Chapter 2

Cell Physiology
 P i i l off the
Principles th Cell
C ll Theory
Th
• Cell is smallest structural and functional
unit capable of carrying out life processes
• Functional activities of each cell depend on
specific structural properties of the cell

M l cells
Muscle ll
Red blood cell
Nerve cell

• Cells are living building blocks of all

multicellular organisms
Principles of the Cell Theory
10
trillion
((1013)
cells

• Basic living unit of structure & function of the

body.
– > 100 ttrillion
illi cells
ll iin b
body.
d
– very small (10-5 m in diameter).
– highly organized.
– variety of shapes & sizes.
– each type of cells has a special function.
 Principles of the Cell Theory
• An Organism’s
Organism s structure and function
ultimately depend on individual and collective
structural characteristics and functional
capabilities of its cells.
• All new cells and new life arise only from
preexisting cells
• Cells of all organisms
g are fundamentally
y
similar in structure and function
General Cell structure:
• 3 principal parts:
– Plasma (cell) membrane.
– Cytoplasm & organelles.
– Nucleus.
N l

† The cell has two major compartments: the nucleus & the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm contains the major cell organelles & a fluid called cytosol.
Cell Structure
Peroxisome
Mitochondria
Free ribosome

Nuclear pore
Nucleus
Centrioles Rough ER
Ribosome
Lysosome
Smooth ER
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Vesicle
Plasma
Golgi complex membrane
Cytosol
Plasma Membrane
• Also called the cell membrane
• Surrounds every cell
• Separates cell contents from its
surroundings
– Separates Intracellular fluid (ICF)
and Extracellular fluid (ECF)

• Controls movement of
molecules into and out of cell
 N
Nucleus
• Typically largest single
organized cell component
• Enclosed by a double
double-
layered nuclear envelope
• Contains cell’s genetic material,
DNA
– DNA functions 10 micromet
• Directs protein synthesis
• Serves as genetic blueprint during cell
replication
ep cat o
Nuclear pore
Nucleolus
Nucleoplasm
DNA
DNA St
((deoxyribonucleic
Structure
t
y acid))

Nucleotides

DNA

Adenine Guanine

Nucleosome
Histones

DNA Double
helix y
Thymine y
Cytosine
Chromatin z Adenine always pairs with
Thymine by 2 hydrogen
Metaphase
p bonds.
chromosome z Guanine pairs with Cytosine
through 3 hydrogen bonds
Genes expression
ucleuss
Nu asm

Cytossol
ytopla
Cy

ER lumen

Protein modification

- Structurall Protein
- Functions Protein Genes expression
 Cytoplasm
• Portion of cell interior not occupied
p Nucleoplasm
(blue)
by the nucleus
• Consists of
– Organelles
• “little organs”
• Distinct, highly organized, membrane
membrane-
enclosed structures
– Cytoskeleton
y Cytoplasm
• Found in a Complex, gel-like liquid called (red)
the Cytosol
Organelles
g of cells
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Elaborate fluid-filled
i i
membranous system
distributed throughout the
cytosol. Rough ER Smooth ER

• Primary function
– Protein and lipid
manufacture
• Two types
– Rough ER (protein synthesis) – Smooth ER (lipid synthesis)
• Projects outward from smooth ER • Mesh of tiny
as stacks of relatively flattened sacs interconnected tubules
• Surface has attached ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER lumen S
Smooth
h ER lumen
l

Ribosomes

Tubules
Sacs

Rough ER Smooth ER

Rough ER lumen Smooth ER lumen

Ribosomes
The rough
g ER

Rough ER associated with ribosomes to

synthesis and release a variety of new
proteins into the ER lumen

Functions Proteins Structural Proteins

Some proteins are Other proteins are transport
destined for export to the to the sites within the cell
cells exterior as secretory for use in constructing new
proteins: hormon or cellular membrane or new
enzymes
y proteins components
p p of
organelles
The smooth ER

‹ Smooth
S th ER d
does nott contain
t i ribosome.
ib
‹ Not involved in protein synthesis.
‹ Server as a transport
p vesicles
‹ In some of cells, smooth ER secrete
l dd
lipid-derived
d steroid
dhhormone.

‹ Stores
S calcium
l i
Golgi
g Complex
p
• Closely associated with ER
• Consists of a stack of flattened,
slightly
g y curved, membrane-enclosed
sacs called cisternae (store proteins)
• Number of Golgi complexes per cell
varies with the cell type
• Functions
– Processes raw materials into finished products
– Sorts and directs finished products to their final
destinations
– Packages
g secretory y vesicles to release by
y exocytosis
y
 Golgi
g Complex
p

Transport
vesicle from ER,
about to fuse
Golgi complex
with the Golgi
membrane
Golgi
lumen

Golgi
sacs Vesicles
containing
finished product

1. Transport vesicles carry their cargo to the golgi complex

for further processing.
2. The golgi complex packages secretory vesicles for release
by exocytosis.
Golgi
g Complex
p

- Processing the raw materials into finish products

- Sorting and directing the finished products to
th i function
their f ti and d destination:
d ti ti
z To be secreted to the cell’s exterial
z To be used for construction of new plasma membrane
z To be incorporated into other organelles
Golgi
g Complex
p
The golgi complex packages secretory vesicles
for release by exocytosis

(P d
(Produce endocrine,
d i hormone…)
h )
Lysosomes
y
Lysosomes digest extracellular material brought
i t th
into the cell
ll b t i (Endocytosis)
by phagocytosis
h

Chapter 2 Cellular Physiology

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Lysosomes
y
• Membranous sacs containing more
than 30 hydrolytic enzymes

• Serve
Ser e as intracellular digesti
digestivee ssystem
stem Lysosomes
Hydrolytic
• E
Extracellular
t ll l material
t i l attacked
tt k d by
b enzymes
(>30)
lysosomes enters cell by endocytosis
– Pinocytosis
Pi t i
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis
– Phagocytosis
# Phagocytosis
Secretion process for proteins
synthesized by ER
Secretion process for proteins synthesized by ER

3
Rough ER
Secretory
2 4 vesicles
Rough ER
lumen 6
Golgi complex
5
Lysosome
7
Cytoplasm
Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs that house
oxidative
id i enzymes that
h detoxify
d if
various waste products
p
Oxidative
Catalase enzymes

H2O2 H20 + 02
Hydrogen
d
peroxide
(toxic)
Mitochondria
• Enclosed by a
double membrane
– Inner infolded Mitochondria
membrane is called the Intermembrane space
cristae Cristae

• Energy organelle
– Major site of ATP
production
p
– Contains enzymes for Proteins of Inner
electron mitochondrial
Matrix Outer
mitochondrial
citric acid cycle and transport membrane membrane
electron transport system
y

chain
Splitting
ATP ADP + Pi + Energy
E Cristae
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Adenine
ADP

Triphosphate
+ Pi + Energy

Ribose Adenine
ATP
Biosynthetic
y Motilityy Cell
reactions division
 ATP Production
Sequence of steps involved in generation of
ATP within
i hi the
h cell
ll

l i (cytosol)
‹ Glycolysis
l
Glucose Pyruvate
y 2
Glucose

y ((Kreb Cycle)
‹ Citric acid cycle y )
(Mitochondrial matrix).

‹ Oxydative phosphorylation
(mitochondrial inner membrane)
ATP Production

Cytosol

Mitochondrial
matrix

Mitochondrial
inner membrane
Glycolysis
• Chemical process involving 10 separate sequential
reactions that break down 1 glucose into two
i acid
pyruvic id molecules.
l l

Glycolysis in the cytosol: Glycolysis spilts glucose (six carbons) into two
pyruvate molecular (three carbons) with 2 ATP and 2 NADH
(Coenzyme)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NADH)
Adenine
Nicotinamide

Ribose

Triphosphate
Adenine

Ribose
Ribose

(Coenzyme) + Protein Protein

(inactive) (active)

apoenzyme holoenzyme
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
 Citric Acid Cycle
‹ Requires oxygen
‹ Pyruvic acid from glycolysis is
converted to acetyl CoA which
enters citric acid cycle.
cycle
‹ Citric acid cycle consists of eight
separate biochemical reactions
that are directed by enzymes of
mitochondrial matrix

‹ Important in preparing hydrogen

carrier molecules for entry into
electron transport system

Stages off cellular

S ll l respiration:
i i the
h three
h
stages of cellular respiration are (1)
glycolysis, (2) citric acid cycle, and (3)
oxidative phosphorylation
Citric Acid Cycle

ADP: adenosine diphosphate

ATP: adenosine triphosphate
NAD+: nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (B
vitamin)) niacin
FAD: flavine adenine dinucleotide
GTP: Guanosine triphosphate
GDP: Guanosine diphosphate

ADP + GTP ATP + GDP

Adenosine Guanosine Adenosine Guanosine
diphosphate triphosphate triphosphate diphosphate

Citric acids cycle in the mitochondrial matrix

Citric Acid Cycle

Citric Acid Cycle

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle)

3
3 FADH2
FAD

1
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle)

Summary Result of Krebs cycle

Completes breakdown of glucose
started by
ygglycolysis
y y

Happens in Matrix of Mitochondria

1 glucose 2 ATP + 8 NADH + 2 FADH2

Chapter 2 Cellular Physiology

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Oxidative phosphorylation
1. The high-eneregy electrons extracted from the hydrogens
in NADH & FADH2 are transferred from one electron-
carrier molecular to another
2. NADH NAD+ + H+ (proton) + e- (electron)
FADH2 FAD+ + H+ (proton) + e- (electron)

3 e- (electron)
3. ( l ) + O2 + H+ H2O

4 H+
4. + ADP + Pi ATP

Chapter 2 Cellular Physiology

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Summary of ATP production from
the complete oxidation of one
molecule of glucose

Chapter 2 Cellular Physiology

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood ©2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Oxidative Phosphorylation at the
mitochondria inner membrane
 Mitochondria

The inner membrane divides the

organelle’s interior into compartment

Functional zones in a mitochondrion.

The mitochondrion has a double-
y
membrane system. The outer membrane
faces the cytoplasm

Embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane are the

electron transfer chains and ATP synthases that are used to
produce ATP in the final stage of aerobic respiration
 Comparison
Co ison of Ene
Energy Yield and
nd P
Products
od cts of
Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration Condition

‹ Anaerobic condition, only 2 ATP are produced/glucose molecule processed

‹ Aerobic condition, a total of 32 ATP are produced/glucose molecule
Uncontrolled versus controlled
oxidation of food