FISHERIES

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RETRIEVAL SYSTEM (OTHER THAN FOR PURPOSES OF
REVIEW)
WITHOUT THE EXPRESS PERMISSION
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© 2020
i
About the Book
This book is intended to be used by students and those who

want to broaden their knowledge on the science of fishery.
It provides discussions on a wide range of topics such as
trends in fish production; managing of fishery aquatic
environment; identification and classification of fishery
resources; and fishery resource management.
Limnologists, fisheries managers, and students in fisheries

science will find the book a good reference material.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO FISHERIES
Performance Objectives
1.1 Fishery and Fisheries 1
1.2 Types of Fishery 1
1.3 Characteristics of Fish 2
1.4 Types of Fishes 3
1.5 Importance of Fish 3
Revision Questions
CHAPTER TWO: PROCESS OF FISH PRODUCTION

2.1 Fish Farming 5
2.2 Importance of Growing Fish 5
2.3 Age and Size of Fish 6
2.4 Fish Farming Production 6
2.5 Fish Farming Distribution/Transportation 9
CHAPTER THREE: DIVISION OF FISH PRODUCTION

3.1 Capture Fishery 15
3.2 Culture Fishery 15
3.3 Types of Pond Culture System 16
3.4 Fish Culture Practices 17
3.5 Quality of Commonly Cultured Fish Species 18
CHAPTER FOUR: FISH POND
4.1 Introduction 21
4.2 Types of Fish Pond 21
4.3 Pond Construction 24
4.4 General Considerations in Selecting Suitable Pond Sites 25
4.5 Fish Pond Construction Cost Items 25
4.6 Culture System 27
CHARTER FIVE: MONITORING WATER QUALITY
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5.1 Water Quality Parameters 31
5.2 Managing Physical Properties of Pond Water 32
5.3 Methods of Monitoring Water Quality 33
CHAPTER SIX: FISH FEED MATERIALS

6.1 Introduction 35
6.2 Types of Fish Feed 35
6.3 Nutritive Value of Fish Feeds 36
6.4 Nutrient Requirement of Fish 37
CHAPTER SEVEN: FISH FEEDING

7.1 Feedstuffs in Fish Culture 39
7.2 Feed Formulation 39
7.3 Methods of Fish Feeding 40
CHAPTER EIGHT: POND PREPARATION AND MAINTENANCE

8.1 Preparation of a New Pond 41
8.2 Preparation of an Old Pond 41
8.3 Pond Management 41
CHAPTER NINE: MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR

HARVESTING FISH
9.1 Principles of Fish Harvesting (Cropping) 44
CHAPTER TEN: POST-HARVESTING PROCESSES
10.1 Introduction 51
10.2 Materials for Fish Processing 51
10.3 Methods of Fish Preservation 51
10.4 Marketing Channels/Routes for Fish 53
CHAPTER ELEVEN: FISH BREEDING
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11.1 Brood Stock Selection and Handling 56
11.2 Artificial Breeding 56
CHAPTER TWELVE: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF FISH

DISEASES
12.1 Introduction 59
12.2 Importance of Healthy Fish Stock 60
12.3 Factors Promoting ill-health and Diseases in Cultured Fish 60
12.4 Common Diseases of Cultured Fish 60
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: FISH CULTURE TOOLS AND

EQUIPMENT
13.1 Fish Culture Equipment 70
13.2 Fish Gears and Crafts Equipment 71
13.3 Fish Processing Equipment 72
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO FISHERIES
At the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
1. Define the term fishery
2. State the difference between fishery and fisheries
3. List five characteristics of fish
4. State the difference between cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes
5. List five benefits of fish
1.1 FISHERY AND FISHERIES

Fishery is the occupation, industry, or season of taking or catching or
rearing fish or other sea animals such as sponges, shrimp and seals. It is a
place where fish are reared for consumption or commercial purposes.
Fishery can also be described as a business of catching, processing,
packaging or selling fish or lobsters, shrimp or other aquatic animals. A
fishery may involve the capture of wild fish or raising of fish through fish
farming or aquaculture directly or indirectly. Over 30 million people in
Nigeria depend on fisheries and aquaculture.
Fisheries are all processes involved in fish production, processing,
marketing and distribution. Fishery is one aspect of fish production.
1.2 TYPES OF FISHERY

1. Saltwater or Fresh water – Fish growing naturally in water
bodies without human interference
2. Wild or Farmed – Controlled rearing of fish in ponds, farms
and in some instances natural water bodies
Fish
Fish, biologically speaking, is any animal with backbone that has gills
throughout life and has limbs, if any, in the shape of fins. It is a cold-
blooded animal living in an environment strictly different from where land
animals live. Fish is different from other aquatic animals such as shellfish,
cuttlefish, starfish, crayfish and jellyfish that do not fit into the biological
definition.
1
Fig. 1.1 Scaled fish Fig. 1.2 Dog fish
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF FISH

1. They are cold-blooded (Poikilotherms) vertebrates
2. Their body is well-suited for aquatic mode of life
3. Locomotion takes place with the help of paired (pectoral and
pelvic) and unpaired fins (dorsal, ventral, and caudal)
4. Fins are present for maintaining equilibrium of the body
5. Body is covered by dermal scales
6. The notochord is partially replaced by the vertebral column
7. Skull and the visceral arches are well developed
8. Respiration occurs through the gills
9. They have two-chambered venous heart
10. Blood circulation is of single type, i.e. only venous/deoxygenated
blood flows through the heart
11. The kidney of most adult fish is mesonephric/metanepheric
12. Lateral line and sense organs are well developed
13. Middle ear is absent and internal ear is provided with three semi-
circular pinner
14. The ventral and dorsal roots of spinal nerves are united at the base
15. The nerves are modulated
1.4 TYPE OF FISHES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Cartilaginous (Chondrichthyes) Bony (Osteichthyes) Fishes
2
Fishes
Endoskeleton is made up of Endoskeleton is made up of bones
cartilage
Scales are placoid Scales are cycloid and ctenoid
There are 5 pairs of gills directly There are 4 pairs of gills covered by
exposed the to outside operculum
Position of mouth is ventral Position of mouth is terminal
Tail is heterocercal Tail is homocercal
Males possess a pair of claspers for Males without claspers
copulation
Examples: scoliodon (shark) and Example: labeo (carp), catfish
rays
Fig. 1.3 Cartilaginous fish Fig. 1.4 Bony fish
1.5 IMPORTANCE OF FISH

 Food – source of protein, fat
 Medical purposes, e.g. cod liver oil
 Learning and research
 Sporting activities, e.g. during Argungu Fishing Festival
 Leather from sharks and electric fish (leather from shark is called
shagreen which is very strong and useful in leather industry)
 Some fishes are used for decoration, example gold fish
 Fish scales can be used for production of pearls like beads
 It can be processed into fish meal, fish oil, fish manure, etc.
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Summary
 Fishery is the occupation, industry, or season of taking or catching or
rearing fish or other sea animals such as sponges, shrimp, or seals.
 Fishery can be classified as saltwater or fresh water and wild or
farmed.
 Fish, biologically, is any animal with backbone, that has gills
throughout life and has limbs, if any, in the shape of fins.
 Fish types include cartilaginous and bony.
Revision Questions
1. Define the term fishery.
2. State the difference between fishery and fisheries.
3. List five characteristics of fish.
4. State the difference between cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes.
5. List five ways to show the importance of fish.
CHAPTER TWO
PROCESS OF FISH PRODUCTION
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1. Define fish farming
2. State the importance of growing fish
3. List five questions that are necessary in meeting adequate physical
conditions for fish to grow well under culture
4. List three marketing strategies for fish farmers
5. List four factors for consideration in fish transportation
6. List five basic rules and principles guiding fish transportation
2.1 FISH FARMING

Fish farming, otherwise called aquaculture, is an art and science of
controlled rearing of fish in ponds, farms, and in natural water bodies,
from hatchlings to mature size. In aquaculture, feeding, fertilization,
stocking combination, reproduction and harvesting are controlled.
Aquaculture is a relatively new practice in Nigeria. It is always useful for
fish farmers to know the profitability of fish culture in order to guide their
decision-making. Aquaculture involves the controlled culture of fin-fish
and other aquatic animals like frogs, lobster, oyster, and crayfish
(macrobracium).
Processes involved in fish production can be discussed under three
major headings -- production, marketing and distribution/transportation.
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF GROWING FISH

The practice of growing fish in ponds can be beneficial to a farmer. Such
benefits include the following:
1. Creation of additional source of protein needed in human diet for
repairs of body tissue and for healthy growth
2. Provision of additional source of income for farmer
3. Generation of employment opportunity for employable adults
4. Leads to maximization of non-productive part of land for farmer
5. Opens up local source of feed ingredients which farmer can exploit
for additional income. Ingredients for feeding fish include plant
materials like rice brans, maize (and other grain) brains, cotton
seed cake, groundnut cake, blood meal, bone meal, fish meal, and
palm-kernel cake
6. Generation of foreign exchange to the nation
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2.3 AGE AND SIZE OF FISH
Fish can be broadly classified into four main groups according to what life
circle stage they are in.
1. Newly hatched fish are called larvae or sac fry. They are slow-
moving and possess a yoke which provides food for at least 24
hours supply after hatching
2. Post-larvae do not have yoke sac and are commonly called fry. Fry
weigh less than 1g
3. Age 3 to 4 weeks old fish weighing more than 1g may be called
fingerlings while juveniles (5-8 weeks) may weigh 3-5g
4. Adult or table size fish of between 0.8kg and 1.5kg
2.4 FISH FARMING PRODUCTION

Under the right conditions, aquaculture can be very profitable. As in any
business enterprise, the role of management is central to success in fish
farming production. Management involves the integration of manpower,
materials and money in a judicious way such that anticipated profits can
be assured. Practising and potential aqua-culturists should be guided by
the following questions:
1. Do you already have suitable pond or a site suitable for ponds?
2. Do you have most of the machinery and equipment needed?
3. Do you have the necessary financial resources?
4. Is the potential for profit higher in aquaculture than that of other
possible enterprises?
5. Will the expected profit be adequate compensation for your labour,
management and risk?
6. Will investment and operating capital interest rates permit a
reasonable profit?
7. Is monoculture, polyculture, or integrated the most suitable for
your condition?
8. Will you be able to forgo income until you sell your fish crop?
9. Are you able to absorb occasional losses?
10. Are you willing to devote daily the time and effort required?
6
Aquaculture is capable of significantly expanding the availability of fish
products, and, true to the basic economic law of demand and supply,
prices will fall as supplies increase.
Other factors in fish production include the physical condition and other
factors of production – land, labour and capital.
Good physical conditions that are required for fish to grow well under
culture are prerequisites for a successful enterprise. Topography, soil
texture, regular water supply, and security issues are important. The
following questions are necessary in meeting adequate physical
conditions:
1. Is the topography of the area suitable for pond construction?
2. Will the soil retain water?
3. Are there enough water supplies to replace any water loss?
4. Is the pond area liable to flooding?
5. Are the drains adequate for proper water drainage?
6. Can wild fish be prevented from entering the pond?
7. Is the pond bottom stump-free to prevent difficulties in harvesting?
8. Is the pond close to your residence for prompt management and
monitoring?
Other major factors of production that are indispensable in economics are:

land, labour and capital. In aquaculture, the source of fingerlings,
adequacy of feed inputs and drugs, availability of technical support
(extension and consultancy) and feed storage facilities are also important
production factors.
Farmers should face the challenges of the following questions for
enhanced production:
1. Are good quality feeds readily available at competitive prices?
2. Do you have reliable supply of drugs and other vaccines?
3. Is the source of your fingerlings reliable?
4. Do you have dependable labour?
5. Is your feed storage facility a good one?
6. Do you know the extension agent/fishery officer in your area?
Appropriate record-keeping is also necessary in fish farming production.

Often, the major problem of most farm enterprises is lack of reliable
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economic data. The best source of data is farm record either on
commercial, pilot or experimental farms. The collection and analysis of
data on costs and returns based on farm records provide, among others, the
information necessary to:
1. Determine the relative profitability of various production
techniques or system
2. Compare the productivity of major inputs, such as land, labour and
capital, with that of alternative production activities, and
3. Improve the efficiency of the farm operation
There are two types of farm record, namely, daily and seasonal records.
The types of information that can be kept in records of aquaculture farms
include:
a) Input records. e.g. variable and fixed
b) Output record
c) Farm business analysis
d) Investment analysis
Table 2.1 A typical example of daily records in a fish farm
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2.5 FISH FARMING MARKETING
In fish marketing, the market has a key role to play in management
decisions taken on any aspect. Management decisions, which affect
customers, are part of marketing and must be considered from the
marketing point of view.
Marketing Strategies for Fish Farmers

1. Identify changing demands of marketplaces
2. Match production to market need
3. Select ideal candidate fish species for culture, i.e. fast growers,
hardy and good feed converters
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4. Evaluate market acceptance of fish species to be grown
5. Attempt satisfying buying pattern of consumers. More demand
should lead to farm expansion
6. Match production and consumers’ needs to available resources
7. Apply the marketing mix concept (4 Ps):
a) Product planning and development
b) Place for transfer of product to consumer, i.e. ideal selling
location
c) Promotion of product sales by advertisement and other sales
promotion
d) Price determination and pricing policy
Relevant questions in marketing the fish are:

1. Do you know any established market for your fish?
2. Will the market for your fish at the planned sales time be
available?
3. Are there suitable arrangements for harvesting your fish?
4. Can you be flexible and harvest fish during the off-season?
5. Is there an alternative marketing strategy which you hope to fall
back to in case there is a problem with current arrangement?
Fish Farming Distribution/Transportation

The way and manner live fish are transported is a very important aspect of
fish culture. In most cases, fries (freshly hatched and baby fish) and
fingerlings (a few weeks old baby fish) must be transported from hatchery
to pond for stocking. Brood fish (sexually mature fish selected for
reproduction) are sometimes transported into hatchery to spawn. It may
even be necessary to transport live harvested fish to market for sale. A fish
farmer must be familiar with the principles, techniques and practices of
fish transportation and distribution so as to minimize fish death resulting
10
from such transportation. The ultimate aim of transportation is to provide
healthy live fish at the destination. Fish are generally transported in
containers such as cans of different sizes, pots of ceramic or metal,
wooden or metal buckets, vats, barrels, plastic bags, Styrofoam boxes,
bottles and jugs. Once fish have been placed in a transport container, they
should be brought to their destination by the quickest possible means that
will provide relative smooth and direct route. This may be by foot, animal
cart, bicycle, boat or vehicle.
Factors to Consider in Fish Transportation

The following factors directly influence fish transport. They include:
1. Tolerance to transport
2. Presence of food in the intestine
3. Age and size of fish
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Table 2.4 showing stress tolerance of some commonly cultured fish
species
There are two basic transportation systems for live fish: the closed system
and the open system.
Basic Rules and Principles Guiding Fish Transportation

1. Pre-transportation handling activities such as harvesting,
packaging and loading into the vehicle must be carried out without
waste of time to minimize struggling and to avoid overcrowding
and suffocation
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2. Remove weak and sick fish before packaging
3. Stop feeding fish 24 to 48 hours prior to transporting them
4. Prepare all transport containers, oxygen and other equipment
before setting out
5. Harvest fish for transport during the coolest part of the day (very
early morning)
6. Quickly, but gently, lead harvested fish into a transport container
7. Insulate fish from heat during transport
8. Transport fish on the fastest, smoothest means of transportation
available
9. Petroleum products and other dangerous chemicals should not be
in the same compartment with the fish. These can cause fish death
10. Upon arrival at their “new home”, adjust fish to their new
surroundings slowly by gradually exchanging water to avoid
temperature shock
11. Allow fish to swim from the transport container into the new pond.
Never throw or pour the fish into the pond.
Summary
 Fish farming, otherwise called aquaculture, is an art and science of
controlled rearing of fish in ponds, farms, and in natural water bodies
from hatchlings to mature size.
 Fish can be broadly classified into four main groups: post-larvae
commonly called fry, fingerlings and juveniles; and adult or table size
fish.
 Appropriate record-keeping is also necessary in fish farming
production.
 In fish marketing, market plays a key role in management decisions
 Fish are generally transported in containers such as cans of different
sizes, pots of ceramic or metal, wooden or metal buckets, vats, barrels,
plastic bags, Styrofoam boxes, bottles, jugs etc.
Revision Questions
1. Define fish farming.
13
2. List five points to show the importance of growing fish.
3. List five questions that are necessary in meeting adequate physical
conditions for fish to grow well under culture.
4. List three marketing strategies for fish farmers.
5. List four factors for consideration in fish transportation.
6. List five basic rules and principles guiding fish transportation.
CHAPTER THREE
DIVISION OF FISH PRODUCTION
14
1. Define capture fishery
2. List five methods involved in capture fishery
3. List five materials required in capture fishery
4. Define culture fishery
5. List two types of pond culture system
3.1 CAPTURE FISHERY

This is the act of fish growing in natural water bodies such as sea, lagoon,
lake, rivers etc. without human interference.
Methods Involved in Capture Fishery

1. Hook and line
2. Cast netting
3. Set netting
4. Traps/trapping
5. Trawling
Materials Required for Capture Fishery

1. Nets
2. Hook and line
3. Cages
4. Knives
5. Traps and baskets
6. Canoe
7. Ship
3.2 CULTURE FISHERY
Fish culture involves the controlled cultivation and harvesting of fish for
either family consumption or sale in the market. Fish culture is over 40
years in Nigeria, but it is yet to be developed when compared with arable
agriculture and livestock production.
A wide range of practices exist in culturing fish. Fish can be cultured in
marine (sea water), brackish (mixture of sea and freshwater, i.e. lagoons)
or freshwater (rivers, streams and lakes in the inland). Depending on the
facilities designed to serve as enclosures in rearing, fish can be grown in
15
earthen ponds, concrete tanks, cages, pens, or run extensive or intensive
system. When taking species combination into consideration, culture
systems can be either monoculture (rearing one type of fish) or polyculture
(rearing two or more species of fish together).
Common Qualities of Culture Fish Species

1. Hardy larvae
2. Acceptability of artificial fish feed
3. Tolerance to poor water quality
4. Ability to reproduce naturally or artificially in captivity
Characteristics of Common Culture Fish Species
1. Presence/absence of scales
2. Shape of mouth, tail, fins, scales, general body shape
3.3 TYPES OF POND CULTURE SYSTEM

Depending on the level of management inputs, especially in feeding,
fertilization and liming, pond culture system can be classified as extensive,
semi-intensive, intensive or hyper-intensive.
1. Extensive Culture System: This is when food in a pond is
exclusively naturally occurring without supplementation either by
feeds or fertilizer. This practice is popular with small-scale
producers.
2. Semi-intensive Culture System: In this system, there is occasional
supplementary feeds addition and natural productivity is
augmented with manures.
3. Intensive Culture System: This demands a higher level of
management inputs. Feeds and fertilizers are intensively applied
following appropriate recommended rates. Fish grow very fast
when intensively managed and grow least in extensive
management.
4. Hyper-intensive Culture System: This system demands the highest
level of management inputs. The culture environment is
completely under control. Feeding is totally with highly formulated
pellets. Mechanical and automated feeders are used.
3.4 FISH CULTURE PRACTICES

16
Fish culture practices can be classified as monoculture or polyculture.
1. Monoculture: This is the practice of culturing only one species of
fish in a pond.
2. Polyculture: This is the practice of culturing more than one species
of fish in the same pond. Fish yield under polyculture can be
higher and foods in the pond properly utilized, since the different
fish species exploit food at different trophic levels.
Fig. 3.1 Diagram of monoculture fish pond
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Fig. 3.2 Commonly cultured fish in fresh water pond in Nigeria
3.5 QUALITY OF COMMONLY CULTURED FISH SPECIES

Generally, the purpose of rearing fish (fish farming) is to have enough to
eat and generate additional income especially from commercial farms. Not
all fish species perform well in culture. For a profitable venture, the
following species are recommended:
i. Fast grower, e.g. Heterobranchus
ii. Accept and utilize supplementary feeds properly, e.g. Clarias
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iii. Must be tolerant to poor water quality, e.g. Clarias
iv. Must be hardy and resistant to disease, e.g. Clarias
v. Easy to breed in captivity, e.g. Tilapia
vi. Must attract low production cost, e.g. Tilapia/Clarias
vii. Acceptable and marketable to consumers, e.g. Carp/Clarias
Fig. 3.3 Clarias fish
Fig. 3.4 Tilapia fish
Summary
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 Capture fishery is the act of fish growing in natural water bodies such
as sea, lagoon, lake, rivers without human interference.
 Fish culture involves the controlled cultivation and harvesting of fish
for either family consumption or sales in the market.
 Pond culture system can be classified as extensive, semi-intensive,
intensive or hyper-intensive.
 Fish culture practices can be classified as monoculture or polyculture.
Revision Questions
1. Define capture fishery.
2. List five methods involved in capture fishery.
3. List five materials required in capture fishery.
4. Define culture fishery.
5. List two types of pond culture system.
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CHAPTER FOUR
FISH POND
At the end of this chapter, the learners should be able to:
1. List three common types of fish pond
2. List the steps involved in pond construction
3. List two types of culture system practice in Nigeria
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A fish pond is an enclosure (earthen or concrete) built to retain water for
the purpose of growing fish. Wooden troughs, fibre glass and plastic tanks
are other methods of growing fish. Growing fish in ponds from which they
cannot escape allows feeding, breeding and harvesting of the fish in a
well-planned way.
4.2 TYPES OF FISH POND
1. Earthen ponds
These are constructed by digging soil in a carefully selected site
that is good enough to retain water for fish culture. Where the soil
structure is weak to retain adequate water, dug-out earthen pond
can be reinforced with concrete to make it suitable for fish culture.
Fig. 4.1 Earthen pond

2. Concrete/Embankment ponds
These are ponds constructed on the ground, that is, above the
ground surface, with concrete wall. Concrete ponds can be used to
21
raise fish in a place with porous or sandy soil or within living
premises.
Fig. 4.2 Concrete/embankment ponds

3. Barrage ponds
This is a type of pond constructed by building a wall across a
stream running in a low valley. The wall ensures enough water
retention for fish growth.
Fig. 4.3 Barrage ponds
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4. Diversion ponds
This is pond supplied by water diverted from a river/stream
through a channel. Such pond is also known as relief pond
Fig. 4.4 Diversion Ponds

5. Rosary ponds
These are ponds built in a string and each drains into the other and
are all managed as a single unit due to their water connection.
6. Parallel ponds
These are ponds located in an area with each having its own inlet
and outlet.
7. Sunken pond
The pond floor is below the level of the surrounding land. The
pond is fed by groundwater, rain water or surface runoff. It can be
supplemented by pumping. Sunken pond is undrainable or partially
drainable. It can be built as dugout pond or from existing hollow or
depression.
23
Fig. 4.5 Sunken pond
Other culturing facilities include tank (fibre or glass), pens and cages, and
race ways.
Components of ponds:
- In-lets
- Out-lets
- Dykes
- Spill way, etc.
Pond Construction
After conducting a feasibility study and planning on the type and size of
pond to build on the site selected, construction work can start.
Construction of a large farm may require the services of an aquaculture
engineer or a technical expert from a fisheries institution.
The main parts of any fish pond to be constructed are the dam walls
(dykes), the water inlet and outlet system. Pond dykes must be well
compacted to prevent leakages. Concrete ponds are preferable in areas
where the soil is too sandy for earthen ponds or enough land is not
available or the pond is required within the living premises. The cost of
constructing a concrete pond varies with the size of pond, location,
availability and cost of labour, source of water and cost of inputs such as
cement, sand, gravels, plastic pipes, and solid blocks.
In general, steps in pond construction can be outlined as follows:
a) Surveying and clearing land site
b) Marking out area of pond
c) Measuring and marking out the walls
d) Excavating the pond
e) Embankment/pond wall building
f) Drainage structure – pond inlet and outlet
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4.4 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING
SUITABLE POND SITES
Things required for a suitable pond site include:
1. Water source and supply: Sources of water can either be from
river, well or borehole. A clean water supply is needed for a
productive fish pond.
2. Nature of the soil/land availability: soil type includes pervious,
impervious and peaty soil. Soil that is not acidic and can retain
water for a longer period is preferred for fish pond.
3. Topography (landscape): These could mean the slope, level and the
landscape which are critical conditions for a good pond
construction.
4. Vegetation of the site: Good vegetation that will not habour
parasite to the fish is recommended for fish site.
5. Accessibility of the project site: Project site must be accessible by
road for easy transportation of fish pond accessories and
evacuating fish product from fish farm.
6. Security: Fish pond infrastructure and fish stock must be protected
from theft so that the farmer can enjoy maximum profit from his
investment.
7. Labour availability: Required labour must be readily available and
at moderate charges.
8. Availability of inputs
9. Market for products: Fish farm product needs a ready-made market
to reduce loss because of the delicate nature of fish products to
decay.
4.5 FISH POND CONSTRUCTION COST ITEMS

Construction cost items are difficult to estimate since prices of inputs vary
from place to place and even year to year. Below is the information that
would help a fish farmer in arriving at useful estimates, depending on the
pond size and area of location.
1. Earthen Pond
i. Cost of land acquisition
ii. Cost of labour to excavate the land to required depth
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iii. Cost of construction of pond well
iv. Cost of fencing materials to prevent human and animal
intrusion
v. Cost of pipes for water inlet and outlet (and other
accessories)
vi. Cost of fingerlings to be purchased
vii. Cost of feeds – e.g. grains, brans, groundnut cake etc.
viii. Cost of fertilizer/manure/lime
ix. Cost of harvesting net/gear
x. Miscellaneous cost of repairs, and other minor maintenance
practices (operating cost)
2. Concrete Pond
i. Cost of blocks
ii. Cost of cement, sand gravel and fine stones
iii. Cost of plumbing accessories
iv. Cost of concrete nylon and netting
v. Cost of fencing materials to prevent human and animals
from intrusion
vi. Cost of fingerlings to be purchased
vii. Cost of feeds
viii. Cost of fertilizer/manure
ix. Cost of harvesting net/gear
x. Operating cost
xi. Cost of labour
Culturing Facilities
 Tanks – These are facilities used to retain water in which fish are
cultured. They can be fibre tanks, glass tanks, concrete tanks, pens,
cages, happa, and reservoir. The main medium in which fish is
cultured is water which can only be retain artificially by the materials
listed.
4.5 CULTURE SYSTEM

Pond culture practices can be primarily classified as monoculture or
polyculture. Others are integrated fish farming, intensive and extensive
culture system.
26
Monoculture
This is the practice of culturing only one species of fish in a pond unit.
Under monoculture, a farmer may grow only clarias in the pond. He will
be able to know more about the management of clarias than other fish
species.
Productivity is always high, there is no competition with other species and
there is no cannibalism.
Fig. 4.6 Monoculture system
Polyculture
This is the practice of culturing more than one species of fish in the same
pond. Fish yield under polyculture can be higher and food in the pond
properly utilized, since the different fish species exploit food at different
tropic levels.
There is usually high productivity and there are varieties of species. There
could be cannibalism.
27
Fig. 4.7 Polyculture
Integrated fish farming

This is a fish culture that is practised alongside other farming such as
poultry, animal husbandry and crop farming. The waste from one is used
for the other. There is waste recycling in this culture system.
28
Fig. 4.8 Integrated fish farming
Intensive
This type of fish culture can be homestead or backyard ponds. It is
managed to augment family protein intake. The size of such pond could
vary according to land space available. There is usually high productivity
or yield of fish. It is cost-intensive as feed must be administered to the
fishes on a daily basis.
Extensive
This type of fish culture usually has an area of land not less than 0.25
hectare under culture. In this type of culture system, the fish(es) is/are not
fed with supplements but they are fed naturally by the use of the growing
natural fish food called planktons such as zooplankton, phytoplankton or
diatom and other microscopic organisms in the pond. The fish depend
wholly on the ability of the photosynthetic plants to grow and that is why
fertilizer and manure are usually applied in such ponds regularly to
enhance their growth. Generally, in this system, fish yield or productivity
is low. Cost is low.
Summary
 A fish pond is an enclosure (earthen or concrete) built to retain water
for the purpose of growing fish.
 The major types of fish pond are earthen and concrete ponds.
 The main parts of any fish pond to be constructed are the dam walls
(dikes), the water inlet and outlet system.
29
 Integrated fish farming is a fish culture that is practised alongside
other farming such as poultry, animal husbandry and crop farming.
Revision Questions
1. List three common types of fish pond.
2. List the steps involved in pond construction.
3. List two types of culture system practised in Nigeria.
30
CHAPTER FIVE
MONITORING WATER QUALITY
At the end of the chapter, learners should be able to:
1. List three quality parameters of water suitable for fish growth
2. List three chemical properties of water in fish rearing
3. List three methods of monitoring water quality
5.1 WATER QUALITY

A good water condition is a necessity for the survival and growth of fish
since the entire life process of the fish is wholly dependent on the quality
of its environment. The physical, chemical and biological qualities of
water should be closely monitored by a fish farmer when raising fish in a
pond or artificial body of water.
Water Quality Parameters

The following should serve as guides in assisting a fish farmer to know
when pond water is deteriorating in quality and therefore not suitable for
fish growth:
1. When water is clear – low or absence of biological production and
so not fertile for fish to grow well
2. When water is muddy – lots of clay presence are not good for fish
culture
3. When water is deep green in colour – over-production of
phytoplanktons and zooplantktons or excess addition of fertilizer,
manure or nutrient rich feeds to a pond
4. When fish pond gives offensive odour – polluted water due to
excess feeds, inflow of polluted water or chemicals for arable
crops around the pond site
5. When fish are always struggling at the pond water surface to get
oxygen – low dissolved oxygen (DO)
It is advisable for the farmer to correct any observed anomaly in water
quality before damage is done.
5.2 MANAGING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF POND WATER

31
The most important physical features of pond water are transparency and
colour, as well as the temperature.
1. Transparency and colour: Pale colour, light greenish or greenish
waters are very suitable for fish culture. Transparency can be
measured by
i) use of Secchi disk
ii) use of arm
2. Temperature: Research has shown that a temperature range of
between 25o and 32o is very suitable for fish culture. Temperature
can be measured by a simple mercury thermometer.
Managing Chemical Properties of Pond Water

In fish ponds, chemical properties of water include the hydrogen ion
concentration (pH), the dissolved oxygen content (DO), the conductivity
of the water, the carbon dioxide content (CO 2), and the amount of mineral
elements like nitrogen and phosphorus and compounds like nitrite and
nitrate. However, the most important chemical properties managed in fish
ponds are the pH (measure of total acidity and total alkalinity of pond
water) and the DO (measure of the content of soluble atmospheric oxygen
in pond water).
i) Dissolved Oxygen (DO): The DO content of pond water depends to
a large extent on water temperature, quality of organic matter present
and the population of submerged plants lead to dissolved oxygen
depletion, and this can be dangerous to fish. Researches have proved
that fish feeling growth and reproduction is enhanced at DO level of
5ml/l and above (DO is measured in milligram of aqueous oxygen
per litre of pond water.
ii) Hydrogen Concentration (pH) – The various sources of water used in
fish culture are not chemically pure and contain, in solution,
different substances which give it an acidic, neutral or alkaline
reaction. The intensity of these characteristics is measured by
determining the exact quantity of hydrogen ions; pH readings range
from 1 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline). A pH reading of 7
indicates neutral point. Research has indicated that most of the fresh
water/brackish water fish species in the tropics grow very well at a
pH range of between 6.7 and 9.9.
32
Others are:
iii) Carbon (iv) oxide (CO2)
iv) Amount of mineral elements like nitrogen and phosphorus and
compounds like nitrite and nitrate
v) Turbidity
vi) Conductivity
5.3 METHODS OF MONITORING WATER QUALITY

i) Use of DO meter – water quality kit and Winkler’s method. Both
instruments are expensive. It is mostly used by researchers. A fish
farmer can contact the nearest extension agent to liaise with
scientist universities or research institute nearby for water analysis
in case of serious problem noticed on commercial farms.
vii) Use of pH meter - There are two methods of determining the pH of
pond water – use of pH meter (electrometic method), use of pH
paper such as litmus paper or universal indicator. Correction of pH
of pond water is done by liming.
Optimum Water Parameters

i) DO (5.0 – 8.0 mg/L)
ii) pH (6.5- 8.0)
iii) turbidity: less than 30cm
Fig. 5.1 pH range for fish culture
33
Fig. 5.2 Range and colour changes
Summary
 A good water condition is a necessity for the survival and growth of
fish since the entire life process of the fish is wholly dependent on the
quality of its environment.
 The most important physical features of pond water are the
transparency and colour, as well as the temperature.
 In fish ponds, the chemical properties of water include dissolved
oxygen (do), hydrogen concentration (pH), carbon(iv)oxide (Co2),
turbidity, and conductivity.
Revision Questions
1. List three quality parameters of water suitable for fish growth.
2. List three chemical properties of water in fish rearing.
3. List three methods of monitoring water quality.
34
CHAPTER SIX
FISH FEED MATERIALS
1. List two types of fish feed.
2. State the nutritive value of the following fish feeds:
i) Maize (white)
ii) Maize (yellow)
iii) Guinea corn
iv) Palm-kernel cake
v) Cotton seed cake
vi) Rice bran/husk
3. List the essential nutrients required by fish.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Fish food consists of natural food and artificial (supplementary) feeds.
When fish have balanced diet to eat, they grow fast and stay healthy.
When natural foods are not available in sufficient quantities to provide
adequate nutrition for fish growth, feeds that are manufactured or grow
outside of the fish pond may be fed at regular intervals (daily, weekly,
etc.). Good quality feed for fish farming purpose should at least have the
following proximate composition – protein (35%), minerals and vitamins
(32 – 33%), fats (11%), carbohydrate (6 – 19%).
6.2 TYPES OF FISH FEED

- Natural Fish Feed: These are living organisms produced in the
water where fish live. They provide essential nutrients. They
include:
i) Phytoplankton (microscopic plants) e.g. algae, rotifers
ii) Zooplankton (microscopic animals), e.g. amoeba
iii) Earthworms
iv) Insects and larvae
v) Maggot
vi) Crustaceans
vii) Copepods
viii) Molluscs
35
- Supplementary Feeds: These are artificially formulated feeds
(pelleted and non-pelleted feeds). They are manufactured or grow
outside of the fish pond and may be fed at regular intervals.
Adult fish prefer feeds available in pellet forms. Sinking pellets are
more suitable to bottom feeders like clarias and heterotis, while for
tilapia floating pellets are suitable.
Materials/ingredients for preparing supplementary fish feed

i) Egg yolk
ii) Shrimp flour
iii) Oil cakes
iv) Rice bran
v) Soya bean cake
vi) Groundnut cake
vii) Fish meal
viii) Bone/blood meal
ix) Wheat bran
x) Cotton seed cake
xi) Red oil
xii) Garri/corn flower
xiii) Vitamin premix
6.3 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH FEEDS

Feedstuff %Protein % Fat % % Carbo- % Dry % Mineral Conversion
Fibre hydrate Matter Ratio
Maize (white) 9.3 5.0 24 70.9 88.0 1.8 5
Maize (yellow) 10.8 3.6 3.5 71.2 88 1.9 5
Guinea corn 11.2 2.5 2.3 74.1 88 1.8 5
Palm-kernel cake 19.1 7.6 43.2 17.9 - 5.5 8
Cotton seed cake 40.1 8.3 31.9 12.4 91 5.1 5
Rice bran/husk 9.9 4.4 40.2 8.7 91 21.8 5
Groundnut cake 40.6 23.4 6.0 19.0 93 6.2 5
Raw soya bean 40.7 22.0 6.3 16.6 90 6.4 4
Soybean meal 46.2 24.8 4.1 17.2 90 7.9 4
Fish meal (tilapia) 57.7 1.8 5.2 - 92 33.6 2
Clupeid 71.3 8.0 1.1 - 92 17.8 2
Cow blood meal 86.0 0.7 21 6.5 92 5.0 2
36
Millet 9.0 5.0 0.7 83.2 90 2.3 5
Flour mean sweepings 12.5 14.5 7.5 58.0 - - -
Brewers waste 22.8 17.8 18.8 46.4 93 - 10
Cassava (peeled) 2.6 0.5 0.4 94.1 88 2.4 18
Cassava (peels only) 5.3 1.2 21.0 66.6 88 6.0 18
Cassava (unpeeled) 2.7 0.5 3.1 91.0 88 2.7 18
Cassava leaves 14.7 8.4 15.6 45.2 88 16.1 18
Mucuna 28.5 0.7 9.5 57.2 91 4.0 4
Water leaf 21.1 1.5 10.3 87.4 - 4.6 -
6.4 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF FISH

Essential nutrients required by fish include:
1. Protein and amino acid – for body building, growth maintenance
and reproduction
2. Carbohydrates – for needed energy in the body activities
3. Fats and fatty acids – for energy and normal body functioning
4. Vitamins and minerals – for growth maintenance and reproduction
Summary
 Fish food consists of natural food and artificial (supplementary) feeds.
 When fish have balanced diet to eat, they grow fast and stay healthy.
 A good quality feed for fish farming purpose should at least have the
following proximate composition: protein (35%), minerals and
vitamins (32 – 33%), fats (11%), carbohydrate (6 – 19%).
 The two types of fish feed are natural and supplementary feeds.
 Essential nutrients required by fish include: protein and amino acid
(for body building, growth maintenance and reproduction);
carbohydrates (for needed energy in the body activities); fats and fatty
acids (for energy and normal body functioning); and vitamins and
minerals.
Revision Questions
1. List two types of fish feed.
37
2. State the nutritive value of the following fish feeds:
i) Maize (white)
ii) Maize (yellow)
iii) Guinea corn
iv) Palm kennel cake
v) Cotton seed cake
vi) Rice bran/husk
3. List the essential nutrients required by fish.
CHAPTER SEVEN
FISH FEEDING
At the end of the lesson, learners should be able to:
1. List two major classes of feedstuff in fish culture
2. State the ideal feeding periods for fish
3. List three fish feeding techniques
7.1 FEEDSTUFFS IN FISH CULTURE

38
Feedstuffs are classified into major groups in fish culture – energy
feedstuffs and protein supplements.
1. Energy feedstuffs: These are feedstuffs containing less than 20%
crude protein. They are essentially of plant origin. Examples are
cassava, wheat offal, rice bran, maize, and guinea corn.
2. Protein supplements: These are feedstuffs containing more than
20% crude protein. They are made either of plant or animal
materials. Protein of animal origin is of higher quality than those of
plant origin. Examples: fish meal, bone meal, and blood meal.
Soybean meal, groundnut cake and cottonseed cake are some
examples of plant protein materials.
7.2 FEED FORMULATION

Feed formulation is the method of combining selected feed ingredients in
varying proportions to comply with predetermined nutrient requirements.
When feedstuffs’ desired percentage crude protein content has been
chosen, they can be prepared/compounded through a process of milling,
mixing and pelleting.
Fish feeding Regime

i) 4% --5% body weight for fingerlings, juveniles and sub-
adults
ii) 2.5% -- 3.5% body weight for adults
Ideal Fish Feeding Period

i) Three times daily for fingerlings
ii) Two times daily for adults
7.3 METHODS OF FEEDING FISH

i) Broadcasting
ii) Spot feeding
iii) Automatic feeding
39
Feeding of Fish: Feeds are provided to increase fish yield and especially
beneficial:
- when fertilization is not practised
- when pond does not respond well to fertilization
- when fish are stocked at high density in a pond
- when fish are confined in a cage, pen or other culture media
- when fish are held in tanks
Feeding, however, should be done daily and at appropriate time.
Summary
 Feedstuffs are classified into major groups in fish culture – energy
feedstuffs and protein supplements.
 Feed formulation is the method of combining selected feed ingredients
in varying proportions to comply with predetermined nutrient
requirements.
 Ideal fish feeding periods are three times daily for fingerlings and two
times daily for adults.
 Methods of feeding fish are broadcasting, spot feeding and automatic
feeding.
Revision Questions
1. List two major classes of feedstuff in fish culture.
2. State the ideal feeding periods for fish.
3. List three fish feeding techniques.
CHAPTER EIGHT
POND PREPARATION AND MAINTENANCE
At the end this chapter, learners should be able to:
1. List steps to be taken in pond construction
2. State five practical hints that will help in pond structure
maintenance
3. Define the term fish stocking and fish sorting
40
8.1 PREPARATION OF A NEW POND
A fish farmer should develop maintenance culture for the pond
constructed. Fish ponds that are well maintained can serve the farmer for
between 10 and 15 years or even longer. To prepare a new pond shortly
after the construction, the following steps are necessary:
i) Flush in water and drain out after 21 days
ii) Check leakages
iii) Lime (for earthen ponds)
iv) Flush in water regularly
v) Fertilize
vi) Stock fingerlings
8.2 PREPARATION OF OLD PONDS

i) Drain and dry ponds
ii) Remove silt and debris
iii) Lime
iv) Flush in water
v) Fertilize
vi) Stock
8.3 POND MANAGEMENT

The following practical hints will help in pond structure maintenance:
1. Newly constructed pond should not be stocked with fish species
immediately. It should be flooded with water to desired level and
observed for one to two weeks.
2. The crest of the pond and the pond’s surrounding should not be left
bare to discourage erosion during rainfall. Grasses like vetivar,
carpet grass and bahama grass can be planted.
3. Pond environment should be cleared of bushes.
4. Regularly check the pond structure, and any noticed damages
should immediately be amended.
5. Prevent any animals from exploiting the pond environment.
6. After an average production cycle of 12 – 18 months, pond water
should be totally drained and exposed to sunlight. This will help in
disinfecting the pond.
41
Other practices involved in pond management include:
i) Monitoring water quality
ii) Daily checks of leakages/seepage
iii) Stocking
The rate of stocking/stocking density should be 2--4 fishes per square

metre, depending on culturing system.
Fish Stocking
- Method of Fish Stocking: The recommended method for stocking
of fish is to lower the fingerlings with the container inside water to
allow the fish to adjust to the new environment and swim out on
their own.
- Period of Fish Stocking: The best time to stock fish is early in the
morning or late in the evening.
- Transportation of Fingerlings: Fingerlings are best transported

by using oxygenated bags or clean big containers.
- Sorting of Fishes: Because of the carnivorous nature of most fish,

sorting is done monthly. This will allow selecting fish of same size
into one pond to avoid the bigger ones having undue advantage on
the smaller one.
Summary
 Fish ponds that are well maintained can serve the farmer for between
10 – 15 years or even longer.
 The recommended method for stocking of fish is to lower the
fingerlings with the container inside water to allow the fish to adjust to
the new environment and swim out on their own.
 The best time to stock fish is early in the morning or late in the
evening.
 Fingerlings are best transported by using oxygenated bags or clean big
containers.
42
 Because of the carnivorous nature of most fish, sorting is done
monthly.
Revision Questions
1. List steps to be taken in pond construction.
2. State five practical hints that will help in pond structure
maintenance.
3. Define the term fish stocking and fish sorting.
CHAPTER NINE
MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR HARVESTING FISH
1. List and define three types of fish cropping
43
2. List five types of gears used in fish harvesting
3. List five methods involved in harvesting fish
9.1 PRINCIPLES OF FISH HARVESTING (CROPPING)

Fish harvesting is simply the catching or capture of fish and all other
aquatic animals. The techniques of fishing consist of fishing methods as
well as fish gear. Fishing method is the manner in which fish are caught
and fishing gear is the implement developed for catching or harvesting of
fish. A fish may be caught by the filtration of water or by disabling the
fish or by entangling or by offering bait and preventing its escape. In fish
culture system, three types of cropping are practised in routine
management:
a) Test cropping: This is a routine cropping of fish to monitor their
growth and health. After examination, test-cropped fish should be
returned to the pond. A scoop net is suitable for test cropping.
Fig. 9.1 A scoop net
b) Partial harvesting: When different age groups of the same fish

species or different species combination are reared together in a
pond, the fish are bound to mature to table sizes at different times.
When mature fish is selected for market sale or family
consumption while undersized ones are returned to the pond,
44
partial harvesting is said to have taken place. Periodic harvesting
of pond fish enables the farmer to generate revenue periodically.
Draw net is suitable for harvesting pond fish.
c) Total harvesting: Total pond harvest, from management point of

view, can be carried out at the end of a production cycle or in cases
of emergency like disease outbreak. A draw net or drag net is most
suitable for total cropping of pond fish.
Fig. 9.2 Picture showing total harvesting of fish

Fishing Gears
These are implements developed for the purpose of fish catching
(harvesting). Fish can be caught through many means by the fish farmer.
Such classifications of fishing gears include:
- Without gear: These include hand-picking and the use of simple
tools like basket and knife.
- Grapping and wounding gear: Use of implement such as spears,
clamps, tongs, rakes or harpoons to catch fish.
- Stupefying devices: Fish are caught by preventing them from
escaping by stupefying or stunning. It can either be done by
mechanical, chemical or electrical method.
45
- Lines: Here, fishes are offered bait which once taken makes them
unable to escape.
- Traps: In this method, the fish enters the trap voluntarily but is
prevented from coming out by the means of certain arrangement.
- Bag nets: Kept vertically by a frame on the opening side and
horizontally by the current. Fish enter voluntarily and are caught
by filtering.
- Drive in nets: In this case, the fish to be caught are driven into the
gear by swimming or diving fishermen.
Materials for Fishing Gears
The basic materials used in fishing gears are called fibres. It is a unit of
matter of hair-like dimension whose length is at least 200 times greateer
than its width.
- Natural fibres: They are from plants or animals, e.g. seed fibres
(cotton), bast fibres (jute, ramie hemp), leal fibres (Manila, sisal),
fruit fibres (coir). Animal fibres are silk, wood and hair.
- Synthetic fibres: These are manufactured by synthetic process from
substances like phenol, benzene, acetylene, prussic acid etc.
Examples are PA, PE, PES, PVA, PVC, PVD, and PP.
- Twines: Two or more yarns are twisted together to form a balanced
structure of continuous length called twine.
- Ropes: This is cordage, with the circumference of 25mm or more.
- Floats: These are essential components of a fishing gear which
help to keep the gear in required position. They are of two types.
 Low density materials float like wood, cork, rubber materials, sponge
plastic.
 High-density materials float like glass, aluminum, steel and
polyethylene spheres.
- Nets: This consists of a fabric or thread, twine or cord, the
intersections of which are firmly knotted so as to form the meshes
of fixed dimensions. Net types used in active netting include the
seines and trawls, and those used in passive netting are gill nets
and trap nets. It is the fishing implements employed in sea, lake or
river fishing. They may be small or large in size and can be made
of cotton, silk, flax, or flax hemp, attached to synthetic nylon or
46
terrilyn fibres spanned into thicker twins of many strands. The
strands are then interlocked to form webs keeping the size of the
mesh according to the fish captured. They include fixed or
stationary nets, bag nets, boat seines, shore seine, gill nets, drift
nets, and cast nets.
47
Fig. 9.3 Different types of net
- Hooks and lines: Lines are generally made of cotton and line fixed
to a baited hook. Different types of baits are used, depending upon
the type of fish to be captured. Polychetes, wheat flour, clams,
mussels and chicken intestine are used for catching the species.
Algal baits are also used for catching them. Hooks of line are tied
to a pole (bamboo or wood) with a line being a length of 1-1.5m so
that fishes at the distance can be caught using canoes.
Canoe/Boats: They are built of planks keeping the keel portion

thicker than the sides. The space left between boats is filled with
glue soaked in cotton to make them light in weight. The size may
vary from large (30-40 feet in length), (25-30 feet width) and 2-5
feet depth. Canoe and boat could include dug-out canoe,
wooden/flat bottom canoe, motorized canoe, dingy, and trawlers.
48
Fig. 9.4 Different types of canoe
Hooks and lines: Lines are generally made up of cotton and line. Hand
lines are operated by a single man either from the shore or from the dugout
canoe. Different types of baits are used depending upon the type of fish to
be captured. Polychetes, wheat flour, clams, mussels, chicken intestine and
algal baits are used for catching.
Fig. 9.5 Hooks and lines

Activities: Visit to fish processing and harvesting tools craftsmen, to
understudy the process of producing relevant materials.
Methods Involved in Harvesting Fish

i) Using hooks and lines
ii) Spearing
iii) Netting
iv) Trawling
v) Draining the water (partial or complete)
vi) Gourds and pots
vii) Baskets
viii) Electrofishing/electro-stunning
49
ix) Trapping, e.g. triggered and funnel entrance traps
x) Utrasonics
Summary
 Fish harvesting is simply the catching or capture of fish and all other
aquatic animals.
 The three types of cropping practised in routine management include
test cropping, partial harvesting, and total harvesting.
Revision Questions
1. List and define three types of fish cropping.
2. List five types of gears used in fish harvesting.
3. List five methods involved in harvesting fish.
50
CHAPTER TEN
POST-HARVESTING PROCESSES
1. List five processes involved in post-harvesting of fish
2. List four materials used in fish processing
3. List and define three methods of fish preservation
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The principal causes of spoilage of fish and food in general are the growth
of microorganisms, the action of naturally occurring enzymes in the fish or
food caused by chemical reactions and physical degradation and
desiccation. Post-harvesting of fish, if handled properly, will lead to
maximum profit, but if not the farmer may lose resources. Post-harvesting
processes are initiatives put in place by farmers to keep their fish
marketable and reduce loss of income. Processes involved in post-
harvesting of fish include:
i) De-gutting
ii) De-gilling
iii) De-scaling – for fish with scales
iv) De-capitation – in cases of large fish
v) Washing properly with clean water
vi) Removal of fin
10.2 MATERIALS FOR FISH PROCESSING

i) Knives
ii) Basins
iii) Tables
iv) Cutting slabs
v) Weighing scale
vi) Processing apron etc.
10.3 METHODS OF FISH PRESERVATION

Drying: This is the process by which water from a moist substance is
removed. If air is used to carry away the water vapour formed, the process
is called air drying. This can be “natural drying” (exposed to outdoors to
51
the effect of the sun and wind) or “artificial drying” (inside a dryer).
Outdoor drying requires a dry atmosphere, sunlight and also a slight
breeze. Under unfavourable atmospheric conditions, artificial drying is
advantageous. Artificial drying allows the process to be continuous (day
and night) and permits the standardized production of a product of high
and uniform quality.
Smoking: This is the method of preservation effected by a combination of
drying and deposition of smoke constituents. When fish is smoked, it is
subjected to four basic treatments such as burning, drying, smoking and
heat treatment. This type of preservation is affected either by “hot
smoking” (temperature above 100oC) or cold smoking (temperature not
more than 30oC).
Salting: Salting is the method of preservation based on the penetration of
salt into the tissues and governed by the various physical and chemical
factors, such as diffusion, osmosis and a series of chemical and
biochemical processes associated with the changes in various constituents
of fish. There are three basic methods used in the salting of fish. They are:
- Dry salting: when the fish being salted with dry salt. The salt, as a
result of its hygroscopic ability and osmosis, absorbs water from
the fish and is then dissolved by it.
- Wet salting: when the fish is put into a previously prepared
solution of salt. Here, there is rapid decrease in the original
concentration of salt brine in the preservation process.
- Mixed salting: Here, fish is salted simultaneously with salt and
with brine. In this method, the salt on the surface of the fish
prevents the brine from becoming diluted. Thus, the salt brine
remains saturated.
Freezing: Freezing means the removal of heat from the living body. Heat
is a form of energy transferred by conduction, convection and radiation.
Storage temperature below 6.6oC is required to prevent the microbial
spoilage of food. However, the production of ice at this temperature is
responsible, directly or indirectly, for nearly all the undesirable side-
effects of low temperature storage. Various methods of freezing include
sharp freezer, air blast freezer, contact plate freezer, vertical plate freezer,
immersion freezing, liquid Freon freezing, and liquid Nitrogen freezing.
52
Canning: This is the heat processing of food in a metrically scaled
container in order to reduce the effect of bacterial contamination to a
commercially safe level. The organoleptic and nutritive properties of the
canned product are retained to the greatest possible extent. The method
involves preparation of raw materials, pre-cooking/blanching, filling,
exhausting, sealing, processing, cooling and labeling, casing and sorting.
Packaging Materials for Fish Sales

Packaging adds value to any commodity packaged for sale. Fish is a
delicate food that requires proper packaging for sale. Different fish
packages include:
i) nylon
ii) cardboard box
iii) baskets
10.4 MARKETING CHANNELS/ROUTES FOR FISH

Fish marketing has mainly two segments -- collection and processing of
fish, and dispersion which are connected with the channels of distribution.
In fisheries, there are wide variations and differences in channels of
distribution from region to region, town to town, or place to place, viz:
fresh fish market and dry fish market. Also, fish markets can be classified
into:
i) Primary market – fish mongers, bars, restaurants, supermarkets,
hotels etc.
ii) Secondary markets – a bigger market just like the wholesale
market.
The chart below shows the marketing system and associated channels.
Fishermen (producers)
53
Wholesalers- Consumers agents (auctioneers)

Retailer/Vendor
cum-commission
Commission agents or Wholesalers
There are various charges in selling fish. These include transport cost,
local transport and unloading charges, postage, stationery, telephone calls,
and return of empty boxes.
Summary
 Post-harvesting of fish, if handled properly, will lead to maximum
profit, but if not the farmer may lose resources.
 Methods of fish preservation include sun drying, wet smoking, dry
smoking, frying, freezing, filleting, canning and salting.
 Fish marketing has mainly two segments -- collection and processing
of fish, and dispersion which are connected with the channels of
distribution.
54
Revision Questions
1. List five processes involved in post-harvesting of fish.
2. List four materials used in fish processing.
3. List and define three methods of fish preservation.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
FISH BREEDING
1. List three qualities of good breeders
2. State three benefits of artificial breeding
55
3. List three processes in managing and nursing fish seed
11.1 BROOD STOCK SELECTION AND HANDLING

A sexually mature male fish has a large hump on the head. In some
species, the male’s dorsal and anal fins are much longer and larger than
the female’s.
Differences between male and female sexually matured fish: Stripping is
conducted to know the stages of sex gametes (egg and milk) in the
matured fish. Spawning is the act of depositing eggs and producing young
fish.
Qualities of good breeders: A good fish breeder must possess the
following qualities:
i) hardy/active
ii) matured gametes
iii) fairly big size
Brood stock handling: Brood stock must be handled with care. The farmer
or breeder must:
i) Ensure transportation takes place in the morning or late in the
evening
ii) Allow a shorter period of time (48 hours to one week) in a
breeding compartment
iii) Ensure careful handling of the breeders to avoid stress
11.2 ARTIFICIAL BREEDING

This is the process of manipulating the sexually matured fish to spawn or
reproduce. It involves the inducement of male and female fish in an effort
at reproducing them. It usually takes place in a hatchery and involves
systematic stages which must be done with care.
Importance of artificial breeding: The benefits of artificial breeding of fish

include:
i) To obtain fish seed
ii) To obtain large quantity of fish seed
iii) To obtain high-quality hybrids
iv) To make the fingerlings readily available
56
Steps involved in artificial breeding: Major steps are taken during the
processes of artificial breeding. They include:
i) Brood stock selection
ii) Conditioning of brood stock
iii) Inducement of the brood stock
iv) Stripping the brood stock
v) Fertilization (mixing the milk and egg)
vi) Incubating the fertilized egg in aquarium or hatchery
tanks/troughs etc.
Managing and Nursing Fish Seed: Fish seed nursing involves some
processes which include:
i) Aeration
ii) Feeding with natural food organisms – plankton, after four
days
iii) Introduction of artificial feeds – powdered feeds after one week
Fish Seed Management: To ensure the survival of seed fish, major

precautionary measures must be put in place:
i) Separating dead/unfertilized eggs from the hatchings
ii) Monitoring of water quality – especially the dissolved oxygen
(DO), temperature etc.
iii) Transferring outdoor to nursery tanks/pond after 21 days
iv) Sorting the shooters/jumpers from the stunts
v) Rear or raise the jumpers separately from the stunts
Summary
 Stripping is conducted to know the stages of sex gametes (egg and
milk) in the matured fish.
 Spawning is the act of depositing eggs and producing young fish.
 Good breeders must possess the following qualities:
- Hardy/active
57
- Have matured gametes
- Fairly big size
 Artificial breeding is the process of manipulating the sexually matured
fish to spawn or reproduce.
Revision Questions
1. List three qualities of good breeders.
2. State three benefits of artificial breeding.
3. List three processes in managing and nursing fish seed.
CHAPTER TWELVE
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF FISH DISEASES
1. List five ways to show importance of healthy fish stock
2. State five factors promoting ill-health and diseases in cultured fish
3. Identify four common diseases of cultured fish
58
4. State five preventive management of fish diseases
12.1 INTRODUCTION
It is quite possible to keep fish in a state of good health. Generally,
most of the fish species that perform well under culture conditions in
Nigeria have very great resistance to diseases so long as bad handling,
unsuitable food, poor water quality, overcrowding, or other adverse
influences do not weaken them. To avoid disease, the first thing that a
farmer should bear in mind is to keep fish in good culture (optimal)
condition, so that they can have good resistance when any infection
occurs. Most infections can be avoided through good management
practices. Conditions that discourage the proliferation of parasites in fish
pond include:
- Lack of variety of fish found in ponds relative to natural waters
- Partial or complete absence of the intermediate host of many
parasites, and
- Lack of periodic draining and drying of the pond.
Consequently, it is parasites with direct life cycles that usually survive in

the pond.
Fish disease can be caused solely by (or a combination of) microbes
(germs), parasites, and improper pond management practices by farmers.
A prevalent diseases condition in pond will lead to:
- slow growth of fish
- unattractive fish appearance
- gradual or sudden physical loss of fish by death
- extra production cost to farmer in treating such diseases, and
- overall economic losses in production
12.2 IMPORTANCE OF HEALTHY FISH STOCK

Every farmer should give priority to the health of fish in ponds for the
following reasons:
i. For assurance of a profit-oriented fish farming enterprise
ii. To ensure good growth of fish. Stunted fish (slow-growing
fish) are often a distaste to most fish farmers and such
59
experiences have made some farmers pack up fish farming
practices.
iii. To prevent disease transmission to man. It is known that man
can become infested with tapeworm by eating raw or
insufficiently cooked fish.
12.3 FACTORS PROMOTING ILL-HEALTH AND DISEASES IN

CULTURED FISH
Factors that favour occurrence of fish diseases are mainly management
and environmentally-based. Such factors include:
i. Poor water quality
ii. Overstocking
iii. Erratic (irregular) feeding
iv. Nutrients deficient feeds: Fish normally grow well on feed
containing 35-40% crude protein.
v. Over-fertilization (having a high density of algae normally
characterized with deep green coloration)
vi. Incidence of predators and wild fish
vii. Bushy and unhygienic environment
viii. Rough handling of fish
12.4 COMMON DISEASES OF CULTURED FISH

Diseases are unwholesome conditions causing sickness, and/or death.
They are a great threat to profitable fish production. Common diseases in
fish culture can be categorized into the following:
1. Disease caused by microbes
2. Disease caused by parasites
3. Management-related diseases
Disease caused by Microbes

Microbes are germs that cannot be seen with the naked eyes, but attack
fish when condition that promotes their occurrence exists. Diseases caused
by microbes are bacterial, viral and fungal diseases.
a) Bacterial Diseases
60
Bacteria are found practically everywhere in water and air, on plants and
in the bodies of men and animals. Most of them, however, are saprophytes
(i.e. they feed on dead organic materials and non-living tissue) whose
activities are of great importance in nature. Most bacterial diseases show
characteristic symptoms, which enable their easy recognition with
sufficient accuracy. Bacterial infection may occur in the internal organs, in
the muscles and in the skin, including the fins. Fishes that are not
weakened by bad conditions, or by infections with other parasites,
generally have a great resistance to bacterial infections.
Factors Promoting Bacterial Infection

i. Overstocking or overcrowding of fish in pond water
ii. Wounds on fish flesh
iii. Presence of dead organic matters in the pond
iv. Low dissolved oxygen content in water
Symptoms of Bacterial Infection

i. Darkening of fish skin
ii. Slow, sluggish or weak movement in water
iii. Loss of appetite
iv. Fish cluster near water inlets of ponds and even try to jump out
of the pond
v. Red/brown spots on fish skin
vi. Visible red streaks (lines) at the base of the fins
vii. Swelling of the abdomen with protruding scales
Prevention/Control Measures
i. Stock fish at recommended rates.
ii. Don’t apply too much fertilizer in the pond to avoid excessive
algae bloom and the consequent depletion of dissolved oxygen.
iii. Feed fish at recommended rates with good quality feeds.
iv. Ensure a clean pond environment.
61
Treatment of some Bacterial Diseases of Fish
Disease Symptoms Treatment
1. ‘Cotton wool’ or Mouth - Occurrence of fungus-like cotton wool - Apply 5-10mg/l of
Chloramphenicol
Fungus, Causative agent: growth on the mouth of fish. – Dip fish in Copper
Sulphate solution
Myxobacteria Chondrococcus - Appearance of whitish-grey spots at the for 1-2 minutes or
Malachite green for head, fins, gills, and body. 10-30 seconds.
Columnaris or Cytophaga - Swollen lips with macerations. – For entries pond
add 1mg Copper
- Fish losses appetite and moves Sulphate per litre.
Sluggishly.
2. Tail and Fin rot. – Putrefaction of the tail or gills - Apply Chloramphenicol
50mg/l for up to 24hrs
or Causative agent
Bacterioses pinnarum or 80mg/l for not more than
Aeromonas sp 8 hours or add Chloramphenicol
to fish food at the rate of 1mg/g
of food
b) Viral Diseases
Viruses are infectious agents of varying small dimensions that multiply
only within the living cell of a host and which are tinier than bacteria and
as such not visible to the naked eyes. Examples of viral diseases are
abdominal dropsy and swim bladder infection.
62
Fig. 12. 1 Diagram showing swim bladder; fish affected by
inflammation disease
Symptoms of Viral Diseases

i. Multiple ulcers in various parts of the body, especially the tail
region
ii. Slow and sluggish movement resulting in death of fish
Prevention and Control of Viral Diseases

i. Practice good pond sanitation and keep a hygienic pond
environment
ii. Ensure regular feeding of fish
iii. Ensure proper stocking and appropriate pond fertilization
iv. Ensure that fish to be stocked with existing resident population of
fish in a pond are virus-free.
v. Ensure good water quality
vi. Remove dead fish (corpse) from pond water immediately to
discourage rapid infection
Treatment of some Viral Diseases

Disease Symptoms
Treatment
1. Dropsy
Causative agent: - Excessive abdominal swelling - Apply Chloramphenicol
13mg/l for longer
Aeromonas punctate - Inflamed blood vessel showing period or 50mg/l for 24
Reddish colour hours only
63
2. Swim bladder infla- - loss of appetite - Apply Chloramphenicol
Mmation 15 – 20 mg/l for
- Poor response to flight stimuli 24 hours
Causative agent: - Disturbed balance in swimming
Aeromonas sp - Swollen and cloudy swim bladder.
c) Fungal Diseases
These are diseases caused by fungi. Fungi are low form of plant life
capable of producing diseases. Fungal infections are generally secondary
and indicative of other problems. They are hardly found on healthy fish.
Several factors are involved in the development of fungal infection in fish.
Conditions that promote fungal diseases are:
i. Stress condition of fish population in the pond due to
overcrowding
ii. Poor handling of fish at stocking or when practising induced
breeding exercise leading to skin damage or wounds
iii. Starvation in pond, causing fish to feed on rotten mouldy feed
iv. Malnutrition due to unbalanced diet
v. Unfavourable climate changes causing fish to be stressed and
restless especially high temperature
vi. Preponderance of bacterial or viral conditions in fish
General Symptoms of Fungal Diseases
i. Appearance of characteristic cotton wool-like growth on the
affected part of the body, especially due to wounds resulting
from poor handling procedures
ii. Fish feeding on mouldy feeds
iii. Observable skin and gill lesions
i. Stock fish at recommended rates in ponds
ii. Handle fish carefully at stocking or sampling period
iii. Avoid erratic feeding practices and feed fish on balanced ration
iv. Ensure good pond sanitation
Treatment of Some Fungal Diseases
Disease Symptoms
Treatment
64
1. Saprolegniasis - Cotton wool-like infection on - Drain and lime the pond
skin and gills
Caustative agent: - Circular lesions on skin - Dip fish in Malachite
green solution
Saprolegnia parasitica for 30 minutes
2. Gill rot or - Gill necrosis - Treatment is rather by
prevention
Branchiomycosis - Fusion of gill lamellae - Strict pond hygiene
Causative agent: - General weakness of fish - Immediate removal of
with sluggish dead fish
Branchiomyces sp movement - Avoid overfeeding
Diseases Caused by Parasites

Most fish population in the wild are infected with parasites but, in the
great majority of cases, no significant harm appears to be caused to the
host fish. Parasites in the wild are only frequently noticed when they are
so obvious so as to lead to rejection of the fish by fishermen or customers.
In fish culture, however, parasites often cause serious outbreaks of
diseases. Parasites are organisms that live in or on other animals known as
hosts. They extract food from the host by sucking blood or eating the
tissues. Internal parasites (endo-parasites) of fish inhabit the digestible
tract or other organs in the body while external parasites (ecto-parasite)
attach themselves to the gills, skin, and fins of the fish. Examples of endo
parasites are ascarids and tapeworm, while ecto-parasites include lice,
fleas, leeches and dragon fly nymphs etc. Common parasitic diseases are
mainly protozoan diseases (Ichthyphthiriasis, Epistylis, Milk scale and
Trichodiniasis), Trematode (Eye fluke), Cestodes (Tape worms),
Monogenetic Flukes, and Crustacean diseases (Anchor worms and fish
lice)
65
Fig. 12.2 Carp infected with leaches
Factors that Promote Parasitic Diseases

i. Access of most fish predators to pond environment
ii. Decomposed fish carcasses in water
iii. Bushy pond environment that harbours predators
iv. Favourable environmental conditions enabling mass
reproduction of the parasites
General Symptoms of Parasitic Infections

i. Skin lesion and peeling
ii. Darkened colouration of skin
iii. Fish rubbing flesh against the sides of the pond wall due to
severe irritation
iv. Restlessness of fish in water
v. Loss of appetite and retarded growth
vi. Excessive slim production on the skin and gills
vii. Mass death of fish
i. Prevent pond from being overgrown with weeds. Predators of fish
easily gain access to pond that are bushy
ii. Control predators by killing
iii. Remove fish corpses from pond water promptly
iv. Apply lime at recommended rates. Limes are excellent pond
disinfectants
v. Prevent flood water (from other sources) from getting to the
pond
Treatment of Parasitic Diseases

In most cases, parasite- infected fish in aquaculture can be handled in the
following ways:
i. By baths with recommended chemicals
ii. Drying of ponds in hot dry season to expose the parasites/predators
and thereby disrupting their life cycles
66
iii. Treatment of pond bottom with lime to disinfect the pond and
eradicate the parasites.
iv. Apply recommended chemical dosage (quarantine) on single
ponds or entire farm
v. Extermination of wild fishes which might be carriers of the
diseases
vi. Shooting of predators
vii. Building up parasitic disease-resistance ability of fish by
stimulating their growth rate and improving their conditions by
good feeding.
Management-related Diseases
These are diseases whose occurrences are promoted by any act of
mismanagement on the part of the fish farmers. Such acts result in
nutritional problems, poor water quality and inadequate dissolved oxygen.
Nutritional and Environmental Problems Disease Conditions in

Cultured fish and their Treatment
Problem Cause Symptoms Treatment
1. Starvation - Management neglect - Darker than normal and softer - Feed fish regularly at
(absolute Nutritional flesh recommended rates
Deficiency) - Large head with thin body - Ensure ration is of balance
- Pale gills and weary parasite diet with high proportion of
Burden. Protein and vitamins.
2. Nutritional - Deficient vitamin and - Eye lesion - Ration should be rich in
Cataract protein in feeds - Opaque eyes or complete Protein and vitamins
blindness
3. Acidic water - Low pH (below 5) - Fish skin covered with whitish - Apply 500kg CaCO 3 per
films, gills turn brownish hectare of pond
- Mortality of fish
4. Alkaline water - High pH (above 9) - Mortality of fish - Apply lime in sufficient
quantity according to pH
level
5. Lower dissolved - Over fertilization - Fish regularly come out to gasp - Drain pond and change water
Oxygen (DO) for atmospheric air - Aerate the pond if device is
- Mass mortality of fish with wide available of flush fresh water
open mouth and gills wide part high velocity into the pond.
6. Gas-bubble - Super saturation - Dark colour of eyes, skin, gills - Ensure proper application of
disease of pond with water and mouth of adult fish. recommended rates of feeds,
With N or O2 - In larval fish, protruded yolk fertilizers and lime
- Sudden temperature sac. – Eliminate pond weeds.
67
Gradient
7. Water – bore - Presence of cement - Conspicuous gill damage - Prevent pollutants from getting
irritants particles, dust or silt - Restlessness and rubbing to pond water
and ammonia in of flesh against pond walls
pond water
8. Traumatic - Rough handling of - Lesions on fish - Handle fish with care
injuries fish in test cropping - Reduce metabolic activities - Ensure pond is cleared of
or relocation. wounding appliances
- Skin injuries from
harvesting appliances
Conditions that favour the occurrence of management related diseases in

fish culture include:
i. Lack of technical know-how on management practices by fish
farmers
ii. Erratic pond feeding
iii. Algal boom, i.e. pond water overgrown with algae
iv. Rough handling of fish
v. Bushy and unhealthy pond environment
General Symptoms of Management-related Diseases

i. Stunted fish growth
ii. Slow, sluggish and weak fish that may go off-feed
iii. Deep green colouration of pond water
iv. Bad smelly pond water with copious air bubbles on water surface
early morning and late evening.
v. Easy susceptibility of fish to diseases and parasites
i. Seek technical assistance of extension workers on pond
management practices.
ii. Follow recommended rates of pond feeding, fertilization and
liming.
iii. Ensure the application of good quality feedstuffs in pond
feeding.
iv. Ensure overall hygienic pond environment.
Antibiotics and growth-enhancement drugs are used in fish culture to

ensure healthy growth of fish stock
68
Summary
Fish disease can be caused solely by (or a combination of) microbes
(germs), parasites, and improper pond management practices by farmers.
Conditions that discourage the proliferation of parasites in fish pond
include:
- Lack of variety of fish found in ponds relative to natural waters
- Partial or complete absence of the intermediate host of many
parasites, and
- Lack of periodic draining and drying of the pond
A prevalent disease condition in pond will lead to:
- slow growth of fish
- unattractive fish appearance
- Gradual or sudden physical loss of fish by death
- extra production cost to farmer in treating such diseases, and
- Overall economic losses in production
Common diseases in fish culture can be categorized into the following:
1. Disease caused by microbes
2. Disease caused by parasites
3. Management-related diseases
Revision Questions
1. List five ways to show importance of healthy fish stock.
2. State five factors promoting ill-health and diseases in cultured
fish.
3. Identify four common diseases of cultured fish.
4. State five preventive management measures of fish diseases.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
FISH CULTURE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
1. List three fish culture equipment
2. List three fish gears and crafts equipment
3. List three fish processing equipment
13.1 FISH CULTURE EQUIPMENT

ITEM QUANTITY
69
- DO (dissolved oxygen) meter 2
- pH meter 2
- Conductivity meter 2
- Thermometer 50
- Water test kits 2
- Microscope 4
- Magnifying glass 30
- Aquaria tanks 5
- Hatching troughs 5
- Nursery tanks/pond 3
- Demonstration ponds 1 or more
- Scoop nets 10
- Aerators and accessories 10
- Plastic sieves 10
- Compounded feeds many bags
- Grinding machines 2
- Charts and pictures assorted
- Video clips in fisheries assorted
- Pelleting machine 1
- Dissecting kits 2
- Water pumps 2
- Secchi disc 2
13.2 FISH GEARS AND CRAFTS EQUIPMENT

ITEMS QUANTITY
Model gill net 1
Model cast net 1
Model sieve net 1
Model traps assorted
Model hooks and lines 2
Model trawl net 1
Netting materials assorted
Hooks packets 20 (nos 1-20)
70
Nylon ropes 1
Mounting twine 1
Canoe 1
Paddles 2
13.3 FISH PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

ITEMS QUANTITY
Gutting knives 10
Measuring boards 5
Weighing balance 2
Hand gloves 30
Freezers 2
Ovens 2
Kilns 2
Fish drying racks 2
Fish boxes 5
Salting trays/basins 5
Sun-drying/vats 5
Cardboard box 5
Nylon 10 (bundles)
Baskets 10
Revision Questions
1. List three fish culture equipment.
2. List three fish gears and crafts equipment.
3. List three fish processing equipment.
71

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This book is intended to be used by students and those who

Limnologists, fisheries managers, and students in fisheries

CHAPTER TWO: PROCESS OF FISH PRODUCTION

CHAPTER THREE: DIVISION OF FISH PRODUCTION

CHARTER FIVE: MONITORING WATER QUALITY

CHAPTER SIX: FISH FEED MATERIALS

CHAPTER SEVEN: FISH FEEDING

CHAPTER EIGHT: POND PREPARATION AND MAINTENANCE

CHAPTER NINE: MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR

CHAPTER TWELVE: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF FISH

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: FISH CULTURE TOOLS AND

1.1 FISHERY AND FISHERIES

1.2 TYPES OF FISHERY

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF FISH

1.4 TYPE OF FISHES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Fig. 1.3 Cartilaginous fish Fig. 1.4 Bony fish

1.5 IMPORTANCE OF FISH

2.1 FISH FARMING

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF GROWING FISH

2.4 FISH FARMING PRODUCTION

Other major factors of production that are indispensable in economics are:

Appropriate record-keeping is also necessary in fish farming production.

Table 2.1 A typical example of daily records in a fish farm

Marketing Strategies for Fish Farmers

Relevant questions in marketing the fish are:

Fish Farming Distribution/Transportation

Factors to Consider in Fish Transportation

Basic Rules and Principles Guiding Fish Transportation

3.1 CAPTURE FISHERY

Methods Involved in Capture Fishery

Materials Required for Capture Fishery

Common Qualities of Culture Fish Species

3.3 TYPES OF POND CULTURE SYSTEM

3.4 FISH CULTURE PRACTICES

Fig. 3.1 Diagram of monoculture fish pond

3.5 QUALITY OF COMMONLY CULTURED FISH SPECIES

Fig. 3.3 Clarias fish

Fig. 3.4 Tilapia fish

Fig. 4.1 Earthen pond

Fig. 4.2 Concrete/embankment ponds

Fig. 4.3 Barrage ponds

Fig. 4.4 Diversion Ponds

4.5 FISH POND CONSTRUCTION COST ITEMS

4.5 CULTURE SYSTEM

Fig. 4.6 Monoculture system

Integrated fish farming

5.1 WATER QUALITY

Water Quality Parameters

5.2 MANAGING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF POND WATER

Managing Chemical Properties of Pond Water

5.3 METHODS OF MONITORING WATER QUALITY

Optimum Water Parameters

Fig. 5.1 pH range for fish culture

6.2 TYPES OF FISH FEED

Materials/ingredients for preparing supplementary fish feed

6.3 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH FEEDS

6.4 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF FISH

7.1 FEEDSTUFFS IN FISH CULTURE

7.2 FEED FORMULATION

Fish feeding Regime

Ideal Fish Feeding Period