Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.

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Corrosion Of Steel Reinforcements:

Concrete is a strong composite material used for building infrastructure, the infrastructure can be of
enormous sizes and configurations, so the conventional ingredients of concrete are not sufficient for modern
construction, for the reason of achieving greater strength, steel reinforcements are used. But with the use of
these reinforcements comes the problem of corrosion for which different preventive measures are required.
Corrosion is actually the slow and gradual deterioration of the steel under the action of moisture.

Types of Corrosion:
There are two types which are described below:

1. Crevice Corrosion:
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution on the micro-
environmental level. Such stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in crevices (shielded areas). Oxygen in the
liquid which is deep in the crevice is consumed by reaction with the metal. Oxygen content of liquid at the
mouth of the crevice which is exposed to the air is greater, so a local cell develops in which the anode, or area
being attacked, is the surface in contact with the oxygen-depleted liquid.

2. Pitting:
Theories of passivity fall into two general categories, one based on adsorption and the other on presence of a
thin oxide film. Pitting in the former case arises as detrimental or activator species, such as Cl-, compete with
O2 or OH- at specific surface sites. By the oxide film theory, detrimental species become incorporated into the
passive film, leading to its local dissolution or to development of conductive paths. Once initiated, pits
propagate auto-catalytically according to the generalized reaction,
M + n + nH2O + n Cl- → M (OH)n + n HCl, resulting in acidification of the active region and corrosion at an
accelerated rate (M + n and M are the ionic and metallic forms of the corroding metal).
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
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Reasons of Corrosion:
Following are a few main reasons of corrosion:

1. Corrosion of steel reinforcements due to Atmosphere:

Most of the times steel reinforcement is exposed to the atmosphere during transportation and storage in the
building sites for a long period before their installation in the concrete structures. At any of those stages, steel
rebars can be contaminated by chloride ions from sea spray or windblown salt. This fact leads to the formation
of corrosion products on their surface.

2. Loss of Alkanity due to Chlorides:

The passivity provided by the alkaline conditions can also be destroyed by the presence of chloride ions, even
though a high level of alkalinity remains in the concrete. The chloride ion can locally de-passivate the metal and
promote active metal dissolution. Chlorides react with the calcium aluminate and calcium aluminoferrite in the
concrete to form insoluble calcium chloroaluminates and calcium chloroferrites in which the chloride is bound
in non-active form; however, the reaction is never complete and some active soluble chloride always remains in
equilibrium in the aqueous phase in the concrete. It is this chloride in solution that is free to promote corrosion
of the steel. At low levels of chloride in the aqueous phase, the rate of corrosion is very small, but higher
concentration increases the risks of corrosion.

3. Corrosion due to difference in environments:

Corrosion occurs when two different metals, or metals in different environments, are electrically connected
in a moist or damp concrete.
This will occur when:
1. Steel reinforcement is in contact with an aluminium conduit.
2. Concrete pore water composition varies between adjacent or along reinforcing bars.
3. Where there is a variation in alloy composition between or along reinforcing bars.
4. Where there is a variation in residual/applied stress along or between reinforcing bars.
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
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Preventive measures against Corrosion:

1. Keep the concrete away from moisture, beacause when concrete is moist, there will be oxygen which
will cause corrosion in the steel reinforcements.
2. Paint the surface of the reinforcements, or some other type of polymeric coating.
3. Use stainless steel for reinforcements.
4. Use “Fly Ash” in concrete which will compact more and will leave less voids for the water to enter
inside and cause corrosion.
5. Bitumen is a hydrocarbon derivative which can be used to cover the surface of the concrete and
preventing water seepage and in turn corrosion.
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Alkali-Aggregate reaction:
Alkali-aggregate reaction is an ill-effect in the concrete, it is caused by the reaction between active silica
and alkalis. We call it alkali-aggregate reaction because alkali sources are different rather than just from cement.
Alkali present in the concrete or may be from sea-water reacts with the silica ¿) in the aggregates and forms
alkali-silica gel, which in the presence of water expands and cause cracks in the concrete.

What causes ASR?:

ASR is caused by the reaction between active silica in the aggregates and the alkalis. It forms a gel known
as ASR gel which in the presence of water absorbs it and expands, when the tensile stresses exceed the limit,
cracks are produces and hence the structure fails. The chemical equation representing ASR is shown:

SiO2 + 2NaOH + H2O → Na2SiO32H.

(Silica) (alkali) (water) (ASR- gel)

Signs of ASR:
- Expansion & Cracking.
- Loss of Strength.

Where ASR occurs:

- In humid environments ( dams, bridge piers, sea water)
- Exposed environments (roads, building exteriors).

:P-T-O:
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
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ASR Expansion Mechanism:

Methods to prevent ASR:

- Limit Alkali content by either using cement with less alkali or by preventing other sources of alkali.
- Avoid penetration of sea-water.
- Limit silica content either by decreasing aggregate quantity or by using aggregate with less active silica.
- Limit available moisture.
- Use GGBFS or other pozzolonic admixtures because they contain non-active silica.
- Use air entrainers.
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
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Q no. 3 Write short notes on:
a. Sulfate attack
b. Methods for preventing sulfate attack
c. Delayed ettringite formation
d. Autogenously shrinkage
e. Chloride ingress
f. Deicing effect

Sulphate Attack:
It is caused by the reaction between sulphate ions and hydration products, it leads to the formation of
“ETTRINGITE” which expands in presence of moisture and produces cracks in the concrete structures.

Sources of sulphate ions:

- Sea-water
- Organic rids environment (Sewerage, stagnant water)
- Industrial Waste.
- Soil and Ground Water.

Signs of sulphate Attack:

 Extensive cracking and expansion.
 Deposition of ettringite crystals in the internal cracks,
 Characteristic whitish appearance on the surface.
C4AH18 + 2CH + 2S + 2H → C6AS3H22.
Infusion of sulphate ion into hydrated cement paste to form Ettringite.
- Ettringite crystals expands which generate tensile stresses which produce cracking, leads to severe
damage and fracture.

Methods to prevent Sulphate attack:

- Limit C3A content; Use Type 2, 5 Portland cement.
- Coating of protective over lays.
- Addition of pozzolonic materials which can limit C3A content.
- Addition of fly ash because it makes the concrete less porous hence more resistive to water seepage and
external chemical attacks.

Delayed Ettringite Formation:

Delayed ettringite formation is a form of internal sulfate attack caused by heat-induced decomposition of
ettringite formed during the initial hydration of cement in concrete. Ettringite is unstable at temperatures above
approximately 165 (F) and will decompose upon heating. Cooling and subsequent moist curing of concrete
ettringite could, under certain conditions, reform and cause expansion of the cement paste. This expansion, in
turn, could lead to cracking of concrete, which would result in the loss of strength, high water permeability, and
decreased service life.
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Reason:
The exact reasons for this kind of internal sulfate damage are complex and not completely understood.
However, all evidence leads to the conclusion that reactive cements, especially under conditions of accelerated,
high-temperature curing, are more susceptible to this kind of damage than cements that hydrate slowly under
ambient temperature conditions. In other words, a finely ground Type III cement cured at above 165 (F)
degrees, will almost certainly lead to delayed ettringite formation. In contrast, less reactive cements cured at
temperatures below 165 (F) degrees will probably not develop this internal sulfate damage.

Autogenous Shrinkage:
Autogenous shrinkage is an important phenomenon in fresh concrete. At low water/cement ratios, less than
about 0.42, all the water is rapidly drawn into the hydration process and the demand for more water creates very
fine capillaries. The surface tension within the capillaries causes autogenous shrinkage, which can lead to
cracking. This can be avoided by keeping the surface of the concrete continuously wet; conventional curing by
sealing the surface to prevent evaporation is not enough and water curing is essential. With wet curing, water is
drawn into the capillaries and the shrinkage does not occur. Note that autogenous shrinkage is separate from and
additional to conventional drying shrinkage, which will start when water curing ceases.
Can be prevented by the:
- Water curing.
- Use of admixture like fly ash to avoid small capillary pores formation.

Chloride Ingress:
Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete is the most common problem affecting the durability of
reinforced concrete structures. Steel reinforcement embedded in concrete is inherently protected against
corrosion by passivation of the steel surface due to the high alkalinity of the concrete. When a sufficient amount
of chlorides reaches the steel reinforcement it permeates the passivating layer and increases the risk of
corrosion. The resistivity of concrete can also be reduced, affecting the corrosion rate of the steel. For use in
reinforced or prestressed concrete structures the chloride concentrations in cements, mixing water, aggregates,
and admixtures are strictly controlled, and the maximum permissible concentrations are given in building
standards. AS 1379 3 restricts the acid-soluble chloride of fresh concrete to 0.8 kg/m3 of concrete. In most
cases, however, excessive amounts of chloride in concrete originate from external sources.
Sources of Chlorides:
The penetration of chlorides into the concrete occurs by various transport mechanisms depending on the
exposure conditions. There are significant amounts of chlorides in seawater but chlorides are more limited in
groundwater and soil. In many countries de-icing salts, used to combat the build-up of snow and ice on transport
infrastructures, are the greatest source of chlorides.

De-Icing Effects:
De-icing agents are mostly contain chlorides which as we discussed earlier have ill effects on concrete
structures.
- It can cause rusting of reinforcements used in the concrete structure by the chloride action and hence
lead to failure of the structure.
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
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- The alkalis in the de-icers can cause alkali silica reaction which leads to the formation of ASR gel which
expands in presence of moisture and causes cracking.
Positive effects:
- De-icing helps keep the traffic going.
- De-icing ensures safe traction hence safety.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE:
Durability can be defined as the ability of the concrete to resist weathering, chemical attacks (external or
internal), thermal instability, non-porous etcetera. Durability is also affected by the way concrete is compacted,
handled and placed. Say for example in a thick mesh if the concrete is not of the standard workability, it will not
reach all the places and hence there will be voids left causing inadequate durability.

Causes of Inadequate durability:

There can be two major causes of inadequate durability:
a- Chemical Causes.
b- Physical Causes.

Chemical Causes:
Chemical causes of inadequate durability include:
a- Alkali-aggregate reaction.
b- Sulphate attack.
c- Chlorides.
d- Carbonation.

Alkali-Aggregate reaction:
Alkali- aggregate reaction is the reaction which occurs between the active silica in the aggregates and the
alkalis in the cement or from an external source such as sea-water. The reaction produces alkali-silica gel which
in the presence of moisture absorbs it and expands, when the stresses due to expansion exceed the tensile stress
limit, cracks are produced in the concrete which leads to structure failure.

Sulphate Attack:
Sulphate attack is the reaction of sulphate ions with the products of hydration forming ettringite crystals
which are inside the pores, when the moisture is absorbed by the ettingite crystals, it expands and produces
cracking in the concrete structures and hence the structure fails.
Sulphate ions get inside the cement by the seepage of sea-water inside the pores or by other industrial wastes
containing sulphates. Preventions include use of fly ash, preventive coatings of overlays etcetera

Chlorides:
Chloride’s main source is the use of de-icing materials, the chloride gets inside the concrete and causes
corrosion of the reinforcements. Actually when the chlorides reach the reinforcements, the passivating layer
between the steel and the concrete is deteriorated by the action of chloride hence leaving steel prone to
corrosion.
Prevention can be coating the concrete with bitumen or coating the steel with paints etc.
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Carbonation:
Carbon dioxide from air can react with the calcium hydroxide in concrete to form calcium carbonate. This
process is called carbonatation, Carbonatation has two effects: it increases mechanical strength of concrete, but
it also decreases alkalinity, which is essential for corrosion prevention of the reinforcement steel. Hence
although it improves one quality but has an ill-effect on the other which proves to be of more importance hence
we categorize carbonation as an ill-effect for concrete.

Physical Causes:
Physical causes of inadequate durability can be categorized in to two types namely:
a- Surface wearing (abrasion, erosion and cavitation)
b- The other is “Cracking” (Volume changes, load damage and extreme temperature effect).

Abrasion:
Dry attrition caused by the traffic say(wear on pavements and industrial floors by traffic)

Erosion:
Wearing of the concrete by the action of fluids containing solid particles such as sewerage and drainage
pipes and spill ways.

Cavitation:
Cavities can be produces by the improper placement of the concrete and can cause enormous change in the
strength and durability

Volume changes:
Volume changes include dry shrinkage, plastic shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage. All these types of
shrinkages are cause by the pores and evaporation of water or other actions. Dry shrinkage occurs when the
water in the capillary pores evaporates after the hardening of the cement due to the heat of hydration and hence
causes the shrinkage of the concrete leading to cracks, plastic shrinkage occurs when the rate of bleeding is less
than the rate of evaporation of water while the concrete is plastic, while the autogenous shrinkage occurs when
the w/c ratio is low and the water is just for the hydration process causing the fine voids to be produces which
later causes shrinkage.

Load Damage:
Load damage is when the load ( dead load + live load) exceeds the compressive strength or the tensile
strength or both of concrete causing cracks and eventually failure of the structure.

Extreme Temperature damage:

In case of cold weather the damage of the concrete is due to the cycles of freezing and thawing which causes
cracks, while in case of hot weather the thermal expansion can be a cause of cracks, other than that dry
shrinkage is also much possible in hot weather if not properly cured.
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Explain In Detail:
a- Temperature Problems in concrete.
b- Hot weather concreting.
c- Cold Weather Concreting.
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
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Temperature problems in concrete:

Temperature has dominating effect on the properties of concrete, too high temperature can cause many
problems such as shrinkage, premature setting etcetera. While cold weather can cause delayed setting leading to
the water getting frozen and hence poor concrete, it causes freezing and thawing which due to the anomalous
expansion of water causes cracking. Hot weather and cold weather concreting is discussed below:

Hot Weather Concreting:

Hot weather conditions are in summer, combinations of high temperatures, winds and low humidity could
result in conditions leading to problems with concrete placement and finishing.
hot weather is any combination of:
→ high temperature;
→ low relative humidity;
→ high wind speed.
According to ASTM standards 35 degree Celsius is the max concrete temperature at its delivery time however if
there are some hot winds blowing as well then special precautions are taken to avoid problems of plastic
shrinkage , cracking and premature stiffening .
Following properties of concrete are mainly affected by the hot weather:
SETTING TIME: As temperature rises setting time if concrete reduces which gives us less time for
transportation, compaction and placement of concrete.
WORKABILITY: High temperature decreases workability of concrete in a little amount of time, if water is
added to the concrete to maintain its workability, it results in the loss of strength and increases porosity which
ultimately makes concrete less durable.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: Higher water demand in high temperatures could lead to reduced strength. If
more water is added it will decrease compressive strength and durability of concrete. Where water is not added,
the reduced setting time and workability increase the potential for inadequate compaction, the formation of cold
joints and results poorly finished concrete.
HEAT OF HYDRATION: Hot weather conditions may accelerate the temperature rise in concrete caused by
the heat of hydration. In large sections thermal gradients through the element may cause thermal cracking.
While increased concrete temperatures may result in an increase in the early rate of strength gain, in the longer
term, concrete cured at lower temperatures will achieve higher ultimate strength.
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE: Hot weather conditions accelerate the loss of moisture from the surface. If the rate
of evaporation is greater than the rate of bleeding surface drying will occur, resulting in shrinkage of the
concrete. When the shrinkage stresses exceed the tensile capacity of the concrete, cracking will occur. The
likelihood of plastic shrinkage cracking is therefore greater in hot weather concreting.
POOR SURFACE APPEARANCE: With the increased rate of evaporation, the surface of the concrete will
dry out and stiffen. In the case of flatwork this may lead to premature finishing of the surface, trapping an
amount of bleed water within the mix. The compacted surface layer may cause the rising bleed water to be
trapped below the surface, resulting in debonding of the surface layer and cause flaking.

Cold Weather Concreting:

Cold weather can have many adverse effects on the concrete both in plastic as well as dry state:
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Delayed Setting Time:
Due to the cold weather, the setting time of the concrete is delayed causing delayed construction, in cold
weather when formwork is reused again and again, the delayed setting is the most undesirable and has to be
dealt with accordingly.
Freezing:
Freshly placed concrete is vulnerable to freezing conditions both before and after it has set. As a general
rule, concrete must be protected from freezing for at least 24 hours after placement. If there is a possibility that
freezing can occur prior to setting, precautions should be taken to protect the concrete elements or the concrete
should not be placed. If allowed to freeze after setting (i-e sudden drop in temperature overnight), the expansion
of the water as it freezes will cause damage to the entire structure of the cement paste, thus reducing the
potential strength of the concrete.
Cracking of the surface:
The surface cracking can also occur in cold weather concrete as the surface will set quicker than the internal
and then due to the heat of hydration and expansion of the inner self, the surface will be cracked producing low
strength concrete.
Delayed Strength gain:
The strength gaining time of the concrete also increases in cold weathers which makes faster construction
totally impossible for this reason it is better to use Rapid Hardening Portland Cement in such scenarios.

References:
 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/10/041025130741.htm
 Properties Of Concrete Technology By Adam Neville.
 Concrete Technology by M.S. Shetty.
 http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~neeravv/presentations/Neerav_Term%20paper.pdf
 https://www.google.com.pk/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&cad=rja&sqi=2&ved=0CEkQFjAE&url=http%3A%2F
%2Fwww.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu%2F~neeravv%2Fpresentations%2FNeerav_Term
%2520paper.pdf&ei=nK3HUv-
RB5SM7Aa01oDABw&usg=AFQjCNFp_w0YlYTVAnTzsDddgV7DZFej6Q&sig2=9NGZJQcH6PdB
MaJprmzf7w&bvm=bv.58187178,d.bGQ
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.

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Contents
Corrosion Of Steel Reinforcements:........................................................................................................................1
Types of Corrosion:.................................................................................................................................................1
1. Crevice Corrosion:...........................................................................................................................................1
2. Pitting:..............................................................................................................................................................1
Reasons of Corrosion:..............................................................................................................................................2
1. Corrosion of steel reinforcements due to Atmosphere:................................................................................2
2. Loss of Alkanity due to Chlorides:...............................................................................................................2
3. Corrosion due to difference in environments:..............................................................................................2
Preventive measures against Corrosion:..................................................................................................................3
Alkali-Aggregate reaction:......................................................................................................................................3
What causes ASR?:..................................................................................................................................................3
Signs of ASR:..........................................................................................................................................................3
Where ASR occurs:.................................................................................................................................................3
ASR Expansion Mechanism:...................................................................................................................................4
Methods to prevent ASR:........................................................................................................................................4
Sulphate Attack:.......................................................................................................................................................5
Sources of sulphate ions:.........................................................................................................................................5
Signs of sulphate Attack:.........................................................................................................................................5
Methods to prevent Sulphate attack:........................................................................................................................5
Delayed Ettringite Formation:.................................................................................................................................5
Reason:....................................................................................................................................................................6
Autogenous Shrinkage:............................................................................................................................................6
Chloride Ingress:......................................................................................................................................................6
De-Icing Effects:......................................................................................................................................................6
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE:............................................................................................................................7
Causes of Inadequate durability:.............................................................................................................................7
Chemical Causes:.....................................................................................................................................................7
Alkali-Aggregate reaction:..................................................................................................................................7
Sulphate Attack:.......................................................................................................................................................7
Chlorides:.................................................................................................................................................................7
Carbonation:............................................................................................................................................................8
Physical Causes:......................................................................................................................................................8
Syed Kaleem Gilani Assignment # 5 Civil Engg. Material and Concrete Tech.
Abrasion:..............................................................................................................................................................8
Erosion:................................................................................................................................................................8
Cavitation:............................................................................................................................................................8
Volume changes:.................................................................................................................................................8
Load Damage:......................................................................................................................................................8
Extreme Temperature damage:............................................................................................................................8
Explain In Detail:.....................................................................................................................................................8
Temperature problems in concrete:.........................................................................................................................9
Hot Weather Concreting:.....................................................................................................................................9
Cold Weather Concreting:.......................................................................................................................................9
References:............................................................................................................................................................10