The Learning Organization

Organizational learning and power dynamics: a study in a Brazilian University

Jane Lucia Silva Santos Andrea Valéria Steil
Article information:
To cite this document:
Jane Lucia Silva Santos Andrea Valéria Steil , (2015),"Organizational learning and power dynamics: a
study in a Brazilian University", The Learning Organization, Vol. 22 Iss 2 pp. 115 - 130
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/TLO-10-2011-0055
Downloaded on: 04 June 2015, At: 11:44 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 24 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 26 times since 2015*
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:

Ajay K. Jain, Ana Moreno, (2015),"Organizational learning, knowledge management practices
and firm’s performance: An empirical study of a heavy engineering firm in India", The Learning
Organization, Vol. 22 Iss 1 pp. 14-39 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/TLO-05-2013-0024
Isabel Dórdio Dimas, Teresa Rebelo, Paulo Renato Lourenço, (2015),"Learning conditions, members’
motivation and satisfaction: a multilevel analysis", The Learning Organization, Vol. 22 Iss 2 pp.
131-147 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/TLO-10-2014-0060
Luu Trong Tuan, (2015),"From corporate social responsibility, through entrepreneurial orientation,
to knowledge sharing: A study in Cai Luong (Renovated Theatre) theatre companies", The Learning
Organization, Vol. 22 Iss 2 pp. 74-92 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/TLO-09-2014-0052

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by 478417 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of

download.
 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0969-6474.htm

Organizational learning and Organizational

learning and
power dynamics: a study in a power
dynamics
Brazilian University
Jane Lucia Silva Santos 115
(KLOM) Knowledge, Learning and Organizational Memory
Received 31 October 2011
Interdisciplinary Research Group, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Revised 1 November 2012
Florianópolis, Brazil, and 2 June 2013
Accepted 28 January 2015
Andrea Valéria Steil
Department of Psychology, Federal University of Santa Catarina,
Florianopolis, Brazil
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to describe and analyze organizational learning processes and power
dynamics during the adoption and use of an information system (IS) at a Brazilian public organization.
Design/methodology/approach – A case study was chosen as the research method. Data were
gathered from documents and interviews with key informants.
Findings – The results indicate the existence of two learning cycles during the adoption of the IS at the
organization. In the first cycle, learning occurred only at the individual level. In the second cycle, cognitive
and social processes of individual and group learning were associated with power dynamics, enabling
learning at the organizational level. These results reveal a relationship between the organizational learning
process and the specific modes of power, notably discipline, influence, force and domination.
Originality/value – The study presents empirical evidence about the conceptual relation between the
organizational learning process and different forms of power in organizations. There has been limited empirical
research on this topic worldwide to date, and none in the context of Brazilian organizations published in Brazil or
abroad.
Keywords Public sector organizations, Learning processes, Learning, Organizational learning,
Power, Information system
Paper type Case study

1. Introduction
Understanding organizational learning processes in public organizations has been
encouraged (Antal et al., 2003) due to the limited literature that currently exists about
this type of organization (Robertson and Seneviratne, 1995). Regardless of the kind of
organization, studies on organizational learning have emphasized the importance of
considering different levels of analysis simultaneously (Bapuji and Crossan, 2004;
Easterby-Smith et al., 2004). While there have been some advances in this area
(Schechter, 2008), issues such as political factors in organizational learning have often
The authors would like to thank Professor Nancy Rolph and Professor Francis Tuggle for their The Learning Organization
Vol. 22 No. 2, 2015
helpful editorial guidance, and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on our pp. 115-130
paper. In addition, the first author appreciates the support received from National Council for the © Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0969-6474
Improvement of Higher Education (CAPES), Brazil. DOI 10.1108/TLO-10-2011-0055
 TLO been overlooked, leading to potentially naive approaches (Lawrence et al., 2005;
22,2 Blackler, 2000). Following Lawrence et al. (2005), we argue that adding a political
dimension can broaden our understanding of organizational learning, defined here as a
process that involves cognitive, social and political dynamics, and it occurs across three
levels of analysis: individual, group and organizational.
Whilst organizational learning continues to attract interest from both academics and
116 business managers, there is still a lack of studies that empirically examine learning
processes according to a multi-level perspective, linking individuals, groups and
organizations (Campbell and Armstrong, 2013), and the processes of assimilating new
learning (exploration or feed-forward) and using what has been learned (exploitation or
feedback) (Bontis et al., 2002; Crossan et al., 2011). Previous studies have shown that
information systems (IS) influence organizational learning processes (Attewell, 1992;
Pentland, 1995; Kane and Alavi, 2007), and that the implementation of information
technology (IT) can lead to different results in terms of organizational learning (Ke and
Wei, 2006). These studies have analyzed the influence of IT on organizational learning,
but have not delved into the intricacies of concurrent processes of IS adoption and
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

organizational learning. Further, the political dimension has not yet been considered. To
fill this gap, this paper describes the results of a study of organizational learning and
power dynamics when a new IS was implemented at a public Brazilian university. To
investigate the social and cognitive dynamics of organizational learning processes, we
used the 4I (intuiting, interpreting, integrating and institutionalizing) framework
(Crossan et al., 1999). To analyze the political dynamics associated with the
organizational learning process, we used Lawrence et al.’s (2005) approach. An overview
of this theoretical background is described in the next section of this paper.

2. Theoretical background
The theoretical foundations of this study are based on the 4I framework developed by
Crossan et al. (1999). Within this framework, organizational learning is seen as a
simultaneous and dynamic process – at the same time that people assimilate new ideas and
actions, and transmit them to groups and to the organization, what has already been learned
by the organization (institutionalized) flows toward the groups and individuals, thereby
influencing their learning process (Crossan et al., 1999; Bapuji and Crossan, 2004; Crossan et al.,
2011). The processes within 4I – intuiting, interpreting, integrating and institutionalizing – are
psychological and social and serve to link three levels of analysis (individual, group and
organization) and define learning within organizations (Crossan and Berdrow, 2003).
By incorporating aspects of power into the 4I framework, Lawrence et al. (2005)
pointed out that the intuitive process is related to a form of power called “discipline”,
the interpretive process to “influence”, the integrate process to “force” and the
institutionalization process to “domination” (Figure 1).
As presented in Figure 1, organizational learning can thus be understood by reference to
the processes of intuiting, interpreting, integrating and institutionalizing, and the associated
forms of power. The process that starts with intuiting and leads to institutionalizing is called
the “feed-forward”; it is represented by changes in structures, systems, products, strategies,
procedures, cultures and so on. The return process, which goes from institutionalizing to
intuiting, is called “feedback”; it is related to the ways in which institutionalized learning affect the
new learning of individuals and groups (Bontis et al., 2002). In the next section, we present the
different forms of power related to each of the 4I processes.
 Organizational
Feed forward
learning and
Individual Social psychological
power
Influence processes dynamics
Intuiting Social political
Interpreting processes
117
Institutionalizing
Feedback

Force
Group

Integrating
Discipline &
Domination
Institutionalizing
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Figure 1.
Organization The social
psychological and
political processes of
organizational
Source: Crossan et al. (1999) and Lawrence et al. (2005, p. 183) learning

3. The 4I organizational learning process and power dynamics

3.1 Intuiting and power dynamics
The intuiting process occurs at the individual level in a stage called “pre-cognition”, which
occurs prior to the generation of knowledge (Crossan et al., 1999). Essentially, it is a
subjective process and happens when individuals gain new insights based on their own
experience (Weick, 1991; Lawrence et al., 2005). It is related to the perception of similarities,
differences, patterns and possibilities. Images and metaphors are understood to be
important elements in the intuition-sharing process (Crossan et al., 1999).
The political dynamics of intuiting involve forms of power that help organizational
members to obtain the expertise, experience and conditions needed to identify patterns
and possibilities in daily events. The form of power identified as the most efficient in
this process is “discipline” (Lawrence et al., 2005). Discipline as a form of power includes
socialization, compensation, training and teamwork (Lawrence et al., 2005). Practices
such as the socialization of tacit knowledge and training enable organizational members
to deepen their experiences and improve their knowledge and, consequently, promote
intuiting (Crossan et al., 1999; Lawrence et al., 2005). It is important to note, however, that
people are subjected to disciplinary systems from inside and outside an organization
(Lawrence et al., 2005) and both systems influence the development of insights.

3.2 Interpreting and power dynamics

Interpreting is a cognitive and social process, and occurs at both the individual and group
levels (Crossan et al., 1999). As Lawrence et al. (2005, p. 182) suggested, “the communication
of ideas to others occurs through a process of interpreting that allows individuals’ ideas to be
shared with others”. In this process, the same stimulus may be variously interpreted by
 TLO different individuals, according to their own cognitive maps (Crossan et al., 1999).
22,2 Individuals who are interested in a specific idea may explore this potential difference and
ambiguity in people’s interpretations by using political strategies to influence the language
and cognitive maps that others adopt (Lawrence et al., 2005).
The political dynamics of interpreting involves forms of power that influence the
perception of group members regarding the costs and benefits of certain ideas. An
118 effective form of power in interpreting is “influence”, which includes tactics such as
moral persuasion, negotiation and exchanges (Lawrence et al., 2005). Interpreting an
idea, therefore, involves either the originator of the idea, or another actor who defends it,
having an influence on other people. For instance, individuals with power to influence
others may critically interpret – or even oppose – a new idea, especially one which is
associated with issues that threaten the status quo, such as by imposing changes on the
organizational structure or management positions (Lawrence et al., 2005).

3.3 Integrating and power dynamics

The focus of integrating is on collective action and shared understanding (Crossan et al.,
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

1999). Debates (Woods, 2012), conversation, dialogue and mutual adjustment are
considered essential factors in the development of this shared understanding (Crossan
et al., 1999; Bontis et al., 2002; Vera and Crossan, 2005). In this process, language is used
not only to transmit meaning but also to develop new meanings at the group level
(Crossan et al., 1999). Debate group members’ contradictory positions creates cognitive
conflict in the strategic decision-maker which is a necessary component of learning
(Woods, 2012). Creating a space for new communicative interaction is, therefore, a core
principle in the learning process (Ford, 2006).
The form of power regarded as the most effective in integrating is “force”. When
defending the implementation of an idea (insight) through the use of force, the available
choice options become limited. A possible consequence of the use of force in integrative
processes is the promulgation of new ideas because of an absolute lack of options
(Lawrence et al., 2005), but conflicting information associated with debate groups’
contradictory positions creates cognitive conflict and stimulates the creation of new
knowledge (Woods, 2012). Although the integration of learning through the use of force
may occur through informal networks, it is more commonly linked to formal and
hierarchical structures (Lawrence et al., 2005). Organizational members in authority
positions exercise a legitimate form of force, whose examples involve the imposition of
restrictions or the prohibition of specific discussions or even the removal or transfer of
opponents of a new idea. Influence, which is more strongly present in interpreting, and
force, which is characteristic of the integration process, are examples of the use of
episodic power. Episodic power has been conceptualized as a person’s ability to
“influence the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of those around them” (Lawrence et al.,
2005, p. 182). It is a specific and self-motivated political act by organizational members.

3.4 Institutionalizing and power dynamics

Just as intuiting occurs exclusively at the individual level, institutionalizing occurs only
at the organizational level (Crossan et al., 1999). “Institutionalizing is the process of
ensuring that actions are routinized” (Berends and Lammers, 2010, p. 1,047). Tasks are
defined, actions specified and organizational structures and other mechanisms created
to guarantee the permanence of these actions. Institutionalizing allows for the
 incorporation of individual and group learning into the organization’s systems, Organizational
structures, routines, practices and norms, thereby guaranteeing that at least part of the learning and
knowledge is retained throughout turnovers and group dissolutions (Crossan et al., power
1999; Schechter, 2008).
To analyze institutionalization processes, it is necessary to understand the capacity
dynamics
of the existing forms of power to overcome resistance to change in established practices
because this resistance may hamper attempts at institutionalization (Jermier et al., 1994; 119
Lawrence et al., 2005; Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002). The form of power pointed out
(Lawrence et al., 2005) as the most effective in institutionalizing is “domination”. Derived
from the Weberian notion of rational–legal domination, domination in the
institutionalization process reflects a systemic form of power because it acts by means of
routines in the social systems that constitute an organization (Lawrence et al., 2005).
Political will and the skills of those seeking to promote the institutionalization of
learning are key factors in the institutionalization process. The success of these
“institutional entrepreneurs” will be affected by their access to resources and their
competence in acquiring them (Lawrence et al., 2005).
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Table I summarizes the main elements involved in the learning processes that
constitute the 4I framework and the forms of power associated with each process.

4. Methodology
This paper reports on the results of a case study on organizational learning processes in the
adoption and use of an IS at a public university in Brazil, using a variety of sources of
evidence, including documents and interviews. The university was chosen because it
provided access to its institutional documents and was interested in participating in the
study. In addition, the internal changes occurring at the university during the adoption and
use of the IS were considered an interesting field of study. This research responds to an
appeal from the scientific community to incorporate, in the organizational learning field, case
studies about experiences of South American organizations (Antal et al., 2003).
The data collected covered events from 2003 to 2008, which begins during the period
in which the idea of IS adoption emerged, and ends when IS began to be used at the
university. The following documents were collected and analyzed: the IS
implementation plan, presentations and reports. In addition, 22 interviews were
conducted in late 2008 and early 2009. To be selected for participation, the respondents
had to have worked in one of the administrative units of the university since 2003, and
had to know about the process of adoption and the use of the IS. People who met these
criteria included: the university president, five vice-presidents, eight directors and eight
staff personnel. This represents 75 per cent of the university’s senior management
members (the top management team: the president and vice presidents), 65 per cent of
the university’s directors (who can be considered intermediate-level “managers”, as they
report directly to the vice-president) and 12 per cent of the total technical administrative
staff (the eight remaining staff members, who corresponded to the pre-established
criteria and agreed to participate in the interviews).
To analyze intuiting, we:
• identified the “learning phenomenon” as the adoption of the “new information
system”;
 TLO Learning Form of
22,2 processes (4I) Description Level of analysis power Authors

Intuiting Emergence of insights Individual level Discipline Crossan et al. (1999),

through pattern Crossan and
recognition. Based on Berdrow (2003),
120 experiences and Crossan et al. (2011),
specialized knowledge. Lawrence et al.
It is spontaneous and (2005)
tacit (difficult to
explain)
Interpreting Communication of Individual level and Influence Crossan et al. (1999),
intuitive insights to the group level Crossan et al. (2011),
individual him/herself Lawrence et al.
and others. Occurs (2005)
through the use of
language, cognitive
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

maps, and dialogues.

(It connects individual
and group levels)
Integrating Sharing of ideas and Group level and Force Crossan et al. (1999),
concepts. organizational level Vera and Crossan
Understanding and (2005), Bontis et al.
action coordinated by (2002), Crossan et al.
the group members. (2011), Lawrence
Existence of dialogues et al. (2005)
and mutual
adjustment. Evolution
of language from
dialogues. (It connects
group and
organizational levels)
Institutionalizing Making actions Organizational level Domination Crossan et al. (1999),
routine. Retaining Vera and Crossan
individual and group (2005), Crossan et al.
knowledge in systems, (2011), Lawrence
norms, procedures and et al. (2005)
Table I. other organizational
Organizational mechanisms
learning processes
and forms of power Source: Prepared by the authors

• investigated the origins of the insights associated with the learning phenomenon
and the ways in which these insights were developed, articulated and shared
within the university; and
• identified and distinguished two types of intuiting – expert-style intuiting and
entrepreneurial-style intuiting, wherein the first refers to the capacity of “(past)
pattern recognition” and the second refers to the capacity of an individual “to
make novel connections, perceive new or emergent relationships and discern
possibilities that have not been identified previously” (Crossan et al., 1999, p. 526).
 To analyze interpreting, integrating and institutionalizing, we asked the 22 interviewees Organizational
to identify the key people involved in the adoption of the new IS, and to describe learning and
everything they knew about how the idea to implement the IS flourished. In this way, we
were able to map the main learning agents (individual level), the learning processes and
power
the associated power dimensions. The main results indicate the pivotal role of the upper dynamics
and middle management, how the learning processes occurred at the individual, group
and organizational levels, as well as the power dimension associated with each learning 121
process.
The average interview time was 47 minutes, which resulted in approximately 17
hours of digitally recorded media. The recorded data were transcribed and some
previously established categories were identified. A qualitative data analysis matrix
(Creswell, 2007) was developed to synthesize the data. In the matrix, each piece of
evidence was summarized according to the categories of analysis: organizational
learning processes and forms of power. From the categorization of data, and by drawing
on each element of the 4I framework (Crossan et al., 1999), we identified the forms of
power (Lawrence et al., 2005) that illustrated the political dynamics of organizational
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

learning during the adoption and use of the IS. The reference matrix is shown in Table II.
Two researchers not involved in the data collection checked the interview reports and
the synthesis of the data. Each set of previously encoded data was reexamined to check
for evidence on the occurrence of organizational learning processes and the associated
forms power. The results are presented in the following section.

5. Overview of the case

The public Brazilian university, at the time of the study, had 23 academic units and six
administrative units (with approximately 66 staff, 12 administrative directors and six
vice-presidents), plus the president’s office. These administrative units, along with the
president’s office, are responsible for the strategic management of the university and,
since 2003, have been involved with the implementation of a new IS, which represents
one of the main strategic projects undertaken by the university. This IS was the result of
several individual and group learning processes. With reference to this process, the
university president commented:
The Integrated System is part of our management strategy […] we had several options of IS to
choose and opted for the idea of an Integrated System that was born here inside the university,
from the learning of several people and teams […] That is why this is [a] strategic and
innovative project for university management […] At the same time it is in line with [an] IS
model supported by [the] Ministry of Education, and also, with our new strategic model of
management.
One vice president also commented that the IS is seen as a:
Strategic tool that allows [us to take] actions and [obtain] information from several university
units that during the whole university history [have been] fragmented and disperse[d] […]
[leading to difficulties in terms of] access by the top management and, in consequence, by
governmental bodies and society in general […]. This new look allows […] the management
team [to] formulate and reformulate the strategies defined in planning that, on the other hand,
affect the way […] things are done in the university (Vice president A).
To understand the context of the IS implementation, we performed a longitudinal
multilevel analysis. Our initial analysis indicated that the events in question occurred
 TLO Type of evidence Examples (what was investigated)
22,2
Context information (Data Description of the organization
source: documents) Description of the IS
Identification of the people involved
Description of the process over time
122 Organizational learning processes (Data source: interviews)
Intuiting Description of the origins of insights and ways in which those
ideas were developed and shared within the university;
Identification of the two types of intuiting (expert-style
intuiting and entrepreneurial-style intuiting)
Interpreting Description of the explication process of insights to the
individual him/herself, and others
Integrating Description of the sharing process of ideas and concepts, and
understanding and coordinated action by the group members.
Identification of the existence of dialogues and mutual
adjustment
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Institutionalizing Identification of processes and routines created/modified in

implementation of IS
Forms of power (Data source: interviews)
Discipline Identification of the disciplinary practices associated with
past experiences of those who had insights associated with
the IS adoption
Influence Identification of the use of political influence in the process of
persuasion, negotiation, insinuation and exchanges
Force Identification of the use of force to limit choice alternatives
and restrict opposing opinions
Domination Identification of the capacity to overcome resistance to change
and obtain the necessary resources to institutionalize the idea
Data triangulation (Event
timeline and learning agents)
Organizational Forms of
learning processes power Examples

Intuiting Discipline Identification of the use of discipline in the intuiting process

Interpreting Influence Identification of the use of influence in the interpreting
process
Integrating Force Identification of the use of force in the integrating process
Institutionalizing Domination Identification of the use of domination in the institutionalizing
Table II. process
Qualitative data
analysis matrix Source: Prepared by the authors

between 2003 and 2008, and represented a very promising subject in terms of studying
the flow of feed-forward learning (the main theoretical lens of this paper) and the
associated power dynamics. In the following sections, these aspects will be synthetically
described. The period from 2009 to 2013 would be ideal to deeply examine how this IS
affected learning at the individual and group levels; in other words, the feedback flow
(although this is not the focus of this paper).
 6. Results: organizational learning and power dynamics in a Brazilian Organizational
university learning and
When the vice president of planning and infrastructure management was nominated in
December 2003, he focused his strategic action plan on budgetary and operational
power
execution. Using his background in engineering, he created a management model that dynamics
was focused on effectiveness. This vice president was identified by the interviewees as
an agent of “specialist intuition” due to his capacity to apply his knowledge of 123
engineering to university management.
One of the eight directors of the university was identified by many interviewees as
the first person to express the idea of implementing an integrated IS. It is interesting to
note that it was a member of the middle management (administrative director), and not
one of the vice presidents, who was identified as the main author of this kind of
entrepreneurial-style intuition. According to one interviewee:
[…] the first time that we [technical workers of administrative units] heard about this new
system was during the evaluation meeting of the first year of implementation of the strategic
planning, at the end of 2004 […] we only knew that the initial idea came from one of the
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

administrative directors […] it was really a visionary idea (Technical-Administrative Staff X).
However, the originator of the idea took office as a university administrative director in
December 2003, and it was during this period that he had this “visionary” idea.
According to this administrative director, he knew that the idea was good; he had
experienced an intuitive insight when he noticed that the university was having
difficulties in completing important reports required by the Ministry of Education
because the required information was scattered in various sectors, some of which were
difficult to access. As this administrative director explained:
I noticed that there was a great need for information, especially the information that must be
sent to the Federal Government. There was this problem. Hence I had the idea to use an
integrated information system.
This administrative director – the originator of the idea – had almost no prior experience
in university administration, but his academic background (a bachelors’ degree in
computer sciences and management) and experience with management information
systems played a significant role in the development of his insight (which involved
discipline). According to Lawrence et al. (2005, p. 187), “disciplinary practices such as
socialization and training provide the deep experience that is fundamental to gaining
expertise and, consequently, fostering intuition”.
With the aim of investigating how people individually interpret ideas (Crossan et al.,
1999), we sought to understand how the administrative director gave meaning to the
initial idea to implement a “new” integrated IS. He said that:
I tried to understand how an integrated information system could be implemented at the
university […] It was from these doubts and questions that the idea gradually became more
mature in my head. […] my knowledge and skills in computing were essential […] But I also
knew that it was necessary that the top management […] become interested in the idea so that
it would be supported and the system implemented (Administrative Director, originator of the
idea).
With a clearer idea regarding the integrated system, the administrative director
presented the concept to the university president, but it was not accepted. The president
 TLO argued that the university lacked resources, particularly financial ones, and had no
22,2 interest in implementing the idea. Apparently, the president did not fully understand the
importance of the system:
In 2003 the idea was not put into practice, the president at the time did not understand its
importance […], he/she said the university had no resources for the investment that would be
required […] (Administrative Director, originator of the idea).
124
As can be inferred from the administrative director’s quotation, in this situation, he had
no power to influence the university president’s opinion about the implementation of an
integrated IS. The fact that the administrative director chose to take his insight directly
to the president, shortly after his nomination as administrative director, led to an
interruption in a potential organizational learning cycle. The process stopped at
interpreting; that is to say, the original insight was neither incorporated nor
institutionalized in the university; the feed-forward process was not accomplished. For
the sake of our analysis, this stage is denominated as the First Cycle of Analysis of the
organizational learning process (November 2003 to October 2004). Figure 2 briefly
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

summarizes the main aspects involved in organizational learning processes and forms
of power (political dynamics) involved in the first learning cycle analysed.

Figure 2.
Organizational
learning processes
and power dynamics:
first cycle of analysis
(2003-2004)
 In November 2004, the information problems continued and the reasons for adopting an Organizational
integrated IS became even clearer to the administrative director. He still believed that learning and
the implementation of an IS at the university could solve several problems, especially
those related to information access. His prior learning (first learning cycle) enabled new
power
insights into how to develop the idea and search for people who would support it. As a dynamics
result of this prior learning, the originator of the idea wrote a preliminary draft of the IS
to explain his idea (interpreting). This document contained information about the basic 125
software structure, major technical requirements, initial investments and so on.
Additionally, he learned that he needed to influence other people who could possibly
accept the idea, and who had influenced the top management team in other instances.
With those ideas in mind, rather than speaking directly to the university president, as
he had done previously, the administrative director explained the idea to his new
supervisor, a vice president (a member of the top management team). He explained the
information problems, the importance of using an integrated IS and the costs and
benefits of its adoption at the university. The vice president began to advocate the
implementation of the idea. With his own interpretations of the costs and benefits
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

involved in adopting the system, the vice president sought to influence the opinion of the
top management team in favour of its implementation. Using appropriate language for
that team, the vice president (the defender of the idea) presented, in a formal meeting
with the top management team, the project, including the potential benefits and costs of
implementing the system. Some criticisms were made, but the vice president presented
powerful counterarguments in favor of the IS. The original idea was discussed at several
management meetings, and outside experts were invited into the discussion. The
management team studied the topic and analyzed different alternatives, and new ideas
emerged during these discussions. At least three types of ideas emerged:
(1) solving the problem without the use of IT;
(2) adopting other types of IT; and
(3) improving the proposed IS.

With reference to this process, the vice president pointed out that when an idea is
presented by someone with influence within the university, the chances of it being
accepted is almost certain:
It is noted that when an idea comes from a person with whom one has a good relationship, there
is usually support. Otherwise, nobody buys the idea […]. Personal relationships are very
important […] one can see that some people get approvals more easily than others (Vice
President, defender of the idea).

I remember we discussed this topic extensively in our meetings […]. At first I was not in favor
of implementing the IS, but I was convinced that this was the best alternative […] what can I
say? we learned a lot in this process […] i.e. now I know how to plan and implement an IS at a
university […] and is not a simple task (Vice President B).
The use of force as a means of political power (Lawrence et al., 2005) by the vice
president, who defended the idea of implementation of the integrated system, was
effective in integrating the idea in the management team. In subtle ways, alternative
ideas that might have solved the problem of access to information were eliminated,
while the idea of adopting an integrated IS remained. As explained by the vice president,
 TLO as the group members presented their interpretations and opinions on the idea of
22,2 implementing an integrated IS, a shared understanding about it was developed, and
each member of the group (senior managers from different areas) agreed to mobilize
their efforts and resources to implement the system. In this integration process, dialogue
and shared understanding among the group members were pivotal factors.
Over time, top management team meetings and meetings with managers, engineers,
126 staff and other members of the organization strengthened the integration process. There
was a possibility that the federal government would finance the purchase and
implementation of the system. In 2005, the Ministry of Education approved a
“Modernization Project” (written by the originator and the defender of the idea) for the
university, which included funding for the IS implementation. Within the process of
choosing the software platform, it is possible to note the use of episodic power on at least
two occasions (Lawrence et al., 2005):
(1) when the vice president (defender of the idea) limited the choice options in favor
of the software platform defended by him (use of force); and
(2) when the vice president used his own interpretation of the costs and benefits to
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

influence the group’s decision (use of influence).

With funding secured, the next step was to seek involvement and support from different
areas of the university and its future users. Thus, new “integrating spaces” were created
to influence groups at lower hierarchical levels. In these integrating spaces, the top
management team (president and vice presidents) applied a legitimate form of force:
they presented the implementation of the IS not as an option, but as a management
decision. Thus, force was used to support the integration of the idea and in determining
specific paths for the actions of groups at the university that would use the IS. The
strategy used by senior management to promote the integration at the lower levels of the
hierarchy included the creation of a training program. Key people from every university
sector were identified to participate in the training program. Between 2007 and 2008, 78
training courses were developed to teach employees how to operate the system. This
strategy sought to promote the effective use of the system in different sectors, and to
influence those who might resist the system’s implementation.
In this case, it is noted that when something becomes institutionalized in an
organization, some degree of understanding, or even consensus, is achieved among
members of the organization, especially those who are influential (as the study carried
out by Crossan et al., 1999 points out). Before the IS became institutionalized at the
university, learning processes occurred at the individual and group levels. Figure 3
shows the four learning processes and the associated power dynamics during the second
cycle of organizational learning.
The adoption and use of the system modified the university’s organizational
processes and created new routines and procedures (while also eliminating some
routines that existed prior to deploying the system). The implementation of the IS also
changed the organizational structure. A new administrative area was created within the
office of the president to monitor the adoption and use of the IS in different university
sectors.
Our findings support the assumption that political aspects are inextricably linked
with organizational learning processes (Lawrence et al., 2005). The support of top
management was decisive in the IS adoption, but the learning at the individual and
 Organizational
learning and
power
dynamics

127
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Figure 3.
Organizational
learning processes
and power dynamics:
second cycle of
analysis (2004-2008)

group level of analysis was also essential for the effective IS implementation at the
university. This case also demonstrates that leadership is not always defined by a
simple hierarchy, and it would be a mistake to consider it as such (Crossan et al., 2011).
In addition, the role of leadership in influencing the learning process was shown to be
associated with the use of different forms of power. Although we recognize the
importance of these elements, they are not part of the scope of this study. Future
research could be conducted to identify the role of different leadership styles on
organizational learning and the contexts in which different forms of power are most
effective. It could also discuss in more detail the influence of formal and informal power
in learning process.

7. Final remarks
Unlike other studies, which seem to consider organizational learning a “romantic”
process that follows a linear logic of understanding, this study examines organizational
learning as a result of political actions taken by members of an organization. The study
empirically shows that those in power play a fundamental role in the institutionalization
of learning, as conceptually suggested by Lawrence et al. (2005). The assimilation
process of individual learning by the organization thus depends, among other factors,
on the actions of individuals interested in establishing cultures, structures and routines
in the organization. Among these actions, we may highlight the search for access to
resources (not just financial ones) that are necessary for institutionalization.
Our research analyzed how the insight to adopt an IS at a Brazilian organization
came to be institutionalized, and how different forms of power were present during this
learning process. Furthermore, our work demonstrated that:
 TLO […] politics of organizational learning are not a dysfunctional aspect that needs to be
remedied but, rather, are an intrinsic part of the process that should be appreciated and
22,2 understood by organizational researchers and leveraged by managers and employees
(Lawrence et al., 2005, p. 188).
As recently suggested by Crossan et al. (2011), we recognized in this paper that research
with an explicit focus on politics and power is needed to improve our understanding of
128 organizational learning.
In terms of future research, we suggest an exploration of other forms of power that may
be involved in organizational learning processes. For example, this could include the
influence of organizational structures, the role of leadership or even research that explores
the influence of the use of IS on individual and group learning (feedback process). Our paper
also offers insights for practice. First, it suggests that IS implementation in organizations
involves a multilevel learning process. In other words, IS implementation in an organization
implies the existence of individual, group and organizational learning, and coexists with the
use of different forms of power. This, we believe, suggests that IT project managers must
consider and articulate the different actors and organizational mechanisms involved,
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

indicating that IT implementation not only requires a technical background but also a
number of organizational actors, individual insights, multiple perspectives and shared
interpretations and interests. Second, our paper suggests that there is no specific recipe for
the success of IT projects in organizations. An organization always can learn from the
implementation of an IS, even when the results of the change are not equated with an
increase of organizational effectiveness. In a structure where formal power predominates (as
in public organizations), political actors may facilitate or inhibit the emergence of learning
processes. Finally, our paper offer clues to the development and institutionalization of ideas
related to IT projects and projects in general. The study adds evidence to explain why some
projects are put into practice and institutionalized, and others are not (Lawrence et al., 2005),
and to understand the discontinuity of learning processes in organizations (Berends and
Lammers, 2010). We believe that once managers adopt an expanded view of project
implementation, which takes into account multiple levels of analysis (individual, group and
organization) and power dynamics, they will be able to understand the benefits of engaging
different learning actors from the beginning of the project.

References
Antal, B.A., Dierkes, M., Child, J. and Nonaka, I. (2003), “Organizational learning knowledge:
reflections on the dynamics of the field and challenges for the future”, in Dierkes, M.,
Antal, B.A., Child, J. and Nonaka, I. (Eds), Handbook of Organizational Learning and
Knowledge, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp. 921-939.
Attewell, P. (1992), “Technology diffusion and organizational learning: the case of business
computing”, Organization Science, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 1-19.
Bapuji, H. and Crossan, M. (2004), “From questions to answers: reviewing organizational learning
research”, Management Learning, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 397-417.
Berends, H. and Lammers, I. (2010), “Explaining discontinuity in organizational learning: a
process analysis”, Organization Studies, Vol. 31 No. 8, pp. 1045-1068.
Blackler, F. (2000), “Power, mastery and organizational learning”, Journal of Management
Studies, Vol. 37 No. 6, pp. 833-851.
Bontis, N., Crossan, M. and Hulland, J. (2002), “Managing organizational learning systems by
aligning stocks and flows”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 39 No. 4, pp. 437-469.
 Campbell, T. and Armstrong, J. (2013), “A longitudinal study of individual and organisational Organizational
learning”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 240-258.
learning and
Creswell, J.W. (2007), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions,
2nd ed., Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
power
Crossan, M. and Berdrow, I. (2003), “Organizational learning and strategic renewal”, Strategic
dynamics
Management Journal, Vol. 24 No. 11, pp. 1087-1105.
Crossan, M., Lane, H. and White, R. (1999), “An organizational learning framework: from intuition 129
to institution”, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 522-537.
Crossan, M., Maurer, C.C. and White, R. (2011), “Reflections on the 2009 AMR decade award: do we
have a theory of organizational learning?”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 36 No. 3,
pp. 446-460.
Easterby-Smith, M., Antonacopoulou, E.P., Lyles, M. and Simms, D. (2004), “Constructing
contributions to organizational learning: Argyris and the next generation”, Management
Learning, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 371-380.
Ford, R. (2006), “Organizational learning, change and power: toward a practice-theory
framework”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 495-524.
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

Jermier, J.M., Knights, D. and Nord, W. (1994), Resistance and Power in Organizations, Routledge,
New York, NY.
Kane, G.C. and Alavi, M. (2007), “Information technology and organizational learning: an
investigation of exploration and exploitation processes”, Organization Science, Vol. 18
No. 5, pp. 796-812.
Ke, W. and Wei, K.K. (2006), “Organizational learning process: its antecedents and consequences
in enterprise system implementation”, Journal of Global Information Management, Vol. 14
No. 1, pp. 1-23.
Lawrence, T.B., Mauws, M.K., Dyck, B. and Kleysen, R.F. (2005), “The politics of organizational
learning: integrating power into the 4I framework”, Academy of Management Review,
Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 180-191.
Pentland, B.T. (1995), “Information systems and organizational learning: the social epistemology
of organizational knowledge systems”, Accounting Management Information Technology,
Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1-21.
Robertson, P. and Seneviratne, S. (1995), “Outcomes of planned organizational change in the
public sector: a meta-analytic comparison to the private sector”, Public Administration
Review, Vol. 55 No. 6, pp. 547-558.
Schechter, C. (2008), “Organizational learning mechanisms: the meaning, measure, and
implications for school improvement”, Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 44 No. 2,
pp. 155-186.
Vera, D. and Crossan, M. (2005), “Organizational learning and knowledge management: towards
an integrative framework”, in Easterby-Smith, M. and Lyles, M. (Eds), The Blackwell
Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management, Blackwell, Malden,
MA, pp. 122-141.
Weick, K.E. (1991), “The nontraditional quality of organizational learning”, Organization Science,
Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 116-124.
Woods, J.G. (2012), “Using cognitive conflict do promote the use of dialectical learning for strategic
decision-makers”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 134-147.
Zimmerman, M.A. and Zeitz, G.J. (2002), “Beyond survival: achieving new venture growth by
building legitimacy”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 414-443.
 TLO About the authors
Jane Lucia Silva Santos graduated in business administration from the Federal University of
22,2 Alagoas, Brazil. She is a doctor in knowledge engineering and management from Federal
University of Santa Catarina, Brazil, and researcher of the KLOM | Knowledge, Learning and
Organizational Memory Interdisciplinary Research Group, Brazil. Her main research interests are
organizational learning, absorptive capacity and memory in organizations. Jane Lucia Silva
Santos is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: janejlss@gmail.com
130 Andrea Valéria Steil graduated in psychology, and is a doctor in production engineering. She
was a visiting scholar at the University of South Florida (USA) from 1993 to 1995. She was the
former (2003-2010) president of Instituto Stela, a nonprofit R&D institution whose mission is to
bring scientific research and technological innovation closer together to encourage and support
the development of organizations and society. Currently, she is a Professor in the psychology
department at the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Brazil. She is also the leader of the
KLOM Knowledge, Learning and Organizational Memory Interdisciplinary Research Group, and
is a Professor of master’s and doctorate degrees in Knowledge Engineering and Management
Program at the UFSC, Brazil.
Downloaded by UFSC At 11:44 04 June 2015 (PT)

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com