Question 1

A)
Determine the total Loading Unit (L.U.) of the system

Given in the question Calculations

proportion proportion
Flow
Demand Frequency Usage of base of base Demand Demand
Fitment rate
time (s) Of use(s) ratio appliance appliance figure unit
(L/s)
ratio flow rate
Basin 0.12 30 1800 0.017 1.00 1.00 1 1
Sink 0.3 60 1800 0.033 2.00 2.50 5 5
Shower 0.18 300 6000 0.050 3.00 1.50 4.5 5
Cloth
washer 0.2 450 9000 0.050 3.00 1.67 5 5

Given the design flow rate, demand time, frequency of use of each sanitary fitment, demand
unit of each fitment can be found.
𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Usage ratio = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒
Since the demand of one basin is 1 Loading Unit (L.U.), one basin is our base appliance.
𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Proportion of base appliance ratio = 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ( 0.017)
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Proportion of base appliance flow rate = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (0.12)
Demand figure = proportion of base appliance ratio x proportion of base appliance flow rate
Demand unit = round up number of the demand figure = loading unit of each fitment

total Loading unit

(L.U.) of each type of
Demand
Fitment Quantity fitment
unit
(Quantity x Demand
unit
Basin 10 1 10
Sink 2 5 10
Shower 10 5 50
Cloth
2 5 10
washer

Hence, the total Loading Unit (L.U.) of the system = 10 +10 +50+ 10 = 80
Determine the simultaneous demand in L/s of the system

P= Usage Probability of
Fitment n ratio m occurrence Accumulating
Basin 10 0.017 0 P0= 0.845
1 P1= 0.143 0.989
2 P2= 0.011 0.999

Sink 2 0.033 0 P0= 0.934

1 P1= 0.064 0.999

Shower 10 0.05 0 P0= 0.599

1 P1= 0.315 0.914
2 P2= 0.075 0.988
3 P3= 0.010 0.999

cloth
washer 2 0.05 0 P0= 0.903
1 P1= 0.095 0.998
Based on probability theory, probability of having a sanitary fitment in use at a certain time
can be calculated.
𝑛!
𝑃𝑚 = ( ) 𝑥 𝑃𝑚 (1 − 𝑃)𝑛−𝑚
𝑚! (𝑛 − 𝑚)!
Where n = total number of fittings having the same probability
m= number of fitting in use at any one time
Pm = probability of occurrence

Consider the first case where a group of 10 basins, with a certain design demand time and
frequency of use, the probability factor of a particular number of draw off points occurring at
any one time, P indicated above the chart on the third column from the left, can be computed.

𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
P = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒
Since the design intent is to serve 99% of all conditions, in the “accumulating” column as
long as shows nearly close to 0.99 meaning with this number of fitments or less in use at one
single time can serve 99% of all times.

For the basin case, 2 basins become the simultaneous demand.

For the sink case, 1 sink becomes the simultaneous demand.
For the shower case, 3 showers become the simultaneous demand.
For the cloth washer case, 1 cloth washer becomes the simultaneous demand.
 Flow rate x
Fitment Flow rate (L/s) Simultaneous demand simultaneous demand
(L/s)
Basin 0.12 2 0.24
Sink 0.3 1 0.3
Shower 0.18 3 0.54
Cloth
0.2 1 0.2
washer
Hence, the simultaneous demand of the system, 0.24+0.3+0.54+0.2=1.28 L/s

B) Determine the pump rating and size of the pneumatic tank

The booster system at 20/F serves the toilets three floors above (21/F, 22/F and 23/F) and
three floors below (17/F, 18/F and 19/F). Assume vertical pipe loss=0.1mH/m run.
Technically, the cut- in pressure of the pump only occurs from the booster system at 20/F to
the water point at 23/F since that is the highest water point which has to be satisfied with the
minimum pump pressure need for the entire booster system. In addition, the cut-out pressure
of the pump only occurs at the 17/F since gravity will add up along the pipe going down.
Hence, we only need to consider two conditions: pump cut-in pressure from 20/F to 23/F and
pump cut-out pressure from 20/F to 17/F.

Consider three floors below (17/F, 18/F, and 19/F) and ignore the top three floors for a
moment.
Given maximum residual pressure 4.5bar = 45mH
Head gain from the booster system (20/F) to 17/F = 3.5mH x3=10.5mH
Pump cut-out pressure = 45m-10.5 + 0.1x3.5x3 = 35.55mH

Consider three floors above (21/F, 22/F and 23/F) and ignore the down three floors for a
moment.
Given minimum residual pressure 1.0 bar = 10mH
Head loss from the booster system (20/F) to 23/F = 3.5mH x3=10.5mH
Pump Cut-in pressure= 10mH+10.5+ 0.1x3.5mx3H= 21.55mH
To sum up, pump cut-in pressure is 21.55mH and pump cut-out pressure is 35.55mH in the
booster system which is acceptable since their pressure difference is within the range of 10 -
20 mH.
Each floor has a male, female and disabled toilet: 4 basins for male, 5 basins for female and
1 basin for disabled toilet. Therefore, each floor has 10 basins.
Since the booster system serves the basins in toilets three floors above and three floors below,
The simultaneous demand for 6 floors = 1 LU x 6 floors x 10 basins = 60 LU
Flow rate based on 60LU (See Pipe sizing Chart on the next page, graph 3)
For a 10 minute cut-out cycle, this ‘effective volume’ = 0.9 L/s x 10min x 60sec =540 L

P1 V1 = pressure and volume at initial conditions

(P1 =100kPa (abs) for normal atm. Condition)
P2V2 = pressure volume at ‘Pump Cut-in’
P3V3 = pressure volume at ‘Pump Cut-out’

V2 –V3 = effective capacity of tank = 540L = 0.54m3

P2 = 21.55mH (gauge) = 100 + 215.5 = 315.5kPa (abs) (lower limit)
P3 = 35.55mH (gauge) = 100 +355.5 = 455.5kPa (abs) (upper limit)
According to Ideal gas law
𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃3 𝑉3
315500 (𝑉3 + 0.54) = 455500𝑉3
𝑉3 = 1.22 𝑚3
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃3 𝑉3
100000𝑉1 = 455500 ∗ 1.22
𝑉1 = 5.54𝑚3
The actual size of the pneumatic tank = 5.54m3
Pump rating: Pump Cut-in pressure= 21.55mH; Pump Cut-out pressure = 35.55mH
Pipe Sizing Chart

0.9 L/s

Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide (2002)

Question 2
A) Determine whether the existing hot water system is sufficient for the present demand
and give recommendations if the analysis shows dissatisfaction of the system
Consumption Consumption
Hour (L ) Hour (L )
0:00 1680 12:00 80
1:00 1260 13:00 85
2:00 590 14:00 505
3:00 170 15:00 1090
4:00 160 16:00 1085
5:00 250 17:00 2100
6:00 170 18:00 2770
7:00 840 19:00 3360
8:00 1680 20:00 4200
9:00 2015 21:00 4620
10:00 670 22:00 3780
11:00 250 23:00 2100
Table A: Peak hourly loads (above)

Demand Profile of a Hot Water

5000

4500

4000

3500
Consumption (L)

3000

2500

2000B: Peak hourly loads

Table
1500

1000

500

0
9:00
0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00

10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

Hour (hr)
 Peak litres litres per Peak litres litres per
hours used hour hours used hour
1 4620 4620 14 26695 1907
2 8820 4410 15 28710 1914
3 12600 4200 16 30390 1899
4 15960 3990 17 31230 1837
5 18730 3746 18 31400 1744
6 20830 3472 19 31650 1666
7 22930 3276 20 31810 1591
8 24015 3002 21 31980 1523
9 25105 2789 22 32570 1480
10 25610 2561 23 33830 1471
11 25695 2336 24 35510 1480
12 25775 2148
13 26025 2002 24hr average:
35510/24 = 1479.6 =1480 L/hr
Table B: Peak hourly loads (above)

5000
Storage make-up ratio curve peak hour 1
peak hour 2
4500 peak hour 3
peak hour 4
peak hour 5
4000 peak hour 6
peak hour 7
3500 peak hour 8
peak hour 9
Recovery/storage curve
peak hour 10
3000 peak hour 11
Recovery (L/hr)

peak hour 12
2500 peak hour 13
peak hour 14
peak hour 15
2000 peak hour 16
Min recovery rate =1480 L/hr peak hour 17
1500 peak hour 18
peak hour 19
peak hour 20
1000 peak hour 21
peak hour 22
peak hour 23
500
peak hour 24

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
Storage-litres (L)
Given that
-Existing hot water tank = 8000 L
-Existing hot water heater Q= 120kW
-Design cold and hot water temperature = Tw=10°C & Th= 65°C
-Heat capacity of water, cp= 4.2 kJ/kgK
Assume water density as 1kg/L
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
4.2𝑘𝐽
120𝑘𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑥 (65 − 10)
𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑚 = 0.52 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑘𝑔
0.52
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 = 𝑠 𝑥3600 𝑠/ℎ𝑟
1 𝑘𝑔/𝐿

1872𝐿
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 =
ℎ𝑟

In the existing system, the 8000L hot water tank is at a recovery rate of 1872L/hr. However, in
the storage make-up ratio curve, under the condition of a 8000L hot water demand, the required
recovery rate is at least roughly 2300L/hr. Hence, the existing system is not sufficient for the
present hot water demand.

Recommendations:
If the hot water tank storage to 8000L is kept,
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
8000𝐿 1ℎ𝑟 1𝑘𝑔 4.2𝑘𝐽
𝑄= 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 (65 − 10)
1ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠 1𝐿 𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑄 = 147.6𝑘𝑊

The power output of the heater requires to be larger so as to satisfy the required hot water
demand instead of the existing smaller power output of 120kW. Moreover, finding a heater with
a recovery rate of exactly 2300 L/hr on the existing market is not very possible although
2300L/hr recovery rate is the theoretical value based on the plot. Perhaps, we can pick a
2500L/hr recovery rate heater that should be available on the market for our need.

Or if the power output of the heater is kept to 120kW, with 1872L/hr recovery rate, based on the
storage make-up ratio, the hot water tank should require around 12000L
B) Sizing the primary and secondary pipework
Consider a primary circuit of a hot water system,
Design flow rate = 2.0 L/s
Cold water = 20 °C (density 998 kg/ m3)
Hot water = 65° C (density 980 kg/m3)
The height difference between boiler and calorifier = 8m
Pressure difference of two columns of water=∆𝑝𝑔ℎ= (998 – 980) x 9.81x 8 = 1413 Pa
Assume the overall hydraulic length of the pipe = 24m (measured pipe length + length of fittings)
Allowable pressure drop = 1413Pa/ 24m = 59 Pa/m
From the pipe sizing chart for copper pipe, at design flow =2.0L/s,
Based on average 989kg/m3,
𝑃𝑎 10 𝑚𝐻
Head loss per meter run = 59 𝑚 𝑥 = 0.006 𝑚𝐻/𝑚,
100𝑘𝑃𝑎
(see Pipe Sizing Chart on the next page) 76mm pipe suits the requirement.

Consider secondary pipework of a hot water system

The secondary return pipe has to be sized based on the minimum
flow rate to determine the possible heat loss from hot water pipe.
Given from the diagram that supply temperature of water=65°C
Return temperature of water = 55°C

Consider insulated supply pipe size =54mm OD (~21W/m run heat

loss), with the assumption of head loss = 0.1 mH/m at 3.5L/s (see
Pipe Sizing Chart on the next page)
Supply pipe length = 20m
Heat loss= 21W/m x 20m = 320W
Assume water density as 1kg/L
Temperature drop ∆𝑇 = 5°C (from 65°C - 60°C at the end of supply)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
21𝑊 𝐽
𝑥20𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑥4200 𝑥5°C
𝑚 𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑚 = 0.02𝑘𝑔/𝑠
This is the minimum flow rate in the secondary circuit to ensure the end of the supply still has
60°C
As for the secondary return,
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
𝐽
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥20𝑚 = 0.02 𝑥4200 𝑥(60 − 55)°C
𝑘𝑔𝐾
21𝑊
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑚
 Since the secondary return has very similar conditions, including same temperature drop, same
mass flow rate, same pipe length, the size of secondary return should be 54mm OD same as the
secondary supply pipe.

Pipe Sizing Chart

For secondary
supply circuit
(red)

For primary
circuit (orange)

Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide (2002)

Question 3
A) Wobbe index is equal to higher heating value (calorific value) in MJ/m3 divided by square
root of gas specific gravity. The Wobbe index is used to compare the combustion energy output
of different fuel gases, such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and town gas, in an
appliance, like a water heater. If two fuels have identical Wobbe indices, then for a given
pressure and valve setting, the energy output will also be the same. For example, under the same
pressure and valve setting condition, if gas A with a Wobbe index of 24 and gas B also with the
same Wobbe index of 24, although they both have different calorific values and specific gravity
values, both gases will give the same energy output. Hence, we can make use of any fuels that
have the identical Wobbe index and give out same combustion energy output to substitute one
another.
Town
gas LPG
3
calorific value (MJ/m ) 17.27 104.9
specific gravity 0.52 2.05
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
wobbe index=
√𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 24 73

Consider 1 water heater and 1 table top cooker

Water heater rating = 102.2 MJ/hr
Table top cooker rating = 51.3 MJ/hr
153.5𝑀𝐽/ℎ𝑟
Total = 102.2 +51.3 =153.5 MJ/hr = 17.27𝑀𝐽/𝑚3 = 8.89𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
The Pole formula is used for determining the flow of gas in pipes.

𝑑 5 𝑥ℎ
𝑄 = 0.0071√
𝑠𝑥𝑙
Where Q = flow (m3/hr),
d= diameter of pipe (mm),
h =pressure drop (mbar), assume 100 Pa = 1mbar,
l= length of pipe (m), in this case, measured length of pipe: 5+8+1 =14m, length of fitting around
4m
s =specific gravity of gas (town gas =0.52)

𝑑 5 𝑥1
8.89 = 0.0071√
0.52𝑥18
𝑑 = 27𝑚𝑚
Gas supply pipes from the gas meter to the individual appliances = 32mm (available on the
market)
B) Determine pressure drop of steam pipe work and then size the steam pipe
Given:
A boiler plant producing 180°C superheated steam at 600kPa (absolute) = 6 bar
Minimum pressure at the heater at 150 °C = 475kPa =4.75 bar (absolute) from steam table
Pressure drop of steam pipe work = 6bar -4.75 bar = 1.25bar (absolute)
Steam loading of the heater =300kg/hr
Overall equivalent length of the steam pipe = 40m
Consider the heat loss from pipework = 3.5% of heater load per 100m
Hence, revised steam load = 300kg/hr + 300 x(3.5% x 40/100)=304kg/hr

Steam pressure drop factor table

6bar =43.54 (blue circle)
4.75bar= (29.27+30.27)/2=29.77

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐹=
𝐿
where F= pressure factor, P1 = factor based on the
inlet pressure, P2 = factor based on the pressure at a
distance of L metres, L= equivalent length of pipe (m)
43.54−29.77
𝐹= 40
𝐹 = 0.34

From pipeline capacity table (see the next page),

F=0.3, capacity =487.3kg/hr> 304kg/hr
Size =32mm

Steam = 304kg/hr at 6 bar

Specific volume = 0.316m3/kg at 6 bar
Volume flow = 96.064 m3/hr = 96.064/3600= 0.027m3/s
32mm pipe area = 0.0008m2
Thus pipe velocity = 0.027m3/s / 0.0008 = 33.75m/s
The pipe size is within the normal design velocity range ( 24-36m/s)
Question 4
A) Given:
60% water depth for the drain pipe at peak hours
A measured velocity, v0.6= 1.2 m/s
𝟇450mm drain pipe is laid to fall at 1:225
Proportional flow chart:

𝑑0.6
= 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 0.6
𝐷
𝑣0.6
= 1.05
𝑣
𝑣 = 1.2 / 1.05 = 1.14𝑚/𝑠
𝐷2
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝑝𝑖
4
2
0.45
= 𝑝𝑖
4
= 0.159 𝑚2
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴
𝑚
𝑄 = 1.14 𝑥 0.159𝑚2
𝑠
𝑄 = 0.181𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄 = 181𝐿/𝑠
𝑄0.6
= 0.65
𝑄
𝑄0.6
= 0.65
181
𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄0.6 = 118 𝐿/𝑠
Lets assume full potential as ¾ bore flow.
 𝑄0.75
= 0.9
𝑄
𝑄0.75 = 0.181 𝑥 0.9
𝑄0.75 = 0.1629𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄0.75 = 162.9 𝐿/𝑠

Amount of discharge to reach its full potential=162.9 −118=44.9L/s

Since design daily discharge per occupant =225 L per day, ½ of the discharge is recorded in a 6
hour period,
Originally, with the existing drain
1 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 225𝐿)
= 118𝐿/𝑠
2 6ℎ𝑟
1 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 225𝐿) 1ℎ𝑟
𝑥 = 118𝐿/𝑠
2 6ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 22656 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒
To reach its full potential (3/4 bore flow)
1 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 225𝐿)
= 162.9𝐿/𝑠
2 6ℎ𝑟
1 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑥 225𝐿) 1ℎ𝑟
𝑥 = 162.9𝐿/𝑠
2 6ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 = 31277 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒
Therefore, the drain can accommodate 31277 –22656 = 8621 people on top of the original
population.
B)
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑥𝐴𝑥𝐼
Where Q is rain water flow (L/s)
C is the impermeability factor or run-off coefficient
A is drainage or catchment area (m2)
I is rainfall intensity (m/hr)
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑓 + 0.5𝐴𝑤
Where Af is the catchment floor area (m2),
Aw is the area of vertical wall (m2)
A is catchment area (m2)
𝐴 = 10𝑥10
𝐴 = 100𝑚2
Determine: the time of concentration of the storm water for the roof
𝐿
𝑡𝑐 = 0.14465𝑥 ( 0.2 0.1 )
𝐻 𝐴
Where tc is time of concentration (min)
H is average fall (m per 100m) from the summit of catchment to the point of drainage
outlet
 L is the largest distance from catchment boundary to the point of drainage outlet (m)
A is the catchment area (m2)
10 + 5
𝑡𝑐 = 0.14465𝑥 ( 0.2 )
(1) (100)0.1
𝑡𝑐 = 1.37 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Determine the extreme mean intensity of the rainfall, i , for a 10 year rainstorm return period
603
𝑖=
(𝑡𝑑 + 4.4)0.44
Where td duration of rainfall in min. In this case td is equal to tc at a peak discharge of the
rainstorm system
603
𝑖=
(1.37𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 4.4)0.44
𝑖 = 279 𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Determine stormwater flow rate to be handled by the system, Q
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑥𝐴𝑥𝐼𝑥 0.278𝐿/𝑠
Where Q is rain water flow (L/s)
C is the impermeability factor or run-off coefficient, in this case, assume 0.95 for roof
A is drainage or catchment area (m2)
I is rainfall intensity (m/hr)
0.95𝑥100𝑥279
𝑄= 𝑥0.278
1000
𝐿
𝑄 = 7.36
𝑠
Determine the expected bore flow of the storm water pipe
Based on empirical formula of vertical stacks
8
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐷3
Where Q is rain water flow (L/s), k is a coefficient to determine which bore flow is expected, D
is the diameter of pipe (mm)
8
7.36 = 𝑘(100)3
𝑘 = 3.4 𝑥 10−5
So 1 / 4 bore full is expected of the storm water pipe.