decima Newton-Raphson's method, (xii) xe* = cos x ‘aphson method, + LBd — 45~4-8 = 0 by Newton. Ra 8. The equation x4 ~ 5 =12e4, 76-79 =0 has two roots clog 9. Use Net ‘wton's method to find-nearly equals roots to solve x3 _ *~16-00017— 19-9985 =0, 1. 2-375 2.(i) 2.094 Gi) 0-517 (ii) 1.4036 (iv) 2.7065, 3. 2.74065 (vi) ~0-18 40) 4.56155 Gi) 1.30295 Gig, 732 iv) 1.539 ©) 2-095 (wip 1.669 (vii) 2.7985 (iil) 4.545 (ix) 4.43464 (x) 1-345 (xi) 0.695 (xii) 0.518 5.@ 5.291503 G) 5-385165 Giiyg 477226 6. 1-4039 th ~2,2,-1.2 9-1 990007, ~ 2. 310007, 5, 8. 1-7642,2. 9957 7t+n = By x =( 1+ ayn Hen "as %g, yt ton) Uy n, *t OG Mee tet." Ay We always keep y (3 = EB, ) ugk BEL AVY | ore E ‘xample 1, Evaluate the following taking unity as interval : SY A tan ax, 6 a | oy Saat it) | there h = 1) Solution. () 4 tan ar= tan a(e+1)~ tan ar=Sin@(e+1)_sinax cosa(x+1) cos ax sin (ax + a) cos ax — 008 (ax + a) sin ax cos ax cos a(x +1) sing cos ax cos a(x + 1) P ott (akg (ii) (2-55 (+0! 22% rel “@#D.@+D! GHD! G+Dilze2 So) cles “Grpile+a] Gea! 2 zo i as 6-0 3 t 1 v voE " — (= 26 +0" 492g ory Eo) x8 = Be - . ren 4 v oO ee = (r+)? - 2x9 4+(c-)* “ (e+) 2 yee = a (x3 + 8x? + Be + 1)- Br? + (2° - Se? + Be(a) Prove that e* = (s ‘Aber the interval of differencing being h Solution, We have EN) = f+ h) os Bet a oxo Now Reh Sel », APe® = o% (gh _ 12, a2 (se =(A7E"}) @ = A%ermh enh plyx oh e* (eh _4)2, h RHS.se7! ot (eh 2 eft $= =LHB, e* (eh ~4)2 Example 2. (8) Prove with usual notations that A Bs @ TEMA A040 alts hse iB AP y9 = V9 ys, Solution. (i) L.HS.= (Fl? +27!) (14 a)! = (EY? 4 Bo V2) pie f 1+4=2) =E+1=14+A+1=2+A=RHS, 82 Gi) RH, 5 oP 45 ro va U2 va = 56-2)? 46 B fis jae em 12) 1 pie, p12 =p 2+ E+) SEM eB) =) (8-248) 43 E- BY)=B-1=A-LHS. B a fr de E-1) aun A3 yo =(E-1)° yo =(E® - 3B? + 3E-1) yp o S yy: 2 =5 eat 2 fe Vel-E4 ees viy,=(1- E"')" 5 14. gE”? E-8)y, =(1- 3h ° + (2) = 95 — By4 + B¥3 ~ Yor Proved. 3. From (1) and (2),A*y2 =V" Ys:ENGINEERING iy, Ki An r Example 3. (a) Evaluate A(x + cos x); the interval of differencing pa 4 “ Solution, Here A(x + cos x) = Ax +A cos x =(E-1)x+(E-1) cos x= {Ex - x} + {E cos x ~ cog x4 = {(x +a) ~ x} + {cos (x +a) - cos x} a+ 2sin( =) sin <) ‘) a Or =a-2sin|/x+—]sin—. ( 2 2 > AP Xample 8. (6) Prove that A log f(x) = log {i i af es Solution. We have A log fla) = log fae + h) — log fx) feet hy) PE fe) = log] A+ 4)] _ 1gg [BAe 3 . ee fos) | ie 7) ] a (1+ A) f(x) “ = log} [. E=i | fe) | ‘ fa) + fe), ii [ n asa) i =k ee 7@) i) Example 4, Evaluate @ S®a-ya-290-3n (i) A! [= ax) (1 bx?) 1 - ex?) 1 — dx*)} (iid) a” (e+), the interval of differencing being unity. Solution. (i) f(x) = (1- x) 1 2x) (1- 82) =- Ge? +1142 — Ge + L Here /(x)is a polynomial in x of degree of 3. 4* fia) = (- 6)(3) =~ 36 [See§1 (ii) We know that for a polynomial in x of degree n, A” fix) = Ofor m> - al? [= ax) (~ bx®) ex) = dx) = A" (abog x1) abe Al y10 _ abea Git (iii) We have — Af(x) = fix +1) ~ f(x) Alot * by = pales D4 b= ett On cantib tay, AM(e™* =A (ett Pa fart b (ga _ DI Again met + Ub (ea _4)_ cart (ga ~Dm ets 6 Ge sear Continuing the above process upto n times, we get AN (e™* a (e@ ym garth.NUMERICAL METHODS-1 Example 5. Evaluate A(e™ . log bx). Solution. We have A(e®™ . log bx) = e* **) log b(x + h) — e® . log bx a(x +h) e log (bx + bh) — e@ &*") Jog bx +e *") log bx — e™* log bx [e™ (log (bx + bh) — log bx} + {e% log bx — log bx}] [-* log (=) +(e — 1) log ox] : Example 6. Evaluate A" (1/ x). 8 Solution. We have A 2) oe z o(2)--[ 1 it GES %, G@t)@+2 xt} xt @+2) -1)? 2! = @FD@+DQ+3) xAx+1) (e+ 2 i

" (fla hy ~ fla] = E> fox + h)- EY) = fla) ~ fle - h) (1 E-¥) flx)= fle) - E "f= fle) - fle- h). From (1), (2), (3) and (4), the result follows. Example 10. For the function f(x) = C*, show that ator =c* (") ent ot r=0\r Solution. We have ator= 2 ent (eee =or E ("Je Tigger r=0 Note. sine( 2 }- ®C., r PROBLEM SET 1, What do you understand by forward and backward difference ? 2, Define operators A, V, E, Sandy. 3. Prove that @=E-28+1. 4, Evaluate the following : @ Acot2*, Gi) A sinh (a + bx), (ili) 4 cosh (a + bx), (iv) A tan ax, @) Atan"!x, — (vi) Atan”! az, (vii) A @x+ 2 + sinx). 5. Evaluate the following : @ a Gi) & (a + bx+ cx+ d), A being the interval of differencing, Gi) at (ae*), (iv) (A-29 @-29) 0-39), ()_ & Ge), h being the interval of differencing. 6. Evaluate the following : 5x4 12 ne) A/a ie . “(22 wari, ge, toate =. (1) +(2) A) wd)eee ® § 1.18. (A) RECURRENCE RELATION Se | To prove A" 0” =n [A” 1gm-ty a" 071) , Proof. We have [See equation (2) above] at om =n™ - "C(n-1)™ + "Cain - ee HPC"! an® =nin-1)" + ree 9" aaa iy! m wnfan-t can 9 PDB gat] wafer? n-ne nh A RE=B gaat. em] 2! =n [atin—Dy"-— "1G, Le (n— By" 14 "IC, 1+ (a - Yt = +E =n [E"-1@y™-1_ *-1¢, BP-2 y™-14 "Io, En-3 qym-t_ +en io" 7 & Gm =n(ett— "1c, BP-74+"- 1G, gr-8 + *-1c,_, C1" Oe =ae-1"-*()"- =na"-2(y"7} =ns"~? Bo"-} te E-1 [- EO=1 fork =na"-11+a)0"71 =n (a®~10"-1+47 0”) ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Example 1. Find the values of ‘ 4 (9) i) 4 [x2 vn Avtar) & on(® — gel @ a Oe ) Lee Hf Gi) = 2x! 3x +4 «i © tel 3) — Gx 2) A yay (4) _ By l- 2) — By 4) wy ke Ge}, () & Be 5x}, (W) aE Be h e interval of differencing is h. ¢ Solution. (i) < [3x] = 5,32 = 16x ie = h) (x - 2h) (x 8h). iN (2)7 — () i) ae] = 23x = Gx, di) =F ] 2NUMERICAL METHODS+ af ™ ¥ fax - ae - ax 4 x 5)= 4.30 — 3.20) — 2.20 +1 = 12x ~ Gx) ~ Ge +1 4 eo 2 (iv) fe — Ge] 2 = aeO 4 poe 9 4 tay (-2) (3) 3) Ww) = [ax - 6x?) = 12 + 102° 9 (i) AE ©} = 4) 5) hx = 20hx- 9 Example 2. Express the polynomial 2x° ~ ax? + 3x ~ 10 in factorial notation, the interval of differencing being unity. Also find its successive differences. Solution, Let f(x) = 2x5 - ax” + 8x10 = Ax® 4 Br® + Cr 4D wn) = Ax(x - 1) (x - 2)+ Bu(x- 1) + Cx+ D wn) where A, B,C, D are constants to be determined. Below we are giving two methods to find the values of these constants. Method I, Method of Synthetic division (or detached coefficients). Firstly write the coefficients of different powers of xin order beginning with the highest power of x [If the polynomial is not complete then make it complete by supplying the missing term with zero coefficient]. The procedure is as follows : 1 3 |-10-D ell 2 2=C 3 Hence fl) = 2x + 8x + 2x -10 which is the required expression in factorial notations. Method II. Direct Method. Putting x = 0on both sides of (2), we have D =~ 10. Now putting x = 1on both sides of (2), we have 2-34+8-10=C+D=>C=2 Again putting x = 2on both sides of (2), we have 16-12+6-10=2B+2C+D=>B=3ale WX) = Ax + Bx 4.0 4 p = Ax(x — 1) (x - 2) + Bx(x - I+ Cx+D, Af) = 3x + 2B 4 Cm BAx(y 1) + 2Br+¢ A? /(x) = 6A + 2B= 6Ax 4 2B A® f(x) = 6A Putting x = Oand values of A?/(0), (0), Af(0) and f(0) in (4), (3), 2) and (1), we gop -1=6A>A=-1/6 -2=2B>B=-1 2=C and -1=D, Substituting values of A, B,C and D, the required polynomial is fix) =— 2 x _ 4 9, _ fxr D(e- 2) x2 1) + 2x =- 269 +a: 16046, Example 8. (a) Assuming that the following values of y belong to a polynomial of deg ipute the next three values x + 0 ¥ 2 3 4 5 6 7 ¥ e 1 -1 < od. i = - - Solution. The difference table for given values of x and yis: - + = r 5 5 a = | f@ SFG) APG) Fe | 0 ee ee | | —2=Ayo | 1 -1=y 4=A%yo 2=Ay, -8= Ayo z 1=y -4=A’y, | 16=Aty9 | | | —2= Ayo 8=Asy, | 3 pet =Y3 4=A? yo | 16=A*y, | | 2= Ayg A®y, | | i | oie ae A°yy | 18 Atys | Aya Ay, | | 4 beck eis cas A? y4 | 16=Atyy AYs A®y, | 6 6 A’, Ayg | con Yn | | ae A , ee Sie owJUMERICAL METHODS-1 = ——$ a eeeesessssssssssS(ae We are given that y belong to a polynomial of degree 4, therefore fourth difference are onstant. Thus ty = Aty, = A*yy = Atys =16 ‘To compute ys: We have a. 8, 3 A’y = A’ ye - A®y, = Ab yo = Ab, + Aby, = 8+ 16= 24 2 Now, AP ys = A’ yy + AP yo = APyy = 44 24= 28 Again, Ayg=Ays + A’yg = Ayy = 2428-30 Lastly, Y=I+ Ay > yy =1430=31 To compute yg: We have 4 Alyy = APyg - AP yy = A®yg = A8yy + Abyy = 2441640 Now, Ay, = A? yg + A®yg = A?y4 = 28+ 40= 68 Again, Ays = Ayg +A?y4 = Ays = 304 68= 98 Lastly, Ye=J5+Ay5 = yg=81+98= 120 To compute yz: We have Atys = ASyq — Abyg = A%y, = A®ys + Atys = 404 16= 56 Now, AP ys = A?yy + A8y4 = A2y5 = 68+ 56= 124 Again, Ayg=Ays+A?y5 => Ayg = 98+124= 222 Lastly 7 =Je+Ayg = 7 = 129+ 222 = 351. Hence Y5 = BL yg = 129,97 = 351 Ans. Example 8. (8) Extend the following table to two more terms on either side by constructing the ifference table : x ~ -0-2 0-0 0-2 04 0-6 0-8 1-0 y ‘ 2-6 3-0 34 4:28 7:08 14:2 29-0 Solution. Proceeding as above example 8 (a), the required values are 4- 68 2-68 55-8 99-88 Example 9. Express each of the following as a product of suitable factors @ (+o, Gi) (art Ho”, Solution. This example is based on § 1.16. (i) Here fix)=ax+b flx—h)= a(x-h)+ b= ax+ b-ah f(x - 2h) = a(x - 2h) + b= ax + b- 2ah f e~(n Dh} =a e-(n~1) h} + b= ax + b= nah + ah. e ‘Thus by definition Sg (ax+ 0)" = (ax + b)(ax-+b— ah)(ax + b~ 2ah),..(ax+8- nah + ah) Ans.missing then we need three equations a ' a+h,a+ thin auceeasion in ye =O at" y, «die (e-n"~* 7 Jala. tts he ming re i he feleing * i 1 2 a 4 5 , 8 2 32 64 123 2 4 ’ Solution. Here 6 values out of 7 values of y = (x) are given. ‘So we assume y [i.e., /(x)] to be a polynomial of degree 6 in x Hence {Since y; is the first tabulatng A fix) = Oie, — =0 a ~ -D* (5* - ohn 20831? + 156214 - 6ET® + 1° ., ¥7 - Gye + 15yy - 20y, + 1573 - G72 + 1 =9 aa = y7 - 6y6 + 15y5 + 15¥3 - 6¥2 + 1 4 = 128- 6x 644 15x 32+ 15x 8- 6x 4+ 2= 322 «= (putting, peices Salata vale of Be = 4is 16-1. Example 2. Interpolate f(2) from the following data 2 3 4 5 21 37 = 3 1 fy Z 13 y 2 iba ond iA hig i OD = Bin theegm as ‘Solution. Here 4 values out of 5 values of f(x) are given. So we can assume f(x)" [since /(1) is the first tabulated” ‘polynomial of degree 3 in x Hence Atfiz) = 0 i.e, S4f0)=0 (£- D4 (0)=0 (et - 48" + G8? ~ 48 + 1) 0) =0 NO ~ Af + (3) ~ 4) + (1) = 0 4fD = 1) ~ Af) + 6A) + (0)NUMMRICAL METHOD Parting ae 124 4 6 we have ADT MD 9, (0 6 18, (A) BA, (8) 87 Thus we clearly dee that the tabulated valiew are actually given by the formula flr) © 2° + & The interpolated value of /(2) i.e, 0-6 differs from the actual val + O The remson for thin ie 9 obtained by the (_ While interpolating (2), we have assumed /(x) to be « polynomial of degree three in jk ~ Btample 4, Obtain the missing terms in the following table . ¥ ; 0 Oo. og os Od 05 06 Mey 0195 ’ OL 0100 2 0.082 «0.074 Solution, Here 5 values out of 7 values of f(x) are given. So we can assume f(x) to be a polynomial of degree 4 in.x, Hence A*fd=0 ke, (B= 1)? fxd 0 or (e° ~ 68" + 108" ~ 108" + 52-1] faye 0 or fx 0B) = Blut OA) 4 1O/(w + 06 8)~ 10/(w + 0: 2) + Bf + 0D) = (0) =O wD) [Note that, here h = 0-1] Por x = 0, (the first tabulated value of x), from (1), we have {0-8 =~ BO: A) ¥ 10/0: 8) ~ 10/(0- 2) + 6/1) ~ f(0) = 0 or 0. O82 ~ 5/04) + 10x 0: 100 ~ 10x 0.1114 5f(0- 1) = 0-135 = 0 (Putting known values) or GAO. 4) — GAO 1) = = 0-168 or (0-4) = (0-1) = = 0-0326. wf) For x = 0-1, (the second tabulated value), from (1), we have {0 8) ~ 5A: 8) + LO/O- 4) L0/(0- 3)+ 50-2) ~ (0-1) = 0 or 0.074 ~ 5x 0-082 + 10f(0- 4) - 10x 01004 5x 0-111 fCO-1)= 0 or 1Of(-4) ~ (0-1) = 0-781. ea(3) Solving (2) and (3), we have f(0-1)= 0-128 and /(O-4) = 0-0904 or (0-1) = 0-123 and f(0- 4) = 0-090. Ans. fe 4, Find the first term of the series whose second and subsequent terms are 8, 3, 0, Solution, Ist Method, Given x i 1 2 3 4 5 6 fe): 2 8 3 0 v1 0 Here § values out of 6 values of /(x) are given. So we can assume /(x) to be a polynomial of degree 4. Hence . . A°/2) = 0 ie, (E- 1° fay=0 % =. (B° — 58" +108" ~ 108? + 5H 1) fix) = 0NUMERICAL METHODS | HD f00)= (0+ x8F- 1)+ EAD a2 m4 g MEADE M—D go nt f(- n) given values of f(x) for x= 0,~1,~2,...,~ Proof. By definition, Vf(O) = f(0) ~ f(-1) and Vf(-1) = f(0) ~ f(- 1) ke V/(O) = Af(- 1). Similarly, V? (0) = Af(- 2),and so on V" f(0) = A" f(— n). Putting these values in above formula, (1), we get fle) = f(0)+ x Aft 1) + MD gap 2) +, 4 SERDAR HD pee ny (II) The formula of § 1.24 above may be written as fla) = fly + 2h) = yy +2 Ary 1+ E+) 1 gp rs aa aa Proof. Let z= ~—*". so thatx =x, +2h. Also x tq -1=4-(%, —A)=(x-x,)+h=hzth aye = (ern a %-Fn-2 Similarly |——*—* ] = z + 2, and so on e- m= 2- {tq —(n- DA) or x- x =(¢-x,)+(2-Yh=zh+(n-Dh = (5B )-e+n-1 h Putting these values in formula of § 1.24, we get £(@) = fleq + 2h) = In + ZAYn-1t a a8 az+)...@+n-1) n! ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES E le 1. (a) Given sin 45° = 0-7071,sin 50° = 0- 7660, sin 55° = 0- 8192sin 60° = 0- 8660, fis 52°, by using Newton’s forward difference interpolation formula. Given By _ 9 tet A" yo. Proved. 2 t 45° 50° 52° 55° 60° f(x) : 0-7071 —0-7660 2 0.8192 0-8660 where f(x) = sin x.ENGINEERING Ma: jUMERIC we Alsc Pu # - E Newton's formula for forward interpolation is ¥ fla + uh)= flay usfiay+ “%—Y gh pay MEME) nf) +. 1 we Here we want to compute sin 52° i.c., /(52). . So x = 52°. Also, here we have a = 45°, h = 5. yn 22% 82-45 7g Ah 5 5 Putting values in (1), we get (52°) = 0: 7071 + 1-4 x 0-0589+ C309 x (- 0-0057) pee (1-4) (0-4)~(-0- a = 0- 7071 + 0-08246— 0- 001596 + 0- 000032 = 0- 7880032. = 0- 7880032. (b) Using Newton’s Forward Interpolation formula, find the value of 70-644 = 3 st 1-4 1-8 2-2 C 3-49 : 5-96 6-5 iUMERICAL METHODS-1 465 Also Lh= 0-4 ae 16 Ni ~ h bao Putting values in (1) of Example 1 (a), we have at 15x uo 5 5x 0-5x(-0-5 f-6) = 8-49+1.5x 1-33 42 x0-19)4 15x90 oxi 0:5) 5 (0.41) = 5-44 Ans. Example 2. Estimate the sale for 1966 using the following table : Year + 193119411951 19611971 «1981 Salein thousand : 12 15 20 27 39 52 Solution. Method I. By Newton's formula for forward interpolation The table of forward finite differences is Mf@ 8 @) 4 1961 | 27 mn | a | 171 | 89 en 5). is 32 See ! = Newton's formula for forward interpolation is : y fla)= fla + uh)= fla) w af(a)+ “6=D a2 AQ)... i) Here a = 1931, h = 10, x= 1966 x-a _ 1966-1931 ele ih 10 Putting values in (1), we have 3-6) (2-5) 3-5) (2-5) (1-5) 11966) =12+(9-5)x3+ 2929 9 : ior ae =F D2-H 1H 0-5) , ,, B-H@- Au DOdL08 9-5) (10) 4! =12+10-5+ 8-75 + 0- 8203 + 0-2734= 32-3437. Hence the sale for year 1966 is 32-3437 thousands.ENGINEERING MATHEMAT SL Method HL By Newton's formula for backward interpolation Jum fore the Ny Lae Here the year 1966 is much nearer to the Inst given year 1981. There “ty formula can also be used. The table of backward finite differences is : | ey Here a+ nh = 1981, h = 10, x= 1966, f(a + nh) = yq = 52. =f (a+ nh) _ 1966-1981 _ ctl 10 Applying Newton's backward difference interpolation formula, we have dese), +17, Heide Jn EDU D ya, -1-5 11966) = 62+(-1-5)x134 EDCO9) 1, CLE 0-0-5) 4 2! 3! ate! C1-5)(-0-5) 0-5) 0-5) eee D 4 E15) C 0-5) (0-8) (1.5) (2-8) a oe "a pat Nondae 19-5+0.375- 0: 26~0-1641 ~ 9. 1172= 32.3427 thousands, i, ae ket the same results by using both methods, population for nora fa country in the decennial censuses were as under. Estimate! Ye 1891 Population y : 46 Nae vee #21 1931 (in thousands) 66 81 93 101Solution. Method I, By New ton’s forw, 5 ae a difference table is as saaticts ae eee hm 2.7 OW : | a'r 1901 66 | | 1911 NO ed ae mm |g | : aa 1931 oe 101 : | Newton’s formula for Ra: jars is fa + uh) = f(x) = fa) + y afiays #E—D) 82f(4) +... a) Here @= 1891, h = 10, x= 1925, h Here we note that fourth differences are constant. Putting values in (1), we get (1.925) = 46 +3. 4x 204 SEK 2 4 ys Sassen 3x2x1 5 34x 2-4xK1-4x 0-64 4x3x2x1 = 46 + 68- 20-4 + 3-808 — 0: 5712= 96. 8368 thousand. Hence the population for 1925 is estimated as 96-84 thousand. Method II. By Newton's backward interpolation formula ‘The year 1925 is much nearer to last tabulated value, so, we can use Newton's backward erpolation formula. The table of backward finite difference is a x2 (-3)ENGINEERING MATHEM ap s % ‘Les - Here a+ nh +1931, h = 10, x= 1925, fla +nh)= yn = 101 ' ya 2a (at mh) _ 1925-1931 __ 9.6 - 10 10 ] Applying Newton's backward difference formula, we have ulut I g2y, . we rt Dye, g 2! 3! fx) = y= In + UVIn + 6) (0:4) E290 90-9, (1925) = 101 + (- 0 (9+ & eae le Bx 2x1 -y 4 €:9)0- 0-9 (2g 4x3x2x1 6 =101-4-8+0 48 + 0-056 + 0-1008 )6- 8368 = 96-84 Thousands. a new variable u defined by Method IIL Alternative Method. Consider As given here x = 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931 so that u = 0,1, 2, 3, 4respectively. The table of forward finite differences is : ty Aby | ¢ ay y ) | | | | -5 | | 2 | =i : | a8 3 a | } -4 ee a | Haro we are required to compute y for x = 1925 i.e., for u = 2220-1891 _ 514 We have a Yas = B*4yy =(1+.A)** yo Pea 4ay, + BS A= ah 3:4(3-4~1) (8-4-2) 43 x1 Bx 2x1 2 4x3x2x1 [since fourth difference is cons” (2) pe 4X 24x 14x 089 24 » “MBs btm ayy EAX24 |, 3-4x2-4x 1.4 6 = 96- 8368= 96. 84 4 2NUMERICAL METHODS“ 169 Example 4. The saa 7 anita - eee oe mee 12hours on March 19h, 14 hours on April 18th and 15 ; . ate (a) th Fey fase pad March 18h to i lh of the day on May 3rd () the mean length of Solution. (a) The difference table is as given below : rae es i ceacaesil | i y=f@) | af@ = Fe) j | Ways) |: (length of day in hours) | | ha 19th March | 0 Hanes aoc Lee : | : : | 18th April | ee pt rv a | Zoe | | 1-66 | 18th May | bie |S 88 ite IB 08 | | Here we want to compute f(45), since on may 3rd number of days are 45 x= 45,a=0,h =30 Newton’s formula for forward interpolation is fla + uh) = fla)+ uw aft MAD a? 0) +. uu (45) = (0) + udf(O) + > A? (0) a12415x2+22%22¢0 34) or =1248-0-0-1275= 14-8795 = 14 Z hours length of day on March 19th is 12 hours) ) a 12 (since > Ex, = 360 hours. Similarly Eig = 80x 14= 420 hours and Erg = 30x (055) = 30x a = 470 hours. +. Mean length of the day during the required period 604 420-4470 _ 1250 198 pours an +9019 «90D Example 5. In an examination the number of candidates who secured marks between certain limits were as follows: Marks =e gap’ “seer wat-e 0-7 BL No. of Candidates * 41 62 65 50 7 getting marks less than 70. Estimate the number of candidates> We have a= 19, h = 20, x= 70 since /(70)is required). x-a_ 10-19 eauth ae 8 = 2-58 By Newton's forward difference interpolation formula, we have flx)= flat uh) = fla)+ w splays “4 =D “ee D n24(a) +. 55 x1. {BB x 1-55 x 0-55 or fe. dee 55 x xi 2x1 Bx 2x1 = 41+ 158-1+ 5-92 —6-52= 205.02- 6-52 = 198-50 = 198 (nearly). Example 6. Using Newton's backward interpolation formula, find the declinati * 95" 15° and 5" respectively : 0 1 8253-7" 8°18'19.4" ‘The table of finite difference 2 3 8°643.5" 1°556-1" resNUMERICAL MITHODE1 (@ Tocompute entry y {i-¢., f{x)] for x= 2" 35" 15". A Hore so aaerist (24 385 15) = 25876 hours and h = 1 O WW, ‘Newton's backward interpolation formula in terms of forward Aifferensces in Bee § 1.24) » ay, Y= M8) = Jp + 2 59) 14 em ty) a 4 VG # - ld Substituting values in (1), we have fa 3610") = razr. 2+ 2 EB— 9 156.0") gee re 5875-9 os 0 ax = (2: 5875 ~ 4) (2: 5875 ~ 9) (2-575 - 2)(2-6675- 0), a yey 4x3Bx2x1 = [7- 724222 + 0- 2742211 - 0-00012128- 0. 0026422) degrees = 7.99567 degrees = 7°47'6. 6°. Hence declination at 2! 3515" is 7°47°36- 6". (ii) To compute entry y {i.e., f(s)) for x = 5. Here x = Shours and h = 1. Now substituting values in (1), A8')= ras 2+ 8-9. 98-7)4 9G “9 er y+0 4-82 96-96-DE-Y, zy) 4%3x2x1 = PAS2T-2 - 1188-9" -1-5"- 1 = FBT. Example 7. (a) Find the cubic polynomial which takes the following values x : 0 1 oh 4 : ; 10ENGINEERING Now using Newton-Gregory backward difference formula [See (6) of $ 1-28] namely uu + DU+Dy3y, +... man tuVy, 6 MEE yy, 4 MMs “i y(x— 1 ) Z (e-9@-DE-D | We have y= 10+ (x- 3)(9) + F— ~ oe 2 (10)+ Bax 1 4 eee © ee tot. = 10+ 9x - 27+ 5x? - 1 quired polynom1a?. = 2x3 — 7x2 + Gx +L This is the re 4) = 2 (4) - 7(4)? + 6(4) +1 =128-112+ 24+1=41 Se Example 7. (b) Find the polynomial which fits the data in 2 Cee ; x 3 5 7 e y 6 24 58 108 174 Solution. The table of finite differences is hep ay ee a 6=y | | 18 5 24 16 r % | 34 0 7 58 | 16 ‘ | 50 0 9 108 | 16 | 66 ul j Tih tet ae 3,h=2,x=x,u=(x-a/h= (x- 3/2 Here Newton's forward formula is I= fla) = Yo + udyy + =64 (253 i )ni0s (42 x-3 1 Z 2 3 Ss = 8+ 9x— 27+ (x— 3) (x 5) ~ 5)(2)= 9x — 2 r a... (2)= 9v— 21+ 2x? _ 16¢ 4 30 Ey ar A? 99 +.. Marks . No. of Candi ON es ina . of Candidates : 201 43 50-55 55-60 0 54 os 2 BNUMERICAL METHODS"! Find out the number of candidates (a Who secured more than 48 but not more than 50 marks. (6 Who secured less than 48 but not-less than 45 marks Solution. The difference table of finite difference [Marks unto No.of candidates! ay ay bye fe, | | Ps 210 | | 48 | | 253 | } jt Sainel sie: | | 307 | | 20 | -71 | 4 -e2 | 222 | 381 | -42 | 161 | | | 32 9 | 413 41 | | | | 9 | | I Bele dee. | | ees a= 40,x=48,h=5, pees Poa a By Newton's forward interpolation formula, we have f@)= y= Yo + U Ayo + wee 1 12594. a 2. 1409 0:8C0-9 f(48) = 210+ 1-6 x 434+ eee mace 300 HEO-MEIM (ayy 4x 3x 2x1 40:90:90.) CLM 24 , 999 5x4x3x2x1 = 210+ 68-8 + 5: 28~ 0-576~1-5964— 2-3869 284-08 - 4- 5533 = 279- 5267 = 280 (nearly). (a) Number of candidates who secured marks more than 48 but not more than 50 marks = 307 - 280= 27. (b) Number of candidates who secured marks less than 48 bat not less than 45 marks = 280 - 253 = 27. Example 8. () From the following table, estimate the number of students who obtained marks between 40 and 45. Marks : 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 No. of Students: 31 42 51 35 31— nr: nl in ary 4 ple of finit 7 Solution. The difference tabl ae | ia below | No. of Students | Wie es 4 Z 40 B= Yo 0 ; 42 4 ea 13 ; e 61 | et 12 | | 124 ; | . A 66 a 7 | 159 | o | | | 190 | : fi 0)/ 10 = 0-5 h=10,.x= 46, u = (% ajlh (45 ~ 40) Here a = 40, Newton's forward formula is uu=2) 420 +... y= flay= yo + wAY0 + oy : ; (0-5)(0-5-1) , 9 4 (0 8)(0-5-D0-5— 2 x (_ 25) (45) = 31 + (0-5) (42) + “9 rf 3x 2x1 (0-5) (0-5-1) (0-5 ~ 2)(0- 5-9 ta 4x 3x 2x1 x = 31+ 21-1-1250-1-5625 — 1- 4453 = 47- 87 = 48 (nearly). The number of students who obtained marks below 45 is 48. Hence the required number of students = 48 ~ 31=17. Example 8.(c) The following are the number Find the number of deaths at 50-55 age groups Age groups : 25-85 35-45 Deaths of deaths in four successive ten-year age gn 45~-55 55-65 = 13229 18139 24225 juti ion. Proceed ag Example 8 (by above. Example 9, Tabi 97 NaMIth order differences of U to be U, * co) il natant and givenUy,Uy,..., 6f Pram 504 Ble + 504 256 SOs Ta ie rh—_SS—S—~“—<;73;7; PV NUMERICAL METHODS 1 Usa = Pat, BM Up «(14 A) 5(5 ala’) a! sO It-A-9 SMG IED 5(6 6. ; {Hap =|Uo# 3 avo + Alyy + At M2 7 ay a eo =Up += Bau +B atu £5. sty - 2 n'y + aU, e 5 OT te sas Caeaae 256° 5 anyebor-nt sera 5 op ytu, -—-(e-1)" 3 p-1)8Uy) bs 4=8-1 + 7g (B08 Uo - 753 E-D) Up 55g 2 - D° Yo f 2p + 5 (B= Uy +18 1 - 28 + 1109 + 7 (B® - 08? + 3-0 ~ M9. ference for unit intervals Isince interval of differencing ##HYUBMERICAL METHODS $1 From (1) and (2), we have (1+8)" fa) = (144) fx) = 48) =A) 9148) =01+ a) ieSaiy ta GOD a, h 2! 2 eo (Aug Nab (3) = 8=—A+—|—= wd A ih ) Te Identity (8) gives a relation between 6 and A and can be used to determine the values of (1), f(2),...With the help of a difference table. From relation (3) 8”, 8°, ...can also be calculated. We have 2 3 aft yy2 (2s) | ot ateat 2(2-1)S tee 6 eiG-)ie] aah +2 h 1 ate ( 8 2582 = [i wed G a AB) Some Particular Cases. Identity (8) for some particular values of h is given below : Forh=4 Wehave 8= 0-25. -0-9375 A? + 0-0547 A ~... Forh=5 Wehave 8=0-2A-0-08A? +0:048A° —... For h=10. Wehave 5=0-1A-0-045A + 0-0285A° -.... [Kinane eo Example 1. Following table gives the net premium at an interval of four years; find the net premium for all ages (years) from twenty to twenty four. ‘Age x : 20 24 28 32 ‘Net premium annual fix) : 14:27 15-81 17-72 19-96 Solution. Let A be the difference when interval h = 4. The difference table is :(3), (4), ©) of a ) ar Putting A = 4 in above equations, we get ; 5 - 0.25 A - 0-09876 A? + 0-0647 4” 8? = 0.0625 A? ~ 0: 046875 A? 83 = 0.015626 4°. Operating §, 82, 8° on /(20) and putting val 8/(20) = 0- 25Af(20) ~ 9-0937542/(20) + 0-0547 4° (20) = 0-25 x 1-54 — 0-09875 x 0: 87+ 0- 0547 x (~ 0-04) ‘ = 0-3850 — 0- 0347 - 0- 0022 = 0: 3481 [upto four decimal pl k 82 (20) = 0- 0625A?/(20) - 0- 046875A3/(20) = 0-0625 x 0-37 - (0- 046876) (— 0:04) = 0-028125 + 0: 001875 = 0- 0250 89 (20) = 0-016625A° /(20)= 0- 015625 x (- 0-04) =~ 0-0006 (upto 4 decimal places) with the help dad pad eens shall construct the difference table for unit intervals. ee ‘he rewerse order. Thus the required difference table is as given below : upto A? only. ues from above difference table, we have e =ee le Example 2. Given uj = 1, ug + us = 5-41,u4 + us +g = 18 A7.uz + Wg + Ug + B10 * M11 1g = 90°86: Find the value of u, forall values ofx for x= 1,2, 3 12 Solution. With the help of given data, we have 2 AM) Ey uy + ug +g +4 Mag = 115-24 Pod 12 {= E uy = ug ts +..4 tig = 108-83 = a [= E. uy = uy +g +--+ Uye = 90-36 The difference table for above values (x = 1, 4, 7) at intervals of 3 is as follows : Let A be the difference for interval h = 3 and 6 the difference for unit interval. We have [See juation (3) of § 1.26] pal el (laa Ae s=tast(t Ft Forh =3, b= 50-0? uptoa?, By) = 5 aft) - Eatpay=4x(- 6-41) 3 x 12-06)=- 0-80 nd (4)=* oo) 2 0)=5 Also from equation (4), § 1.26, we have B= a A? upto A. x(-18- an-2xc: 06)=- 4-82 Forh = 3, id =e BF pay= 2 ata) =5 12-06) =~ 1-34 and 54a) =1 atid) = 5 12-00)=—1-34 Since three observations are given to us, therefore 2nd differences are constant and each is to-1. #4. Ti other differences ana values 6f f(x) are Ghtained by reaiing Hes table Sy order. Thus the required difference table is as given below :] is | 3* 7) reo realy | 1-09 = 0-80 | a 0 ye 214 2 114-24 -2-14 3.9 21 a 3-27 8 112-10 | - 3.48 i cou | 4-82 4 108: 83 4:82 | masa <7] 6-16 5 104-01 | - 6:16 | j= 1.84 7-50 6 97:87 | | | - 7-50 | | | fern Sas 8-84 90-36 | | a - 8.84 | | | = 1vB4 10-18 8 81-52 | psistgol 1B ine} 9 f . 71-84 | 184 aa = 11-52 | 2 59-82 i 1-34 | 12-86 | =12-86 | u 46-96 | 1-84 | 14-20 14-20 ‘ J) os) amen Bia Adle ey ‘The last column of the above table gives the required values of wu, for x = 1, 2, 3,... 12 10 10 10 Example 3. Give~ = f(x) = 500426, x (a) = 829240, . f(x) = 175212 and f(10) = 403654 a). Solution. We introduce new variables 1), u4, 47 and wo as follows : 10 4% = (10) = 40365, ua = flx)= 175212, 0 = 10 “74 M)= 820240, an, = © fx) = 500426, We : a “hie egal Fi 10), Clearly f= 410 ~ ug = 8u9. Thus we have to find dug.NUMERICAL METHODS-1 in Now for x= 1, 4, 7,10i.e.,at interval of h apes L = 3,the difference table is as given below Me. cr a, ‘oa | 1 | 40365, | 4 | ate212 So aie 7 te e5iy 154028 sg ~ 2023 oS eee Since only four observations are given and oo third differences will be eonstant, Let 5 denote the difference for unit interval, then we have [See equation (3), § 1.26] Ry Licame Aen ta ga, \Ae BaF arth eae eae | ee | ee rae ee ee at Forh =3, Beas” Aes GI 3 gon ght Sa? upto a’ fee 5 buy == uy - = A2u, +> 43, eagle Mus +S au, 1 1 5 Su; = = Au - = APu, +> 43, Ce eee yt ay tay 1 5 = 3 x 184847 - — x 19181+ = x (— 2023) = 42692. 90 3 9 81 1 2 19181 2 Buy =2 aru, - 2 a3y, = 19181 _ 2 (— 2023)= 2281-07 pray eel ge yay ee 8u =F uy = 2028 74.92 Thus the third constant differences are each equal to - 74-92 The difference table for unit interval is : aSe 7 ius 1 | 42692-90 | 2 2281-07 | 44973. 97 | =~ 74-92 | 3 2206-15 | 49311: 37 | — 74-92 4 2181-25 47180-12 | = 74-92 5 2056-31 51367-66 -74 92 6 1981-39 58349-05 | - 74-92 1 1906-47 55255: 52 | ~ 74-92 8 1831-55 | \ | 67087-07 | = 74-92 | 9 \ 1756-63 | 5843-70 | 10LLL ete an ae ———l NUMERICAL METHODS*1 = Fevon tives Both 5 = BR Bhs M0 Aye Xh+1~%o pte 2 2s Xhei-%o EW Giri cot (ee 1—¥0) 20% ee MOM Khe Hence the result also holds for n = k+ L Therefore, the result is true for all integral values of n. ” #95 X15 -0-5%n)=(- 1)" I (Xq 2 Xn) Example 5. By means of Newton's divided difference formula, find the values of f(8), f(9) and (15) from the following table x : 4 5 ee 10 iL 13 fe) i 48 100 294 900 1210 2028eS — : arguments 4 5, 7,10, 11, 194, roa divided difference interpolation formule = : NUM! — 3 gee-9E- 9-9 aa a ; fara nonis—on norte 9-9," Ata hk ‘i ; Ka) at 9 DEM 5 gin +-4 e -1 5 oe 9-9-7 10 Da riba S table in (1), we get divided difference’ the ee oo 008 a i a ; : sa a 2 4g+ 008+ 1004 12= 448. = s20-09-9.05+0-90- 90-9 as fig= 8+ 0-6 248+ 260+ 300+ 40= 648 a - 9 a5-905)+05- 9 05- 905— D 4fD=5AD= 5/9 =4 cls the values of or which le) maximum or mini difference formula minimum. Spe alae arguments 1, 2, 7, 8 is given by : a s+ @-De-HeE-7) A? il is as follows : 2,7,8——— t—™” eoranere “ Putting valuos of divided differences in (1), we wet foe v0 te e-B{- +o wh ah Gr= ba? 9 te ae g(x + OF 19. eat Putting « = Gin both sides of (2), we have wa 10)= 4 (96+ 4+ 10 = 5-667 Also for maximum or minimum of f(x), we have 1200 1 +940 {differentiating (2)] 2 rea, a 1335), by Example 7. Find a polynomial satisfied by (~ 4, 1245), (~ 1, 98).(0, 8), (2, 9) and (y the use of Newton's interpolation formula with divided differences. Solution. Here, let xy =~ 4,2, =~ 1,xy = 0,x3 = 2x4 = 5. a flog) = 1245, f(xy) = 83, flea) = 5, fey) = 9, x4) = 1885. Newton's divided difference formula for the arguments ~ 4, ~ 1, 0, 2, 5is given by May=f- M+ (e+ 4) & f+ e+ M41) ay f- 4 ++ H+ D(e-0) A” fl-4) 10,2 +e+ Meet De -OGe-2) A* fla Al) -1,0,2,5wan We F AAT Hy ee Putting value of divided differences * a " sa sy (e fizya 1245 + (2+ 0(- 4004 4 O° D) sees = vac 161d 9407 + 470°* reg ieee, 2g act = bx + 6x? = 14 + 5 - which is the required polynomial as! Example 8 Using the following table, find ayas a polynomial in powers of (x ~ 6 ‘ 2 3 i 10 ey 1 0 fe 1 1 1 1 141 561 * Solution. The divided difference table is as giVEN. below 5 1 = i) Af@) a? fe) a = u fe | 1+ll, ry O+1 0 1 | 1 O+4 341- | 1 | Now Ni Putting fo~ NUMPRICAL METHODS-1 ‘as a polynomial of ce table. The Since third differences are constant, therefore f(x) can be represented degree 3 and hence the arguments should appear 3 times successively in the different extended table for the argument 6 has been shown below the dotted line Now from columns V, IV and III, we have Sate i cu 16 — ote a' ac-lee <1 6-3 =F Gag Tae a daa" 18; POO heii a bie 1, 6-7 a mp ab dy =: 6-10 Se y= cm b6l— 4b om Th 6-10 Now Newton's divide difference interpolation formula with arguments x9, x1, %2, %g is fla) = flag) + (x= x9) A flery)+ (e~ x)= x) A? flo) a ty + (x= 19) (2-4) (e- xy) A* fix). an Putting xp = x, = %2 = x3 = 6, we get Satae nga 8 fix) = +(e - 6) A f(6) + (x 6 Ala 6) feel = c+ (2-6) U +(x-6)" a” + (x 6)° (1) = TB + (x 6) (6A) + (x ~ 6)? (13) + (x ~ 6)® = (x 6)® + 18(x~ 6) + A(x - 6) +73. Ans. Alternatively. Newton's divided difference formula for the arguments ~ 1, 0, 2, 3, 7, 10 is Ma)= f+ (+1) fe Det G-Oae f- D+ G+ NG- 0-2 40 fev [since fourth and 5th differences are zero] =~ 11+ (e+ 1)(12) + (x +1) at 4)+ (x +1) x(x — (0) SOUL + 12e412~ de? ~ de x3 — 3? _ oye gd _ gy? 4 Groh.