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New England Geological Guide 1992

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OLJEENSLAND DIVISION
 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE

REGIONAL AIID ECONOMTC GEOLOGY OF THE

NEW ENGI,AI{D DISTRICT

Edited by w.F. willmott

WARW ICK

6ronile

6old
STANTHORPE
Limeilone 6old/&osc
TEXAS Melols

Droke
TENTERFI
Gold

ASHFORD

Silico

Sopphtrc
GLEN INNES
INVERELL
Diomonds

Geological Society of Australia, Queensland Division

Brisbane, 1992
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

QueenglandDivisionOfliceBearers;FieldConlerenceCommittee .......iv
Foreword and Acknowledgements v
Geological Society of .Australia lncorporated vi

RECENT ADVANCES IN UNDEBSTANDING THE GEOLOGICAL DFVELOPMENT OF

THE NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND PROVINCE OF THE NEV\I ENGLAND OROGEN
Peter G. Flood and Jonathan C. Aitchison 1

MINERALISATION IN THE STANTHORPE . TEXAS AREA

T.J.Denaro

THE WARROO MINE

D.J. Catherall and A.R. Hockings 16

GRANITE DIMENSION STONE IN THE NEW ENGLAND GRANITE BELT

NEW SOUTH WALES AND QUEENSLAND
Helen Ray and David Trezis€ n
LIMESTONE RESOURCES OF THE TEXAS AREA
J.E. Siemon 28

BOLIVIA QUARTZ (SILICA) MINE, TENTERFIELD N.S.W.

DaMd Trezise 32

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE WANDSWOBfi VOLCANIC GBOUP

W.J. Stroud, R.G. Barnes, R.E. Brown, and J.W. Brownlow 94

TEfiONICS AND ISNDFORMS OF THE NEW ENGIAND REGION

R.R. Coeraads and C.D. Ollier q
A GUIDE TO THE GEOLOGY OF ECONOMIC SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS
IN THE CENTML VOLCANIC PROVINCE, NORTHEASTERN N.S.W.
Simon R. Pecover Ss

AN INTRODUCNON TO THE COPETON/BINGARA DIAMOND FIELD

P.J. Kennewell and R.G. Adamson 74

Directory ol Supporters

Additionalpaper

THE TIMBARA GOLD PROJECT. A MODEL OF PNEUMATOLIC

GOLD DISSEMINATION IN LEUCOGRANITES
Nicholas Mather and Brian Roach
 FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The 1992 Annual Field Conference will be the third time since 1974 lhat the Queensland Division of
the Society has focused on the New England Region. ln 1974 the Division's Field Conferences
celebrated their tenth anniversary with an inaugural excursion into New South Wales, focusing on the
Armidale district. The subsequent 1984 conference and its theme of "Granites, Volcanics and
Mineralisation" concentrated on the Tenterfield area.

This year. the Field Conference will cover a somewhat larger geographical area and have a more
economic lhrust, with the aim of catering lor a diverse range of interests. Site visits are planned to
deposits of precious and base metals - Drake, Timbara and Warroo; precious stones - Bingara
diamonds and lnverell sapphires; industrial minerals - Limevale limestone and Wallangarra silica;
dimension stone - Pozziers granite. ln addition, Jim Stroud and Rob Barnes of the New South Wales
Geological Survey will guide us through aspects ol the "regional" geology with particular emphasis on
the volcanics of the region.

As in previous years, generous support has again been given by mining, exploration and selice
companies, firstly, in providing access and information on their deposits, and secondly, in providing
linancial support to enable the conference to be run at a reasonable cost to participants. The
committee gratefully acknowledge their support.

Thanks are also due to the contributors to this Field Guidebook and to our "guides' who will be
taking us through their deposits and areas of interest.

D-C. O'NEILL
CHAIRMAN
On behalf ol the 1992 Field Conference Committee
 1

RECENT ADVANCBS IN UNDERSTANDING THE GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

THE NORTHERN NEW ENGLAND PROVINCE OF THE NEW ENGLAND OROGEN

by

Peter G. Floodl and Jonathan C. Aitchison2

lDepartment of Geology and Geophysics,

University of New Engtand, Armidale NSW 2351, Australia
2Department of Geology
and Geophysics, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia

INTRODUCIION

This brief note is to provide field conference participants with a guide to the recent liierature
pertaining to the regional geology and tectonic setting of the northern New England Province of the
New England Orogen.

Those who were fortunate enough to participate in the very successful 1984 Field Conference to the
same area (Herbert and Rynn, 1984) will immediately realise that enormous advances have been
made in our understanding of the age of the sediments and in attempts to decipher the tectonics
(Fergusson and Flood, 1984; Murray, 1986; Degeling ef a/., 1986; Murray et al., 1987; Aitchison,
1988; Flood and Aitchison, 1988, 1990; Scheibner, 1989; Aitchison and Flood, 1990a,b,c; Korsch ef
a/., 1990; Coney et a/., 1990; Aitchison and Flood, 1991; Aitchison et al., 1992; Flood and Aitchison,
1992) and style of mineralization (Ashley and Kleeman, 1988; Plimer and Kleeman, 1985; Plimer et al.,
1991; Murray, 1990; Gilligan and Barnes, 1990).

Whilst the plate tectonic paradigm pervaded most geological research ol the mid to late 1970's, its
derivative, the terrane concept, has managed only limited penetration since its lormulation in the early
1980's (Coney ef a/., 1980; Howell, 1989). Most important, the terrane concept has highlighted the
inadequate nature of the fixist stance ol many plate tectonic models. The terrane concept cautions
- -
that the diverse assemblage of Jithologic units within a fold belt or orogenic system cannot be
assumed to have directly linked genetic relationships. The intrinsic mobility of each component (or
terrane) requires that the geologic history of each unit must be evaluated on the information gleaned
from each outcrop and not from regional generalizations. Most terranes should be considered
suspect in regard to paleogeographic linkage, though this does not mean that all terranes are exotic,
far-travelled crustal lragments.

The New England Orogen is composed of numerous fault-bounded tectonic fragments relerred to as
tectonostratigraphic terranes (Flood and Ailchison, 1988; Aitchison and Flood, 1990 a; Coney et a/.,
1990). Each terrane is characterised by a geological history which is distinct from that of
neighbouring terranes. Stratigraphic terranes and disrupted terranes are the two most common types
found within the New England Orogen. Postaccretionary tectonic process have caused terrane
dispersion, further complicating the geometry of terrane distribution (Figure 1).

Whilst the field conference trip will cover a considerable distance, most of the time it will be within
either the Anaiwan terrane, on the Late Permian Volcanics of the overlap sequences, or on the Late
Permian-Early Triassic l-type granitoids ol the New England Batholilh (Figure 2).
 1520
Early Permian Successions
TERRANE SYMBOLS
OVERLAP SEOUENCES
.","
oWARWCK A Gamilaroi
IWTII
Permian vorcanics
\E B Weraerai
Successor Basins c Djungati

GRANITOIDS
D Anaiwan
Late Permian-Early
E Keinjan
TriassiclandATypes
+++++1+++l F Gidabal
Late Carboniferous- :
Early Permian S Typefi
++ r
" a+ + . - ,
STANTHORPET\ G Yugambal

STITCHING PLUTONS i
+++'l'4
+++++
+++++
(vH) H Bundjalung
1 D+E ++++ I Ngaku
2 G+H ++
+++ J Birpai
3 D+l
4 C+D
ttt

++++++
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+++
+++ K Ngamba
+++++l
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++
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+
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+
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++ + ++ +++ VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV\I
VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV
+ ++ +++ VVVVvVv!VVV\\vvv
+++
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+ + +
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++ lVVVVVVVVV
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ED
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-:_-_-_:-:_=_-_ts\ Uo n
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--------------+-l ':--i_---it-d tI k_r'
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UNDIFFERENTIATED
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;_:=_=_==--;
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o50 i:

Preliminary tectonostratigraphic terrane map of the southern part of

the New England Orogen (after Flood and Aitchison,1988)
TECTONOSTRANGMFH I C TERRANES

The Anaiwan terrane (Flood and Aitchison, 19gg) is a regionally extensive dismembered tenane
containing repeated thrust slices of basalt, chert, tuffaceous siltstone and sandstone, and minor
conglomerate. Radiolarians indicate a Late Devonian (Famennian) to Early Carboniferous (Msean)
age. The sediments of this terrane are interpreted to have lormed in a subduction complex
(Ferguson and Flood, 1984).

The main stratigraphic unit that participants will see within this terrane is the Texas beds (Olgers el
al., 1974) which are now preserved as an imbricate stack of fault slices. Volcaniclastic turbidites are
the dominant lithology with minor basalt, chert and limestone olistoliths.

Two types of chert have been recognised (Aitchison & Flood, 1990). Type I are ribbon-bedded cherts
displaying low Al/(Al+Fe+Mn), high FerO,, high MnOlTtOz, high Si/(Si+Al+Fe). These indicate a
possible hydrothermal contribution, accumulation far from a terrigenous source, and high biogenic
component. Type ll are tuffaceous cherts characterised by high Al/(Al+Fe+Mn ), low MnO/TiO, and
Si/(Si+Al+Fe) which indicate formation in an environment more proximal to a lenigenous source.
The abundance ol NarO and AlrOa relative to SiO, in this type indicates dilution by volcanic ash.
Al-Fe-Mn diagrams indicate that Type ll cherts are non-hydrothermal.

Both cherts were conveyed into a trench by subduction processes where hemipelagic sedimentation
was swamped by terrigenous material lrom turbidity currents.

ln the Silverwood area south of Warwick, a distinctive rock sequence (Silverwood Group, Olgers ef
al., 1974) constitutes the Keinjan terrane. This is a stratigraphic terrane containing several fault slices
of calc-alkaline volcanics, volcaniclastic sandstone, limestone breccia, and radiolarian tuffaceous
siltstones. This terrane is unconformably overlain by fossiliferous shallow marine Permian
volcaniclastic and calc-alkaline volcanics. Radiolarians recovered from the siltstones provide a
Devonian age for the Group.

LATE PERMIAN VOLCANICS

Widespread terrestrial and shallow marine volcanism in the Late Permian produced thick sequences
ol predominantly rhyolitic to rhyodacitic tuffs and ignimbrites (Barnes ef a/., 1991). ln many places
the thick volcanic pile is intruded by granitoid plutonic suites. Recent recompilation mapping by the
New South Wales Geological Survey has led to revision of the volcanics and the name Wandsworth
Volcanic Group was introduced to encompass the Emmaville Volcanics, Wallangarra Volcanics,
Drake Volcanics and Gilguriy Mudstone, Dundbe Rhyodacite and units of the Coombadjha Volcanic
Complex. The term also covers large tracts previously referred to as "undifferentiated Permian
volcanics".

The subaerial to shallow marine Drake Volcanics (Thomson, 1976) unconformably overlie early
Permian marine sediments and consist of dominantly mafic to felsic tuff, volcaniclastic sediments and
lavas (Herbert, 1982a,b; Bottomer, 1986; Perkins, 1988a,b).

Several Late Permian continental silicic volcanics are preserved in the erbded remnants ol volcanic
cauldrons at several sites between Dundee and Wallangarra (McPhie, 1986, 1988). The youngest unit
is the Dundee Rhyodacite, a widespread and distinctive crystal-rich ignimbrite.
Palaeozoic geology of the Northern New England Province (after Flood
& Fergusson in Herbert & Rynn,1984)
NEW ENGI.AND BATHOLITH

The tectonostratigraphic terranes have been intruded by granitoids during two distinct phases of
plutonism, the lirst during the Late Carboniferous (S-type) and the second during the Late
Permian-Early Triassic (l- and A-type). The Late Permian Volcanics, forming an overlap sequence to
the terranes, is co-magmatic with, and intruded by, the second pulse of plutonism. Details
concerning the regional setting and petrogenesis of the batholith can be found in Shaw and
Flood(1981), Kleeman(1988, 1991) and Plimer et a/.(1991).

TERf,IARY BASALNC VOLCAN ISM

The Tertiary basaltic volcanics of the Tablelands region have been the subject of extensive
exploration eflort by companies looking for commercial deposits of sapphires. ln the Glen
lnnes-lnverell area these volcanics belong to the Central Volcanic Province of McDougall and
Wilkinson (1967). Recent research by Pecover and Coenraads (1989) has provided a reference point
lor sapphire exploration.

CONCLUSION

Terrane analysis provides an ideal method for deciphering the geological history of complex orogens
such as the New England Orogen. The present simplistic structural subdivision belies a much more
complex history of geological development within the orogen.

Radiolarians have provided age constraints for many of the previously undated rock sequences.
Chert geochemistry now provides an index of the relative distance from spreading ridge andlor
continental influence. Geochemical analyses have provided a signature of intraoceanic island arc
volcanics for part of the Devonian Silverwood Group, whereas the Late Perrlian felsic volcanism is of
continental margin character. After the accretion of the terranes to the Australian craton, orogenesis
peaked with the intrusion of l-type granite batholiths throughout New England. The Surat and
Clarence-Moreton basins developed adjacent to the New England Structural High during the
Jurassic-Cretaceous. Following an extended period of quiescence, llood basalts were extruded
during the Tertiary.

ACI(NOW-EDGEMENT

Funding lor studies in the New England orogen was provided by the Australian Research Council,
BHP Minerals and CRA Exploration.

REFERENCES

AITCHISON, J.C., 1988. Late Paleozoic radiolarian ages lrom the Gwydir terrane, New England
orogen, eastern Australia. Geology 16, 793-795.
AITCHISON, J.C., 1990. Significance ol Devonian-Carboniferous radiolarians from accretionary
terranes of the New England orogen, eastern Australia. Mar. Micropaleontol.lS.36$378.
AITCHISON, J.C. & FLOOD, P.G., 1990a. Preliminary tectonostratigraphic terrane map ol the
southern part of the New England Orogen, eastern Australia. ln T.J. \Mley, D.G. Howell and
F.L. Wong (eds), Terrane analysis ol China and the Pacific rim. Circum-Pacific Council for
Energy and Mineral Resources, Earth Science Series 13, 81-85.
t--
I
i

AITCHISON, J.C. & FLOOD, P.G., 1990b. Geochemical constraints on the depositional setting of
Palaeozoic cherts lrom the New England orogen, NSW, eastern Australia. Mar. Geol. SA,
79-95.
AITCHISON, J.C. & FLOOD, P.G., 1990c. Early Carbonilerous radiolarian ages constrain the timing
of sedimentation within the Anaiwan terrane, New England orogen, eastern Australia. N. Jb.
Geol. Palaont. Abh.180, 1-19.
AITCHISON, J.C. & FLOOD, P.G., '1991. New England Orogen. ln M. Moullade and A.E.M. Nairn
(eds), Zte Phanqozoic Geology of the World 1: The Palaeozoic, A. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pp. 301-309.
AITCHISON, J.C., IRELAND, T.R., BLAKE, M.C. Jr & FLOOD, P.G., 1992. 530 Ma zircon age for
ophiolite from the New England orogen: oldest known rocks from eastern Australia.
Geology n, 125-128.
ASHLEY, P.M. & KLEEMAN, J.D., 1988. Drake and Emmaville areas, northern New South Wales. ln
L.H. Hamilton (ed.) Field Excursions Handbook for the North Australian Geological
Convention, pp. 143-161. Geol. Soc. Aust., Qld Div., Brisbane.
BARNES, R.G., BROWN, R.E., BROWNLOW, J.W. & STROUD, W.J., 1991. Late Permian volcanics in
New England - the Wandsworth Volcanic Group. Geological Suruey of New South Wales
Quart. Notes 84, 1-36.
BOTTOMER, L.R., 1986. Epithermal silver-gold mineralization in the Drake area, northeastern New
South Wales. Aust. J. Earth 5ci.33,457-473.
CONEY, P.J., JONES, D.L. & MONGER, J.W.H., 1980. Cordilleran suspect terranes. Nature N,
329-333.
CONEY, P.J., EDWARDS, A., HINE, R., MORRISON, F. & WINDRIM, D., 1990. The regional tectonics
of the Tasman orogenic system, eastern Australia. J. Struct. Geol. 12,519-543.
DEGELING, P.R., GILLIGAN, L.8., SCHEIBNER, E. & SUPPEL, D.W., 1986. Metallogeny and tectonic
development of the Tasman Fold Belt System in New South Wales. Ore Geol. Rev. 1,
259-313.
FERGUSSON, C.L. & FLOOD, P.G., 1984. A late Palaeozoic subduction complex in the Border Rivers
Area ol southeast Queensland. Proc. R. Soc. Qld Ss., 47-55.
FLOOD, P.G. & AITCHISON, J.C., 1988. Tectonistratigraphic terranes ol the southern part of the New
England Orogen. ln J.D. Kleeman (ed.), New England Orogen Tectonics and Metallogenesis.
Univ. New England, Armidale, Australia, pp. 7-10.
FLOOD, P.G. & AITCHISON, J.C., 1992. Late Devonian accretion of the Gamilaroi terrane to eastern
Gondwana: provenance linkage suggested by the first appearance of Lachlan Fold
Belt-derived quartzites. Aust. J. Earth Sci. (in press).
GILLIGAN, L.B. & BARNES, R.G., 1990. New England Fold Belt in New South Wales - regional
geology and mineralisation. ln F.E. Hughes (ed.), Geology of the Mineral Deposits of
Australia and Papua New Guinea,- pp. 1417-1424. Australasian lnst. Mining Metallurgy
Monograph 14, Melbourne.
HERBERT, H.K., 1983a. The Drake Mineral Field - a unique entity in Eastern Australia. Pqmian
Geology of Queensland. Geological Society of Australia, Queensland Division, 367-378.
HERBERT, H.K., 1983b. Gold-silver mineralization within the Drake Volcanics of northeastern New
South Wales. Pqmian Geology of Queensland. Geological Society of Australia, Queensland
Division, 401-412.
HERBERT, H.K. & RYNN, J.M.W. (eds), 1984. Volcanics, granites and mineralization of the
StanthorpeEmmavilleDrake region; l9& Field Confqence. Geological Society of Australia,
Queensland Division, Brisbane.
HOWELL, D.G., 1989. Tectonics of Suspect Terranes: Mountain building and continental growth.
Chapman and Hall, London.
 7

KLEEMAN, J.D., 1988. Constraints from granitic intrusives and felsic extrusives on the tectonics of
the southern New England Orogen in the late Palaeozoic-early Triassic. ln J.D. Kleeman
(ed.), &eur England Orogen Tectonics and Metallogenesis. Univ. New England, Armidale,
Australia, pp. 129-133.
KLEEMAN, J.D., 1991. Paleozoic granitoids and associated volcanics. ln M. Moullade and A.E.M.
Nairn (eds), The Phanerozoic Geology of the world 1: the Palaeozoic, A. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp. 309-325.
KORSCH, R.J., HARRINGTON, H.J., MURRAY, C.G., FERGUSSON, C.L. & FLOOD, P,G., 1990.
Tectonics of the New England Orogen. Bureau Min. Res., Geology & Geophysics Bulletin.
n2,35-52.
McDOUGALL, l. & WILKINSON, J.F.G., 1967. Potassium-Argon dates on some Cainozoic volcanic
rocks from northeastern New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 14,225-2U.
McPHlE, J., 1986. Evolution of a non-resurgent cauldron: the Late Permian Coombadjha Volcanic
Complex, northeastern New South Wales, Australia. Geol. Mag.1?3.,257'277.
McPHlE, J., 1988. Source(s) ol the Dunee Rhyodacite lgnimbrite: implications for the existance of
Late Permian cauldrons in the southern New England Orogen. ln J.D. Kleeman (ed.), /Vew
England Orogen Tectonics and Metallogenesis. Univ. New England, Armidale, Australia, pp.
145-149.
MURRAY, C.G., '1986. Metallogeny and tectonic development of the Tasman Fold Belt System in
Queensland. Ore Geol. Rev. 1, 315-400.
MURRAY, C.G., 1990. Tasman Fold Belt in Queensland. ln F.E. Hughes (ed.), Geology of the
Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, pp. 1431-1451. Australasian lnst.
Mining Metallurgy Monograph 14, Melbourne.
MURRAY,C.G., FERGUSSON, C.L., FLOOD, P.G., WHITAKER, W.G. & KORSCH, R.J., 1987. PIATE
tectonic model for the Carboniferous evolution of the New England Fold Belt. Aust. J. Earth
Sci.3/1,213-236.
OLGERS, F., FLOOD, P.G. & ROBERSTON, A.D., '1974. Palaeozoic geology ol the Warwick and
Goondiwindi sheet areas, Queensland and new South Wales. Bur. Min. Res. Geol. &
Geophys., Canbqra, Report 1Bt, 109 pp.
PECOVER, S.R. & COENRMDS, R.R., 1989. Tertiary volcanism, alluvial processes, and the origin of
sapphire deposists at "Braemar', near Elsmore, northeastern New South Wales. Geological
Survey of New South Wales, Quart. NotesTl,l-23.
PERKINS, C., 1988a. Origin and provenance of submarine volcaniclastic rocks in the Late Permian
Drake Volcanics, New South Wales. Aust. J. Earth Sci.35, 325-337.
PERKINS, C., 1988b. The Red Rock deposit: Late Permian submarine epithermal precious metal
system in northeastern New South Wales. Pacific Rim Congress 87, Gold Coast, Australia,
Australasian lnstitute of Mining and Metallurgy, Confr. Proc., 895-898.
PLIMER, l.R. & KLEEMAN, J.D., 1985. Mineralization associated with the Mole Granite, Australia. ln.
C. Halls (ed.), High heat production granites HHP), hydrothumal circulation and ore
genesis. London, lnstn. Min. Metall., pp. 563-569.
PLIMER, 1.R., LU, J. & KLEEMAN, J.D., 1991. Trace and rare earth elements in cassiterite - sources
of components lor the tin deposits of the Mole Granite, Australia. Minq. Deposita 6,
267-274.
SCHEIBNER, E., 1989. The tectonics of New South Wales in the second decade of application ol the
Plate Tectonic Paradigm. J. Proc. Roy. Soc. NSW 12.,35-74.
SHAW, S.E. & FLOOD, R.H., 1981. The New England Batholith, Eastern Australia: Geochemical
Variations in T1me and Space. J. Geophys. Fes. 86, 10530-10544.
THOMSON, J., 1976. Geology of the Drake 1:100,000 Sheet 9340, 185 pp. Geological Survey of
New South Wales, Sydney.
 MINERALISATION IN THE STANTHORPE - TEXAS AREA

by

T.J.Denaro
Queensland Department of Resource lndustries

INTRODUCTION

The Stanthorpe-Texas area on the Queensland-New South Wales border has been a minor producer
of tin, tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, precious and base metals, limestone and marble since the
1870b. The following overview is based on recent studies of the area by the Queensland Department
of Resource lndustries (Denaro, 1999; Denaro, in preparation; Denaro & Burrows, in preparation).
The regional geology of the area and the locations of the main mines and prospects are shown on
Figure 1.

MINING HISTORY AND PRODUC]]ON

Tin

Cassiterite was discovered in the Stanthorpe area in 1854. Mining of alluvial deposits commenced in
1872 and the Stanthorpe Mineral Field was proclaimed in 1883. The totat recorded production (1872
to 1989) is 56 537 t of cassiterite concentrates, ol which 41 800 t was produced between.1872 and
1882; only 337 t was from lode mining. The only lode tin mines of any significance were in the
Sundown area.

Tunosten

Tungsten production was sporadic and was mainly influenced by higher prices during the World
Wars. The totalrecorded production of 34.46 t of wollramite concentrates and 0.4 t of scheelite came
mainly from alluvial and eluvial deposits (for example, Wolfram and fin, Lord Nolan, Blanche's Hill).
The only significant lode deposit was Staines Wolfram Mine (7.1 t of concentrates).

Molvbdenum

Between 1915 and 1919, 400 kg of molybdenite was produced, mainly from Leis' Molybdenite Mine
and Benjamin's Molybdenite Mine.

Arsenic

The entire arsenic production of Queensland (2290.5 t of arsenic oxide and 2032 I of exported
arsenic ore) came from the State Arsenic Mine at Jibbinbar and from private mines in the Sundown
area. Arsenic oxide was produced from 1919 to 1927 lor use as a prickly pear poison.

Precious and base metals

The total recorded production ol precious and base metals (up to 1991) is 2s2 kg gold, 6g z146 kg
silver, 1429 t copper and copper concentrates, 1062.7 t lead and 760 t zinc and zinc ore. Most of this
production came lrom the Silver Spur Mine, near Texas, which was worked mainly from 1892 to
 9

1925. Other significant producers were the Sundown Copper Mine, Pikedale Silver Mine and the
Silver Queen. Minor production came lrom numerous small mines in the Texas area, including the
Texas Copper Mine, Silver King, Silver Crown, Tooliambi Copper Mine, Ashton and Angus Valley
Copper mines and the Warroo Gold Mine.

At the Warroo Gold Mine, Valdora Minerals Ltd and Budmead Pty Ltd commenced a small
opencut/heap leach operation in 1990. The mine is now controlled solely by Budmead. The total
recorded production (1990 to 1991) is 117.3 kg ot gotd builion (83.a kg gotd,33.9 kg sitver).

Limestone and marble

The total recorded production of limestone and marble (1901 to 1990) is 385 574 t. Limestone was
first mined lor use as a llux at Silver Spur. lt was quarried on a larger scale after1930, mainly for
production ol agricultural lime. lt is currently produced at the Riverton and Limevale quarries lor use
as agricultural lime and in glass making. Minor amounts of marble have been produced (Marble
Queen, Lime Products Marble and Limevale quarries) for use as ornamental stone and terrazo chips.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The Stanthorpe-Texas area is part of the New England Province (the southernmost structural province
of the New England Fold Belt in Queensland) and comprises three structural units - the Silverwood
Block, the Texas Block and the New England Batholith.

The oldest exposed rocks in the area shown on Figure 1 belong to the Early Devonian Rosenthal
qeek Formation, the uppermost formation of the Silverwood Group. This formation consists entirely
ol sedimentary rocks (sandstone, mudstone, chert, intraformational conglomerate and limestone) and
presents a marked lithological change from the dominantly volcanic lower formations, which crop out
to the northeast in the Warwick area.

The Texas beds are a thick sequence of flysch-like, regularly interbedded volcaniclastic turbidites
(lithic sandstone and mudstone) with minor chert, jasper, intraformational conglomerate, acid to
intermediate volcanics and limestone. lt has been interpretated to be an imbricated stack of lault
slices (Flood & Fergusson, '1984) which is the accretionary wedge of a subduction complex.
Limestone lenses, which crop out mainly in the Texas a(ea, are of uncertain stratigraphic context and
contain corals of Msean (Early Carboniferous) age. Aitchison & Flood (1990) obtained Early
Carboniferous radiolarian ages for cherts and tuffaceous siltstones in the area. The age of the Texas
beds probably ranges down into the Late Devonian, alyhough no definitive fossil evidence has been
found to substantiate this. '

The sequence is intensely deformed. Dips are generally steep to vertical and beds are overturned in
many places. Between Texas and Stanthorpe, it forms an arcuate fold structure approximately 75 km
wide.

Perntian rocks are confined to small inliers, outliers and faultbounded pull-apart basins; in places
they unconformably overlie the Texas beds..They have been informally named the Siilver Sprr beds,
Glenlyon beds, Pikedale beds, Terrica beds and Alum Rock beds. Lithologies include conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, acid to intermediate volcanics and minor limestone.
 Flgure I

tffilr
tTh

cArNozotc
I;:tr'"o|f,of trffiil Undlfrcrcntiotcd rcsrduor sors ond oluvtum

l-.lurosslc $ffiffi Morburg Formoton

I f1_
I
J Trlosrlc _ <
ll'.'..f, Ruby Crcck Grqnttc
MESOZOTC
1 Uffi] Stonthorpc Gronfic, Undcrcilffc Fo[r Gronitc

lp.rrton o, - r:
i rirJJJiil l::lll Undlrrcrcnllolcd sronttcs
i Pcrmlon lo F
ii;dillll' '" lEl woilonsorro Volconto, Dundcc Rhyodocnc
I
I frrrr
Morcorlc Gronllc
PALAEOZOIC
J e.rtton lry
lFl
1 undlffcrcnllotcd scdtmcntory rocks
lDcvonlon lo .*'FF -bsdr
I
I
ffi#il;* I'...F,Iffi| ruor
[-ocvonton I Rosrnlhot crcck Formoilon

_ ::ff:i;il:::,
,; li:i,ffi::irn
s'sron*c, o'op,,rc r

Erlonl of dftrvld lh mlntng

Flgure l: Reglonol geology, mlnes ond prospecls,

Stonthorpe - Texos oreo
 11

The Permian Mascotte Granite crops out west and southwest of Texas.

The Wallangarra Volcanics are mainly rhyolitic and rhyodacitic flows and tuffs. Most of the rhyolitic
rocks exposed in road cuttings along the New England Highway are probably crystal-rich ignimbrites.

The Dundee Rhyodacite (Dundee Adamellite-Porphyrite of Olgers & others, 1974) is a

hornblende/pyroxene-bearing rhyodacite with a characteristic microcrystalline groundmass
reminiscent of high-levd intrusive porphyries.

The New England Batholith consists mainly of granite and granodiorite, with minor mafic rocks. lt has
intruded the Palaeozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks and is overlain by Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks; radiometric age determinations indicate that the batholith was emplaced during the Permian
and Early to Middle Triassic. The following units are present within the area.

The Underclifb Falls Granite (Undercliffe Falls Adamellite of Olgers & others t19741) is an Early to
Middle Triassic intrusive which, in the Wallangarra area, comprises coarse-grained, sphene-bearing
porphyritic granite.

The Early to Middle Triassic Stanthorpe Granite (Stanthorpe Adamellite of Olgers & others, 1974) has
the greatest surface exposure ol all the granite types in the Stanthorpe area. The Stanthorpe Granite
comprises mainly coarse-grained equigranular granite; other varieties include coarse-grained
porphyritic granite and line-grained granite. lt intrudes the Undercliffe Falls Granite, Dundee
Rhyodacite and Wallangarra Volcanics in the Wallangarra area. The intrusive contact with the Texas
beds along the western margin ol the batholith is generally well-defined and steeply dipping and/or
faulted.

The Middle Triassic Ruby Geek Granite has its maximum development as an irregularly elongated
mass striking northwest astride the State border north and east ol Stanthorpe. Smaller outcrops
occur south, southwest and west ol Stanthorpe. ln the Amiens and Mount Magnus areas, the roof of
the intrusion is flat-lying and irregularly exposed.

The Ruby Creek Granite has sharp contacts where it intrudes the Stanthorpe Granite. A fine-grained,
slightly porphyritic, marginal "aplitic" phase is commonly present. Dyke-like projections of this aplitic
phase into the older granite are common. Contacts with the Texas beds are usually sharp.

The Ruby Creek Granite and Stanthorpe Granite are leucogranites. Although they are closely related,
the Ruby Creek Granite has a distinctly different geochemistry. lt is more highly evolved and, relative
to the l-type Stanthorpe Granite, is enriched in Sn, F and Li. lt is an A-type granite or a highly
fractionated l-type.

Unnarned granitic intrusives crop out at Mount Bullaganang and near Mount You You and form a
granitic dyke trending south-southeast towards Mount Jibbinbar.

A number of dy{<es intersect the Texas beds and granites in the Stanthorpe area. Prominant quarE-
leldspar porphyry dykes trend northeast through the Sundown-Mineral Hill area; similar dykes have
been mapped in the Sugarloal Creek area and across the border. These dykes are within the
northeast-trending "Severn River Fracture Zond'of Goode & others (1982).

A large dyke swarm extends from Leran to Lyra south-southwest ol Ballandean. The dykes (aplite,
12

rhyolite, granophyre, trachyte and diorite) form the reinforced cores ol ridges of Stanthorpe Granite.

The Early Jurassic Marburg Forrnalion unconlormably overlies the Rosenthal Creek Formation, Texas
beds and the Stanthorpe Granite. Lithologies include labile to quartzose sandstone, siltstone,
mudstone, conglomerate and breccia.

Any sizeable Cainozoic allwial deposits are restricted to the major streams draining the granite
country, and particularly, to the Severn/Dumeresq River valley. A veneer of sand and sandy soil
masks the Mesozoic rocks northwest of Texas. Tin-bearing Pliocene to Pleistocene alluvium is known
to occur along the border range between Sugarloaf and The Summit (Thomson, 1976).

STT'LES OF MINERALISATON

Stratabound manoanese deoosits

Minor manganese mineralisation occurs as disseminations on joint and shear planes in the Texas
beds. Manganese in ore cbncentrations occurs to the north, in lhe lnglewood-Warwick area. All of the
deposits are associated with jasper and cherty metasedimentary rocks and probably formed by
secondary mobilisation ol disseminated manganese during Tertiary deep weathering to produce
surlicial oxide deposits.

Limestone and marble

The Stanthorpe-Texas area contains large resources of limestone and marble suitable for cement and
agricultural lime production and for glass making. Siemon (1973) surveyed the deposits in the area.
Some ol the marble has been suitable for ornamental purposes. The limestones suitable for
industrial purposes all occur as belts of lenticular outcrops in the Texas beds. Permian limestones
tend to be impure and smaller in outcrop area.

Slratabound/stratiform deposits of volcanooenic atlinitv

An extensive calc-alkaline volcanic arc developed in the Texas Block region in the Early Permian
(Kay, 1982). Rapidly subsiding Permian basins would have been ideal sites for the formation of
submarine volcanogenic (sedimentary exhalative) deposits (Kay, 1985).

Studies of the ore mineralogy, textures and chemistry ol the Silver Spur ore bodies have indicated a
volcanogenic sedimentary origin. The main ore bodies are confined to several beds of highly fissile,
dark grey to black graphitic argillite. The ore is banded and laterally zoned. Ore minerals include
pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, tetrahedrite, gold, silver, proustite, marcasite,
covellite, bismuth and stibnite. The ore bodies were deformed and remobilised during orogenic
movements in the Middle Permian.

The Siilrrcr King ore body has characteristics similar to Silver Spur, but on a much smaller scale. Drill
core lrom the Tooliambi Gopper Mine consists of black shale and volcaniclastic sedimenis, similar to
the rocks hosting the Silver Spur mineralisation. The mineralisation comprises stringer sulphide veins
filling shears which crosscut bedding and mAy be due to remobilisation of sulphides along faults and
shears or may represent the slringer vein zone of a sedimentary exhalative deposit.

The Pikedale Siilver Mine deposit consists of sphalerite + galena + chalcopVr;1s + pyrite + pyrrhotite
 13

+ arsenopyrite + tetrahedrite + stannite and is hosted by a stratabound mudstone breccia healed

with calcite and quartz. Some remobilisation and recrystallisation of the ore minerals has occurred.

Vein deposits in shear zones in metamorohic rocks

These deposits crop out as zones of silicilication and gossanous quaru veining in shear zones in
pyritic shale and tuff of the Texas beds and Permian sediments. Silver and copper are the dominant
metals; gold, lead and zinc are usually associated.

The deposits are generally small in size. Many were originally mined for copper, then later mined for
silver and gold when the copper proved uneconomic. Deposits of this type include the Angus Valley
and Ashton copper mines, silver crown, Texas copper Mine and warroo Gold Mine.

Economic ore was generally restricted to the enriched oxidised zone. Below the water table,
mineralisation comprises sulphides as veinlets and disseminations in the shear zones and in the
country rocks. The mineralisation exhibits both facies and structural controls and may represent
remobilisation of sulphidbs fom sedimentary/volcanic beds during folding and faulting associated
with tectonism, and possibly Permian to Triassic igneous activity.

At the Warroo Gold Mine, Valdora Minerals Ltd delineated a resource of 650 000 t averaging 2.88
ppm Au, with a calculated ore reserve of 186 400 t of oxide ore grading 2.3 ppm. A supergene
enriched zone, 1 lo 5 m thick, is developed in or immediately above relatively unweathered pyritic
greywacke.

Mineralisation related to the Rubv Creek Granite

Several types of hydrothermal deposits are related to the Ruby Creek Granite -

a) Siliceous, highly fractionated apical phases ol the Ruby Creek Granite contain wolframite + pyrite
+ minor bismuth as disseminated and vein mineralisation (for example, Carpenter's Gully,
Moly King).

b) Molybdenite and bismuth-bearing quartz pipes occur in the marginal Ruby Creek Granite phase
and are closely related to the siliceous apical style deposits (for example, Benjamin's
Molybdenite Mine, Leis' Molybdenite Mine).

c) Flat-l/ng and near-vertical quartz greisen veins, pegmatite veins, and greisen and pegmatite pods
are common in the marginal porphlritic phase of the Ruby Creek Granite, particularly in
apical positions. Ore minerals include cassiterite, wolframite and molybdenite, with minor
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena (for example, Lord Nolan, Carpenter's Gully,
Wollram and Tin, Lode Hill, Swipers Gully). ln many places, the quarE greisen veins occur as
sheeted vein and stockwork deposits which extend into the surrounding country rock.

d) Greisen "pipes" occur as zones ol intense alteration along the intersection ol quartz greisen veins
in stockwork deposits in the Ruby Creek Granite (for example, Blanche's Hill).

e) Quartz + arsenopyrite veins and lodes occur along faults and shear zones in the Ruby Creek
Granite and adjacent Texas beds at Jibbinbar.
14

D Joinl-controlled sheeted vein systems extend from the Ruby Creek Granite to at least 200 m
above the apices and flanks of granite cupolas. Veins in the Texas beds (for example,
Discovery Creek, Sundown) consist of quartz + arS€nopVrite + cassiterite + wolftamite +
topaz + muscovite. Veins in the Stanthorpe Granite (for example, Lode Hill) consist of quartz
+ muscovite + cassiterite + wolframite + molybdenite + bismuth and exhibit much more
pervasive greisenisation.

g) Quartz + arsenopyrite acassiterite + chalcopyrite veins and lodes occur as rich, lenticular
deposits within sheeted vein systems in the Texas beds (for example, Sundown, Mineral Hill).
The lodes are known to extend lrom the contact zone up to 150 m above the apices and
flanks ol cupolas of Ruby Creek Granite. There appears to be a general vertical zonation
from a tin-rich zone near the granite contact, through a copper-rich zone, to a higher-levd
arsenic-rich zone.

h) Base metal sulphide mineralisation in porphyry and other dykes (for example, Silver Queen) is
interpreted as being genetically related to the Ruby Creek Granite.

There are local zoning patterns relaied to individual mineralised centres around cupolas and plutons
of Ruby Creek Granite. These can be summarised as:

a) Mo and W in siliceous phases in granite and in marginal greisens;

b) W and Sn in veins in granite and marginal greisens;

c) Sn and As in veins;

d) Cu and As in veins;

e) As in veins (with minor Cu, Pb and Znh and

f) Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag at some distance lrom plutons;

The range of most ore metals is very wide; the metal zoning is due more to relative concentrations of
the minerals than to the presence or absence of individual minerals.

Little detailed research has been carried out on the genesis of the tin deposits in the Stanthorpe area.
However, it has been noted since the early mining days that the mineralisation is closely related to
the Ruby Creek Granite and is strongly conlrolled by joints and fractures in the granite and country
rocks. The two main structural controls on mineralisation are the northeasttrending Severn River
Fracture Zone and the shape of the rool of the Ruby Creek Granite pluton, particularly the location of
cupolas and ridges. W and Mo are considered to be late magmatic; Sn and sulphides are post-
magmatic.

Alluvial and eluvial deposits

Two types of alluvial deposits occur in the Stanthorpe area. Holocene alluvium in streams draining
the granite contains cassiterite, wolframite, gemstones and very minor gold. The mineralisation is
derived fom disseminations and sheeted vein and greisen vein systems in the area and from older
alluvial concentrations. Palaeogravels along the border range northeast and east of Stanthorpe were
 15

at least as important as the primary mineralisation as a source of cassiterite in Holocene alluvium.

Some ol the richest alluvial deposits (for example, Brisbane Claim, Ten Mile Rock Swamp, Sugarloaf
Creek) are in areas where extensive palaeogravel systems have been dissected by modern drainage.

Eluvial cassiterite and wolframite deposits have lormed as the residual weathering products of
granite. All of the deposits that have been mined occur in the vicinity of known primary
mineralisation.

Kaolin clay deposits in the Cottonvale area are residual weathering products of granite and
accumulations of sedimentary wash in small erosional depressions. The clay is too heterogeneous to
be of economic value.

REFERENCES

AITCHISON, J., & FLOOD, P., 1990: Early Carboniferous radiolarian ages constrain the timing of
sedimentation within the Anaiwan terrane, New England Orogen, eastern Australia. Neues
Jahrbuch fur Geotogie und Pataontologie, Abhandlungen, 180, 1-19.
DENARO, T.J., 1989: Mineral occurrences - lnglewood, Texas and Ashford 1:'100 000 Sheet areas,
Queensland . Queenstand Resource lndustries Record 1989132.
DENARO, T.J., in preparation: A compilation of mine production data for the Stanthorpe Mining
District from Annual Reports of the Department of Mines. Queensland Resource lndustries
Record (in preparation).
DENARO, T.J., & BURROWS, P.E., in preparation: Mineral occurrences - Stanthorpe and Drake 1:100
000 Sheet areas, Queensland. Queensland Resource lndustries Record (in preparation).
FLOOD, P.G., & FERGUSSON, C.L., 1984: The geological development of the northern New
England Province of the New England Fold Belt. ln Herbert, H.K., & Rynn, J.M.W. (Editors):
Volcanics, Granites and Mineralisation of the StanthorpeEmmavilleDrake Region. 1984 Field
Conference, Geological Society of Australia, Queensland Division, 1-19.
GOODE, A.D.T., CLARKE, D.A., WATMUFF, G., BUTLER, 1., & STEELE, D., 1982: The Sundown tin
deposit, New England. ln Flood, P.G., & Runnegar, B. (Editors): Excursion Guide, New
England Geology. Department of Geology, University ol New England, Armidale, 313-320.
KAY, J.R., 1982: A review of metalliferous mineralisation associated with Permian rocks in
Queensland. Queensland Government Mining Journal, 83, 353-362.
KAY, J.R., '1985: The exploration potential for copper, lead-zinc and silver in Queensland. Queensland
Government Mi ni ng Journal, ffi, 21 1-220.
OLGERS, F., FLOOD, P.G., & ROBERTSON, A.D., 1974: Palaeozoic geology of the Warwick and
Goondiwindi 1:250 000 Sheet areas, Queensland and New South Wales. Bureau of Minqal
Resources, Geology and Geophysica, Australia, Report 1il.
SIEMON, J.E., 1973: Limestone resources of the Warwick-Texas area. Geological Suruey of
Queensland, Report ffi.
THOMSON, J., 1976: Geology of the Drake 1:100 000 Sheet, 9340. Geological Survey of New South
Wales, Sydney.
 THE WARROO MINE

by

D.J. Catherall MSc, C.Eng1, MIMM and A.R. Hockings B.App.Sc, P.G.Dip.Sc2

lProject Manager, Warroo Gold Mine

2crade Control Geologist, Warroo Gold Mine

INIR@IJCTION

The Wanoo Gold Mine is located southwest ol Warwick in sourheast Queensland. Three mining
leases and Exploration Permit for Minerals 4608 surround the mine and known prospects. Ownership
ol these mining tenements recently changed from Valdora Minerals Ltd to Budmead Pty Lid & Silklan
Pty Ltd.

Mining is by open pit wilh a 7:1 waste to ore ratio. The ore is crushed to 12mm and stacked on a
leach pad; some marginal to low-grade ore is direct leached as run-of-mine product. The leachate is
processed through a Merrill Crowe plant, and the precipitate smelted to copper gold dore before final
refining.

MINING HISTORY

The early records show that a mining lease was applied for at Warroo in 1906, and by 1908 a
prospect shatt had been developed to 41.5 metres. Smelting of sulphides started in November 1910
and the mine closed in June 1911, by when 861 tonnes had been processed for a return ol 21
tonnes of copper, 283 oz of gold and 901 oz of silver.

Tributers reopened the mine in May 1912 and with five cyanide vats treated 1512 tonnes of ore to
produce 932 oz of gold belore closing the mine again in March 1913.

An attempt to reopen the mine in 1931 was aborted when, after access was provided by dewatering
and retimbering the main shaft, all payable ore appeared to be worked out.

RECENT D@LORATION

ln 1984 Duval Mining Australia Ltd established their Pikedale Project (ATP 3712M) which included the
Warroo Mine. Their targets were "Carlin Style' disseminated and stockwork deposits formed in
carbonaterich shelf sediments as represented by the Texas beds.

At Warroo, exploration concentrated on a circular structure delinealed by aerial photography, and

three spatially related gold prospects. Detailed geochemical and geophysical evaluation was
followed by reverse circulation and core drilling of the main anomalies. Duval relinquished the area in
1986 when it appeared that the indicated tonnes and grade were insufficient to support a mining
operation.

ln 1987 Valdora Minerals Ltd was granted ATP 4608M around the Warroo Mine, and proceeded with
a and 1988. Based on the reverse circulation drilling
detiailed drilling programme beiween 1987
results, independent consultants delineated an open pit containing undiluted mineable reserves of
 17

186400 tonnes at a grade ol 2.3 g/t Au. These reserves were calculated belween level 6 (440 RL)
and level 18 (410 RL). To show the effect of dilution by waste and regressive gold loss, a 15%
dilution factor and a 5% gold loss were assumed (in the absence ol empirical studies) to show lhat
the cumulative result would be an increase in mineable reserves lo 2144@ tonnes, but with a
reduction in grade to 1.9 g/t Au. lt was noted that 66.5% of the gold is contained in the lower three
levels associated with a supergene tabular structure.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The Devonian to Carboniferous Texas beds lorm a thick sequence of volcaniclastic turbidite rocks
throughout the area. Outliers ol structurally controlled Permian acid volcanics outcrop in northwest-
trending linear zones, as do the younger intruded granites of late Palaeozoic to early Mesozoic age,
represented at Warroo by the Mt Bullanganang "S'type granite (Figure 1).

The Texas beds form a broad north-plunging antiform, 75 km wide between Stanthorpe and Texas,
with the Warroo Mine and the granite at Mt Bullanganang at the core of the structure. The folded
layers represent thick imbricate thrust sheets which curve around the northern edge of the granite.

WARROO MINE GEOLOGY

Sedimentarv Features.

The Texas beds at Warroo are mainly turbidite mudstones, argillites, greywackes and rare siltstones
which have been subjected to weathering and alteration. As a result, sedimentary structures are
rarely exposed. Where bedding has been observed, as in the footwall of the main shear, it is sub-
vertical, striking northwest. There the rock is a coarser siltstone, and the increased porosity and
permeability is reflected in the wider alteration zone and associated mineralisation surrounding
fractures traversing it.

The Warroo Shear and associated fractures.

Brittle lracture deformation of the Texas beds provided early channelways for the mineralising fluids
at Warroo. The two main lracture sets are (a) Strike + 60, dip 30-600 SE and (b) Strit<e + 130, dip
40-500 NE.

The main Warroo Shear bisects these fractures with a curved strike averaging 1070, dip SG8OoS.
Fracture density and mineralisation decrease away from the main shear, which provided the main
channelway lor the 'gold-copper hydrbthermal fluids that were probably generated by the
emplacement of the granite at Mt Bullanganang.

Minor fracture sets strike 170-175oE, and 40-75oE. As a result of the easterly dip of most of the
fractures, the eastern pit slope is stable compared to the western side. Mine planning is accordingly
advancing the pit from east to west.

The main Warroo Shear zone and associated fractures provided 1007o of the gold mined up to 1931,
but only 3Oo/o since mining started in 199b.
18

Flatmake Shear Ore Zone

Approximately 70o/o of the gold produced since mining restarted has come lrom this supergene
enriched zone which intersects the main Warroo Shear at the present water table. This low angled
thrust gently undulates over the floor of the pit and steepens towards the surface on the east and
north walls. Gold enrichment decreases rapidly as the dip of the structure steepens. Sub-vertical
feeders can be seen streaming off the hangingwall of the Flatmake Shear acting as channelways for
the primary sulphide deposition, and for secondary supergene enrichment.

A study by A.R. Hockings on the Flatmake ore has shown a central to basal layer of comb-textured
hydrothermal quartz surrounded by limonite which contains a complex mixture of goethite, hematite
and lepidocrocite. The in-situ altered primary minerals form boxwork structures after pyrite, whilst the
re-deposited minerals often display a collolorm texture. Other minerals identilied include gold,
arsenopyrite and covellite.

Gold occurs as flakes around 1 micron in size distributed randomly in the limonite. Based on field
observations, assay data, and limited microscopic study, the following paragenetic sequence is
suggested:-

1. lntroduction of primary sulphides along the Warroo Shear and into the Flatmake
thrust.
The siliceous solutions initially contained gold associated with pyrite, arsenopyrite
and copper sulphides.
Solutions became depleted in gold and arsenopyrite; chalcopyrite and pyrite
deposition continued with silica superceded by carbonate-rich solutions.

2. Secondary enrichment.
Oxidation of primary sulphides by surlace waters destroyed these minerals and
redeposited their elements at the water table. At Warroo this process was
concentrated by the Flatmake low-angle thrust zone, which provided a permeable
zone in the relatively low porosity Texas beds.

Alteration

Fracture alteration studies by A.R. Hockings have shown hexagonal paramorphs of B-Quartz which
indicate that the fluids were emplaced above 573oC. The breakdown of pyrite deposited on lracture
surlaces has formed hydroxides which cause a khaki and maroon colouration and the development
of limonitic jasper. Away from the fractures the iocks have a bleached appearance caused by partial
kaolinisation of feldspars. At the northern end of the Warroo Pit, the rock appears completely
kaolinised, although microscopically quartz remains a major constituent.

A micromonzonite dyke about a metre wide striking 600 dip 80o SE has been identilied lrom clay
pseudomorphs of plagioclase and K-feldspar. The dyke crosscuts and displaces the Flatmake and
Warroo Shear zones. lt is unmineralised and completely altered in the weathered zone.
 LU
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t-- 20

CI.JRRENT MINING

Hoare Bros Pty Ltd of Geelong started contract mining of the open pit in August 1990, prior to the
completion of the Merrill Crowe Processing Plant in November (Figure 2). The first gold was poured
in December, but commissioning problems, low hangingwall ore grades, and high dilutions led to the
suspension of mining on February 11, 1991.

Ausenco re-assessed lhe project in March, and using the same database confirmed the original
diluted resource al2144OQ tonnes at 1.94 g/t Au. ln July the main heap was augered and the head
grade applied to this first mining phase was reduced from 1.4 gll to 1.0 g/t Au lor the 126000 tonnes
stacked.

A recalculation of the resource using all the drill data not previously available, and based on 10 metre
spaced sections was completed in August 1991 by Catherall/Mintech (Figure 3). Using a 100%
dilution lor the main Warroo Shear zone, and 507o dilution for the Flatmake, the remaining reserves
were assessed at 87000 tonnes aI2.4 gll Au.

The second phase of mining started in September 1991 following a reorganisation of the Warroo
Project, in which the mining tenements changed from Valdora Minerals Ltd to the investment
companies Budmead Pty Ltd and Silklan Pty Ltd, and Hoare Brothers Pty Ltd became the mining and
crushing tributer.

This second phase of mining in fact added 105590 tonnes at a confirmed grade of 2.0 g/tAu, based
on auger sampling of the resulting heap. Reconciliation showed that predicted and actual production
tonnes are comparable with respect to total gold content, but dilution increased to 90o/o for the
undulating Flatmake structure.

Actual production tonnes and grade from Phase 1 and Phase 2 mining represent approximately 80%
of the original undiluted tonnes and grade. Gold produced from this mining exceeded all previous
reported ounces by a factor of five.

Mining in Phase 3 commenced in January 1992 and by the end of March 21700 tonnes had been
crushed at an assayed production grade of 1.5 g/t Au. Most ol this production has been from the
low-grade hangingwall fracture zones above the main Flatmake ore zone.

REFERENCES

CATHERALL D.J.,1991/92: Unpublished internai reports for the Warroo Mine.

DENMEAD A.K.,1932: Warroo Gold Mine. Queensland Government Mining Journal,33, 9-11
EESON B.P.,1988: Geology, mineralisation and ore reserve estimate of the Warroo Gold Mine.
Unpublished internal report lor Valdora Minerals Ltd.
HDCTALL C.A.,1986: Pikedale Project ATP 3712M. Open File report held by Queensland Department
ol Resource lndustries CR 15387A.
HOCKINGS A.R.,1991: Genesis of a weathering profile with associated gold and copper, Warroo
Gold Mine, Texas Block, southern Queensland. University of Queensland unpublished P.G.
Dip. Sc. Thesis
SEED M.J.,1984/85: Pikedale Project ATP 3712M. Open File reports held by Queensland Department
ol Resource lndustries CR 13910 & CR 14164.
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22

GRANITE DIMENSION STONE IN THE NEW ENGLAND GRANITE BELT

NEW SOUTH WALES AND QTJEENSLAND

by
Helen Rayl and David Trezise?

1 NsW Department of Mineral Resources, Sydney.

2
Queensland Department of Resource lndustries, Brisbane'

INTRODUCTION

Dimension stone is any naturally occurring stone, selected for trimming and cutting to specified
shape and size, for building, monumental and statuary stone (ASTM C119). lt is a premium building
material lor internal and external veneer or cladding, lloor tiles, pavers, and as a masonry material
(load-bearing).

Over the past decade, the use of naturai dimension stones has experienced a resurgence in use in
Australia, lollowing similar world-wide trends. World dimension stone production in 1990 exceeded 32
million tonnes (10 million m3) of raw stone, valued at $30 billion (Harries-Rees, 1991). By
comparison, the Australian industry is still small and lragmented by world standards, and we remain
an import rather than export nation.

For commercial applications, the term "granite" includes the true granites (alkali granite, adamellite
and granodiorite), other granular igneous rocks (basalt, dolerite, gabbro, diorite, anorthosite and
norite) commonly referred to as "black granite" (ASTM, C119; C615), and gneiss, other metamorphic
rocks, and certain volcanics. Colour, texture and pattern are important criteria in the selection of
granite. Many ol the patterned types (orbicular gabbro, rapakivi textures, porphyries, migmatites and
gneisses) are finding greater use in architecture because ol their random and unique patterns.

There are no current Australian Standards for building stone. Granite dimension stone must be
sound, durable, and free ol defects or imperfections such as joints, veins, cracks and microcracks
which would impair its structural integrity or allow transmission of fluids.

HISf,ORY

ln 1915/16, small quantities ol Stanthorpe Adameltite were quarried from Stanthorpe for building
stones (Annual Reports, Qld Department of Mines, 1915 & 1916). Quarrying for granite in the New
England regionvas first recorded near Uralla south-west of Armidale around 1916 (Morrison 1928).
Several quarries in the l)ralla area operated between 1916 and 1930, in the early 1940s and in the
early 1960s, producing grey and white granites from the Uralla Plutonic Suite. They were known as
the "Uralla Grey'', 'White Pearl" and "Kentucky Grey'' (near Kentucky).

Stone was quarried from the leucocralic Greymare Granodiorite, 30km west of Warwick for use in
many Warwick and Brisbane bulldings. Very little information has been published on Queensland
dimension stone sources. Richards (1918) published the first comprehensive report detailing the
major building stones and their architectural use in Queensland; Woltf (1957) updated this work. A
review of the Queensland building stone industry was undertaken by Trezise (1990).
 23

GRANITE RESOURCES

There are many igneous intrusions and hard volcanic rocks in the New England region of New South
Wales but relatively few have been worked for dimension stone. At present, two granite quarries are
known to be active, the "Steel Grey'' quarry at Dundee and the "New England Mist" quarry, near
Bendemeer (see Figure 1). Both quarries are being worked intermittently, using mobile plant which is
moved from one quarry to another as demand requires. ln addition to the two operating quarries,
there is one Mining L6ase application and a Private Agreement. ln the last three years there has been
a relatively high level of exploration activity and two companies curently hold exploration tiiles. The
overall outlook for granite in the region is good and it is expected that more quarries will be opened
in the next few years.

OPERATING QUARRIES

Dundee (Steg Gr"y) Quarry - Metocco Ltd

The Dundee quarry is ibout 20 km north ol Glen lnnes. A fine-grained, mid-grey "granite" with mafic
phenocrysts, trade named "Steel Grey'' is being extracted from boulder outcrop on the side of a hill.
The stone appears to be sound and relatively unaltered and unweathered. However, jointing may
restrict the size of blocks extracted.

This "granite" is actually a rhyodacite belonging to the Permian Dundee Rhyodacite. When cut and
polished, it is an attractive mid to dark grey colour and relatively fine grained, with black phenocrysts
of hornblende and biotite. The stone has occasional pale grey to white xenoliths or inclusions known
by the quarrying industry as "tiger paw" and small dark inclusions to about Smm. These xenoliths and
inclusions are not considered a major problem in the quality of the stone unless they are found in
large numbers and affect the overall appearance.

The quarry is being worked by drilling rows of holes and then splitting the rock using an expanding
cement into reclangular blocks of 2-3m3. The blocks are transported to Sydney for cutting and.
polishing. The operators, Lachlan Valley Granite Supplies Pty Ltd, report that "Steel Grey'' is hard and
therefore expensive to work, probably due to its relatively line grain size and quarE content. Another
site a few hundred metres to the west was initially quarried, but the exposed boulders were limited in
size and contained oblique joints so the site was abandoned.

"Nenr England Mist'Quarry - Melocco Ltd

The "New England Misf' Quarry, near Watsons Creek, was opened in 1988/89. A small amount of
granite has been extracted from the end of a massive outcrop of biotiie-muscovite-cordierite granite
ol the Pringles Adamellite. The stone is coarse grained, pale grey in colour and there is some
ferruginous staining on the quarry face which suggests the presence of sulphides, although they are
not visible in hand specimen. ln this case, the sulphides probably do not affect the strength of the
stone, but the staining is considered a visual defect, especially in exterior applications. lt is
understood that the operator (Lachlan Valley Granite Supplies Pty Ltd) is planning to open another
quarry on a nearby outcrop.
a
I

24

GRANITE DIMENSION STONE IN THE Figure 1

NEW ETCL/IND REGION
ou*ErusLAroro_,-/ .\-,'
'.../
.)
It rewffiwM
"*'r*""r-1
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/ lt / Nonninsron
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=/=.-
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,"uaiaa,
ili
NEW SOUXH WATES

BEFERENCE
Operating granite quarry
^
Granitedimension stone resource
^

ry &uily

. MOUNT MAGNUS

L.
COTTONVALE

\
Alrf ie ld

inrurroRer\.

=-=-J\
{l
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Y

Figure Z Cranib prospect of South Queersland Granite at Pozieres.

 25

PROSPECTS

Benderneer

Brick and Stone Holdings Ltd have applied lor a Mining Lease near Bendemeer. The application area
covers a massive outcrop of the Permian Pringles Adamellite.

Mount Mackerzie

An area of pink granite in lhe Mackenzie Adamellite, aboulSkm south-west of Tenterfield has been
registered as a Private Mining Agreement, but further details are not available.

Nonnington

A beige "granite" to the south of Mount Mackenzie has been identified as having potential for
dimension stone. The ."granite", part of the Upper Permian Nonnington Leucoadamellite, is line
grained and beige in colour.

Stanthorpe (Poleres)

The Triassic Stanthorpe Adamellite, a large granite batholith in the Sianthorpe area, crops out as
massive, smooth-granite bosses with boulders strewn over their surface. This medium-grained pink
adamellite has rare basic xenoliths. Mineral loliation is absent, but a porphyritic texture is occasionally
developed from larger euhedral feldspar and quartz phenocrysts (Robertson, 197?). This red granite
was previously quarried near Stanlhorpe; it is reported to have taken an,excellent polish, and was
considered to be of satisfactory quality and durability.

ln the Donnelly's Castle Road area, south of Pozieres, (Figure 2) Mr B. Kassulke, trading as South
Queensland Granite, has completed geological investigations of a large granitic boss. This rock has a
uniform, medium to coarse-grained texture; slightly weathered yellow adamellite grades to a pink-
beige, lresher rock at depth. Well spaced, vertical joint sets will be advantageous in quarry design. At
this stage, the company is proposing to have all stone processing ol tiles and slabs completed in
New South Wales. The deposit has created strong interest interstate, and representatives of
Australasian Stone products (in receivership, 1991), Melocco and Lachlan Valley Granite Supplies
have visited the area. Mining Lease 50012 has been lodged by Mr Kassulke over the freehold
property.

ln 1990, New England @anitas, a compahy with granite interests in the Tenterfield-Warwick area,
entered into a joint venture agreement with Mr B. Kassulke to quarry and market granite from this
area under the company name Dinrension Granite Pty Ltd, but the proposed joint venture
development was not followed through. ln September 1991, the Tradex Group were reported to have
purchased South Queensland Granite (Courier Mail, 05.09.t991); the company had planned to be
fully operational and exports of "Highland Fawn granite" to have commenced by early 1992, but this
has not occurred to date. The resource is estimated to contain 10 million tonnes.
26

D@LORAITON

ln New South Wales a number of exploration titles have been taken out by Clutha Minerals Ltd,
Melocco Ltd and Brick and Stone Holdings Ltd to explore for granite dimension stone. Two are still
current but others have been relinquished and the results of the exploration are now available on
open file (Clutha Minerals Ltd, 1990 a,b,c,d; Melocco, 1990). The exploration has covered parts of
most of the major New England plutonic suites (especially the Bundarra, Hillgrove and Uralla suites)
as well as volcanics around Glen lnnes. The licences were relinquished for a number ol reasons
including unattractive appearance, unfavourable mineralogy (pyrite) and close-spaced jointing.
Considerations such as appearance may vary with changes in architectural fashion, or the use for
which the stone is intended. For instance, a slone that is not attractive as polished cladding may be
suitable lor exfoliated paving which has been "flamed" to produce a non-slip surface.

ln Queensland during 1987-BB, Emidex Pty Ltd invesiigated a number of narrow dykes and small
plutons of gabbroic material in the Wallangarra area as possible sources of "black granite". This
medium-grained, dark grey gabbro was {ound to be highly weathered to a considerable depth; the
remaining tors or boulders were too small in size to be economically quarried.

About 1990, Granite Resources Limited is also reported to have investigated granite resources in the
Stanthorpe area.

There is still considerable potential lor the discovery of granite dimension stone in the New England
region because comprehensive, scientilically based exploration of the region has only just'started.

GRANITE PRODUCI]ON (NSW & Queensland)

N.S.W. granite production has rapidly increased in terms of both tonnage and diversity of granite
types available. Since 1983/84, production has increased from 4245 tonnes to over 10 000 tonnes (or
Aus.$2.36 million) in 1989/90. The bulk ol this is from the Bathurst-Mudgee region and Eugowra-
Mulyandry area; quarries are also operating at West Wyalong, Tocumwal, Cowra, Grenfell and New
England region (Tamworth - Tenterfield).

Queensland has lagged behind the other States in granite production, but in 1990/91, and in the past
year, small quantities (about 800 t) were quarried from Mount Surprise and Forsayth in the north ol
the State.

FUruRE DEVELOPM'*:

The Australian dimension stone industry has the potential resources for satisfying sections of the
domestic market by import substitution and lor establishing export markets
However, the development ol a sustainable industry, involving both establishment of quarries and
processing plants, is capital intensive. ln the past, few companies have had suflicient capital or the
technical skills to lully develop an integrated operation. Adequate returns for such high initial capital
costs requires the targeting ol both domestic and overseas markets. Other factors hindering
expansion of the Australian industry has been its fragmented nature, low international profile and
relatively small capacity (output of finished'products) by world standards.

The recently established Australian Stone lndustry Association intends to address many ol these
issues and also provide an avenue for the promotion ol Australian building stones..
REFERENCES

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS, 1980: Standard specification for granite
building stone. ASTM C615-80.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS, 1983: Standard definitions ol terms relating to
natural building stones. ASTM Standard C|1950 (Reapproved 1983).
BAKER, R.T., 1915: Building and Ornamental Stones of Australia. Technological Museum, Sydney -
Technical Education Sez'es 20, 169.
CLUTHA MINERALS LTD, '1990a: Exploration reports, EL 3319, Oban, Guyra area. Geological Survey
of New South Wales, File GS1990/085 (unpublished).
CLUTHA MINERALS LTD, 1990b: Exploration reports, EL 3355, Exford, Uralla area. Geological Survey
of New South Wales, File GS1990/086 (unpublished).
CLUTHA MINERALS LTD, 1990c: Exploration reports, EL 3314, Hillgrove area. Geological Survey of
New South Wales, File GS'1990/087 (unpublished).
CLUTHA MINERALS LTD, 1990d: Exploration reports, EL 3354, Copeton, Tingha area. Geological
Survey of New South Wales, File GS1990/ 163 (unpublished).
DAY, R.W., WHITAKER, W.G., MURRAY, C.G., WILSON, 1.H., and GRIMES, K.G., 1983: Queensland
Geology. A companion volume to the 1:250 000 scale geological map (1975). Geological
Survey of Queensland, Publication 383.
HARRIES-REES, K., 1991: Dimension stone review. The new stone age. lndustrial Minuals, pp. 43-52.
MELOCCO PTY LTD, 1990: Exploration reports, EL 3340, Deepwater, Wellington Vale area.
Geological Survey of New South Wales, File GS1990/060 (unpublished).
MORRISON, 1928: Building and ornamental stones, ln The mineral industry of New South Wales,
pp205-215. New South Wales Department of Mines, Sydney.
RAY, H.N, 1988: Dimension stone in New South Wales. Geological Survey of New South Wales, File
GS1988/ 1 02 (unpublished).
RICHARDS, H.C., 1918: The building stones of Queensland. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Queensland, 30, 97-157.
ROBERTSON, A.D., 1972: The geological relationships of the New England batholith and the
economic mineral deposits of the Stanthorpe district. Geological Survey of Queensland,
Reportil.
TREZISE, D.L., 1990: A Review of the Queensland Building Stone lndustry. Department of Resource
lndustries, Brisbane.
WOLFF, K.W., 1957: Queensland building and monumentalstones. Geological Survey of Queensland,
Publication 287.
28

LIMESTONE RESOURCES OF THE TEXAS AREA

by

J.E. Siemon
J.E. Siemon Pty Ltd

INTRODUCTION

Major limestone deposits in the Texas region outcrop in a broad discontinuous band extending from
Limevale, 15 km north of Texas to the Riverton and Miamba approximately 45 km to the southeast.
Minor limestone occurrences are known northwest and southeast of Silver Spur.

PREVIOUS INVESTGANONS

The earliest report on the limestones of the area is by Ball (1904) who described the limestone
sources for the Silver Spur smelter. Lucas (1957, 1958) and Olgers and Flood (1970) recorded many
localities during regional mapping. Siemon (1973) presented descriptions and analytical data for the
known resources in the Warwick-Texas area. Krosch (1990) provided a brief summary in a
commodity report on limestone in Queensland.

PRODUCNON

Between 1901 and 1918 15 400 tonnes of limestone were "mined" lor the Silver Spur smelter. The
mining consisted of breaking up ol outcrops along Reedy Creek and Back Creek near "Oakleigh".

Mining at Limevale commenced about 1934 to supply the agricultural market, with production ol
marble chips for lerraT'o products commencing later in the mid 1960's. Production by Lime
Products at Limevale is now limited to a few hundred tonnes ol marble chips and dust, with some
agricultural lime.

ln the late 1980's Australian Limestone Pty Ltd commenced a major quarry at Riverton for agricultural
and glass grade limestone.

Production ligures quoted in the Annual Reports of the Department of Mines for the period 1986 -
1990 are:

1986/87' 42 866
1987/BB 53 B4B
1988/89 65 135
1989/90 72 469

Almost all of this production was from Riverton. ln '1991 attempts were made to establish a quarry at
The Pinnacles (Area D, Figure 1).
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30

REGIONA GEOLOGY

Limestone deposits in the Texas area form part of the Palaeozoic rocks of the New England Fold
Belt. Deposition occurring throughout the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian was dominated by
intermediate and acid volcanic activity. The sediments, which are almost entirely marine, are
composed mainly ol volcanic rock fragments (Olgers and Flood, 1970).

Around Texas the major limestone deposits occur in the ?Upper Devonian to ?Upper Carboniferous
Texas Beds, a sequence of flysch-like regularly interbedded lithic sandstones and mudstones, with
minor chert, jasper, intraformational conglomerate, intermediate volcanics, and limestone containing
Msean corals. The Texas Beds are intensely deformed and their thickness is not known. Folding of
the sequence has resulted in the limestone lenses having steep to vertical dips. At Limevale fine-
grained marble appears to be due to regional metamorphism.

Olger and Flood (1970) described a Permian outlier at Silver Spur consisting of conglomerate,
sandstone, mudstone and thin limestone beds.

LIMESTONE RESOURCES

Large resources ol limestone and marble occur in the Texas area. Representative analyses lor the
major deposits are presented in Table 1.

Area A contains large resources ol marble near Limevale where surface weathering gives brown, red
and orange colours, although the basic colours are grey and black, with limited development of white
marble. Along Back Creek dark grey to black and blue-grey marble of excellent quality has been
quarried.

The Lime Products pits are located on the Limevale - Arcot road 2 km east of the Texas - lnglewood
road. The deposits contain an estimated 900 000 tonnes /vertical metre of light to dark grey
limestone. Micro laulting and jointing make parts of the resource unsuitable lor burning and lerrazo
chips. Low relief and extensive solution jointing will preclude major development in this area.

Along Back Creek in Area B resources are estimated to be 3 million tonnes / vertical metre. Although
reliel is low, recoverable resources of light grey to dark grey and black limestone would be
substantial.

ln Area G scattered outcrops occur along Little Plain Creek. The larger deposits are approximately
150 m in width.

The Pinnacles deposit in Area D contains an estimated 1.2 million tonnes / vertical metre of
limestone in an area of high relief. Diamond drilling has indicated that part of the resource is very
low in iron and suitable lor white glass manufacture.

Although Area E contained substantial resources, the major deposits at "Craigie', along Pike Creek
and the lower part of Reedy Creek are now submerged under the Pike Creek Dam. The major -l
submerged lenses near 'Viator" are cavernous and comprise the formerly well known Texas Caves.
At Riverion, the largest single limestone deposit in southern Queensland contains an estimated 4
million tonnes / vertical metre. The central part of the outcrop is thought to be cavernous.
 31

TABLE 1

Representative analyses - Limestone resources of Texas area

Area Location sio2 A1203 Fe2O Na2O K20 P205 Tio2 MnO co2 Neut CaO Mso
Value
A Limevale 0.45 2.4 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.05 Tr 42.2 95.8 53.0 0.45

Back Creek - black 0.19 0.26 0.19 0.15 0.06 0.03 Tr Tr 43.6 54.6 0.23

Back Creek - blue-grey o.28 0.09 0.09 0.15 0.09 0.11 Tr Tr 43.7 54.7 0.19

Lime Products - drill hole 0.01 0,03 0.01 0.01 Tr Tr Tr 43,6 97.7 55.1 0.30

B Back Creek 1.O o.23 0.15 98.0 54.6 o.32

c Little Plain Creek 1.6 o.59 0.38 96.4 53.8 0.16

D The Pinnacles 0.15 0.05 44.6 98.9 55.4

E Biverton 0.8 0.09 0.09 98.5 54.8 o.32

(Source - Siemon (1973))

REFERENCES

BALL, L.C., 1904: Notes on tin, copper, and silver mining in the Stanthorpe district. Geological
Survey of Queensland Publication 191.
KROSCH, N.J., 1990: Queensland mineral commodity report - Limestone. Queensland Govqnment
Mining Journal,9l (1060), 93 - 102.
LUCAS, K.G., 1957: The geology of the Terrica - Macintyre Brook area. Unpublished thesis,
University of Queensland, Department ol Geology.
LUCAS, K.G., 1958: The sedimentary petrology of the Palaeozoic rocks of the Border Rivers, with a
review of structure. Unpublished thesis, University of Queensland, Department of Geology.
OLGERS, F., and FLOOD, P.G., 1970: Palaeozoic geology of the Warwick and Goondiwindi 1:250
000 Sheet areas, Queensland and New South Wales. Bureau of Minqat Resources Record
1970/6.
SIEMON, J.E., 1973: Limestone resources of the Warwick - Texas area. Geological Suruey of
Queensland Report ffi.
 BOLTVIA QUARTZ (SLICA) MINE, TENTERFIELD N.S.W.

compiled bY

David Trezise
Queensland Department of Resource lndustries, Brisbane

INTRODUCNON

High purity silica (sior) occuring as quartz or quartz sand has many industrial applications including:

.
.
.
;x*fti;""'"'
metallurgical flux;and
raw material for silicon metal production'

Small quantities ol silica also find applications in electronics, chemical

and construction industries'
percent silica, with no phosphorous and
and as an abrasive. Metallurgical grade silica is at least 98
arsenic, and no more than 0.2 percent iron oxide or calcium oxide.
A purity greater than 99'0 per
cent is demanded lor silicon metal. The communication industry's use
of optical libres has led to a
rapid increase in the demand lor special quartz materials and silicon metal'

(Kingsgate) and cowra;

ln New South wales, high-quality silica deposits occur at Bolivia, Glen lnnes
and Wellington'
quartz and quartzite are also mined at Marranaroo (flux), Broken Hill, Murwillumbah
represents over 60 per cent
Glassmaking and foundry grade silica sand lrom coastal dune deposits
of the State,s total sitica production, which exceeded 500 000 tonnes
in 1989/90. The maior sources
Bay) Penrith, and Kurnell'
are located at Newcasile-Port Stephens area (Williamstown and Tanilba

BOUVIA QUARTZ (SILICA) MINE

Tenterfield, and has been

The Bolivia mine is near the small township of Bolivia, 29 km south ol
intermittently worked since 1974. Darryl McCarthy Constructions Pty Ltd are
the current operators
operates a crushing
under a private land lease, and trade as Tenterfield Silica Pty Ltd. The company
and washing plant 10km north ol Tenterfield, where quartz screenings
of minus Smm are produced'

within the Mount Jonblee

Very high-grade quartz occurs as a massive pipe-like hydrothermal deposit
Leuco-Adamellite. The quaruhas a purity o199.95 per cent, equivalent to
lirst grade silica. The major
impurity is AlrOa at 0.03 per cent; other impurities may include FerOa (up to 0'06 per cent) and
quite small, but at the Bolivia mine
alkalis (0.01 per cent). Most hydrothermal pipes in this a(ea are
inferred resource of 50 000
rhe pipe is 50m in diameter at its peak, and cone shaped at depth. An
tonnes (minimum) of quartz is amenable to open-cut mining'

in 1986/87 to none in 1990/91'

production over the past lour years has declined from 5600 tonnes
when stockpiles were being relied upon. over 60 per cent of this
production finds use as
semiconductors, castings, and in ceramics indultry, and in a range
of furnace linings lor general use
locally and interstate as
lor cast iron, and low carbon and low alloy steels. The remainder is used
exposed aggregate and for landscaping purposes'
t
I

I
33
REFERENCES

NSW DEPARTMENT OF MINEMLS AND ENERGY, 1987: New South Wates tndustriat Minqats. Mine
Dossier, pp 136. Compited by R.G. Hirst.
NSW DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND ENERGY, 1988: Trade avaitabitity of minqats and metats ot
New South Wales, pp 20-21.
NSW DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND ENERGY, 1990: Minerat tndustry Review 1990, pp 47-48.
NSW DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND ENERGY, 1991: Minerat lndustry Review 1991, pp 48-SO.
NSW DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS AND ENERGY, 1991: 1991/92 New South Wales Mining tndustry
Directory.
TENTERFIELD SILICA Pry LTD, 1gB7: Furnace Lining Manuat.

OUEENSI

MONIER
oNGOxO

REFERENCE
r Silica sand mine
O Chert mine
- Quarlzile mine O IOO 2S SOOln
O Vein quarlz mine l---l I f-+-J
18180

Figure 1. Location of Bolivia silica mine

 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE WANDSWORTH VOLCANIC GROUP

by

W.J. Stroud, R.G. Barnes, R.E. Brown, and J.W. Brownlow

Geological Survey ol New South Wales

INTRODUCTION

A major episode of igneous activity occurred throughout much of northern central New England
during the Late Permian - Early Triassic. This episode produced voluminous lelsic and lesser inter-
mediate calc-alkaline volcanics and granitoids (Figure 2). The volcanics comprise Late Permian
terrestrial and shallow marine rocks which consist ol thick sequences ol predominantly rhyolitic to
rhyodacitic and minor andesitic tuffs and ignimbrites. ln many places the volcanics are intruded by
granitoids.

This Wandsworth Volcanic Group (Barnes et al 1991) encompasses many units including the Dummy
Creek Conglomerate, Annalee Pyroclastics, Emmaville Volcanics, Wallangarra Volcanics, Drake
Volcanics and Gilgurry Mudstone, Dundee Rhyodacite, and units ol the Coombadjha Volcanic
Complex. lt also includes large tracts previously referred to as "Undifferentiated Permian volcanics'.
The volcanic sequence was generally deposited unconlormably on ?Devonian to Early Permian
basement sediments. ln many instances, a thin terrestrial to shallow marine sedimentary sequence
underlies or grades into the volcanic sequence (e.9. Korsch 1977).

PRE\NOUS WORK

David (1887), Andrews (1905), Andrews et al. (1907), and Carne (1911) recognised the broad dis-
tribution of volcanics that constitute the Wandsworth Volcanic Group (Figure 2). McKelvey and
Gutsche (1969) identilied widespread Permian sequences including ignimbrites of the Annalee
Pyroclastics and the underlying Dummy Creek Conglomerate .

The extensive and widespread nature of the volcanics was again recognised during the late 1960s
when the New South Wales Geological Survey published a series ol 1:250 000 and 1:500 000
geological maps of the region (e.g. Leitch et al. 1971; Chesnut, Flood & McKelvey 1973; Chesnut
1971; Brunker & Chesnut 1976; Pogson 1973; plus mapping by McKelvey & Gutsche 1969). Major
work describing various aspects or areas of the volcanics include Vernon (1959), Shaw (1964,1969),
\Mlkinson et al. (19O4), Flood et al. (1977, 1980), Godden (1982a, b, 1984), Wood (1982), McPhie
(1984, 1986, 1987, 1988), Shaw et al. (1988) anci Perkins (1988a).

The geological lramework presented here and in Barnes et al (1991) is a synthesis of previous work
and data derived from the Geological Survey's resource assessment program in New England (e.9.
Gilligan et al. 1992, Brown 1987, Barnes & Willis 1989, Stroud 1990). This lramework suggests a
regional uniformity in the geological processes which produced the Wandsworth Volcanic Group.

The names of units lorming the Group, together with typical lithologies and characteristics are shown
in Table 1.
 35

Table 1

Sunmary of features of units within the Wandsworth Volcan'ic Group

Unit Nanre Lithologies Attributes Main References

Dundee Rhyodacite Ign imbritic rhyodacite Youngest unit in the Group; to 1,2,3,4,5'8
2km thick; infi'll of collapsed
ca'lderra

Coonbadjha Volcanic Volcanic l astics, Upto 1500m of various mapped 4'5.6,7,8

Complex ignimbrites, and lavas units, overlain by Dundee
Rhyodacite

Tent Hi'll Volcanics Rhyodacitic to Probab'ly upper part of the 2,8

andesitic ignimbrites, EnmaviIle volcanics.
'I
avas

Enmavi'l'le Volcanics
Highly variab'le, from Numerous local informal unitsi 8,2, 3,9, 1 0
massive, large up to 2km thick, overlies Dunmy
ignimbrite flows to Creek Conglonrerate &
rhyolitic 1avas, equivalents, overlain by Dundee
volcani cl asi.tcs. Rhyodacite

Emmavi'lle Volcanic Ign imbrites, Numerous formal and informal 8,2,3,9,10,1l

equ ivalents, volcaniclastics, lavas units; up to 500m thick;
includes Gibralta agglomerates, andes itil overlies Dunnny Creek
Ignimbrite, to rhyol it'ic in Conglomerate and equivalents,
Wallangarra composition overlain by Dundee Rhyodac'ite;
Volcan'ics, Annalee 'latera'l 1y equiva lent to
Pyroclastics and Enmavi lle Volcanics.
fferenti ated
und i
volcan ics

Durrny Creek Cong'lomerate and Unconformably overl ies Ear'ly 8, 1 2.1 3, 14,1 5
Conglonerate and sandstone, fluvial to Carboni ferous metasediments.
equivalents marine, with well Fauna IV or III age.
developed flaura or
fauna

Drake Volcanics & Complex sequence of Unconformably overl ies 8, 1 6, 1 7,18,1 9

GilgurryMudstone 1avas, volcaniclastics Carboni ferous-Permian basement
and sediments. rocksi up to 1500m thick: Fanua
Vo'lcanics range fron III-IV age
andesitic to rhyolitic

References in toble:

1. Frood et or (1977) 6. McPhie (1982) 1l.Cuddy (197s) 16 Thomson (1976)

2. Godden (19820) 7. McPhie (19s7) 12. McKelvey & Gutsche (1969) l7 Herbert (1981)
i. Godden (1984) 8. Bornes et 0l (1991) 1J. Korsch(1977) tE. Bottomer (19E6)
a. McPhie (198a) 9. Bqrnes & Willis (lgEg) 14. Olgers & Flood (1970) 19. Perkins (t ggZ,AAo,U)
5. McPhie (1986) 10. Stroud (1989) 15. Stroud (1992)
AREA DCENT

Block, and to a lesser extent

The wandsworth Volcanic Group occurs widely throughout the central
lt covers an area of
in the coffs Harbour Block and the Texas Block (in lar southern Queensland).
250 km in length and up to 100
several thousand square kilometres, and lorms a belt approximately
associated with' the
km in width. The Group is most extensively developed around, and is spatially
(e'g Shaw & Flood 1981)'
Late Permian to Early Triassic plutons of the New England Batholith

L]THOLOGIES

intermediate to acid'
The Wandsworth Volcanic Group is composed predominanlly ol ignimbritic,
felsic volcanics. lncluded in the sequence are lesser amounts of rhyolitic
to andesitic lavas and
but make up only a minor
ashfall tuffs. Epictastic sediments are abundant in the Drake Volcanics
units of conglomerate and
component in most other sequences and are absent lrom some. Basal
sandstone occur at widely scattered localities.
-
The most abundant lithologies are mottled grey or fawn, crystal lithic
tuffs. The tufls comprise
millimetre-size phenocrysts of angular, pink and white feldspar and
rounded quartz set in an
aphanitic matrix. Lithic fragments are common and range in size
from microscopic to over 20 cm'
They are mainly cognate and vary lrom being rare to a major component
ol the rocks'

Eutaxitic textures
Many of the ignimbritic rocks are massive and show only subtle texturalvariation.
are well developed at numerous localities. Spherulitic and flow-banded rhyolitic lavas occur in
(e'g at Glen
places. tn some areas, thick, diffuse lithological layering (bedding) can be distinguished
epiclastic volcanic
Eden, north ol Glen lnnes). Bedding is well developed in shallow marine
Bottomer 1986' Perkins 1988a)'
sediments in the Drake Volcanics (Olgers et al' 1974, Thomson 1976'
bedding and have been
ln other areas, minor interbedded sedimentary units show variably developed
interpreted as lacustrine to fluviatile. lndividual ignimbrite flows have
been mapped (McQueen 1975'
detailed mapping to correlate
Baillie 1983, McPhie 1986), bur, in general, there has been insuf{icient
individual units within the wandsworth Volcanic Group. Massive and
bedded epiclastic units almost
invariably occur as lenses with little lateral continuity and therelore
offer no scope as regional
markers.

GEOCHEMISTRY

The volcanics range from basalt to alkali rhyolite, with most being
rhyolitic to dacitic (Figure 1a)' They
the collective coherence ol
lollow typical calc-alkaline trends (Figure 1d). Their chemistry confirms
can be distinguished in the
the various units (Barnes et al 1991, Figure 1a). However, several units
undifferentiated volcanics; some
data, including the Drake Volbanics; the Emmaville, wallangarra, and
area; and a group which
ol the units at parlour Mountain; some ol the volcanics in the wandsworth
includes the Dundee Rhyodacite, Tent Hill Volcanics, and the basal units
ol the Coombadjha Volcanic
lrom a number of centres
complex (Figures 1a,b & c). This suggests that the volcanics were derived
with different magma sources.

England Batholith are not

Unequivocal genetic associations with the plutonic rocks of the New
immediately obvious, although the Dundee Rhyodacite, Tent Hill Volcanics,
and the basal units of the
Coombadjha Votcanic Complex display some chemical similarities with
the Moonbi Plutonic Suite
(Barnes et al 1991).
l-
I

I
I
I

x horrt .i'.vtt!.
O
4> x
xi( lj
x r.^d.i..rh....
-.,-. ". ....
x...r"..,r
X
>o o
x O o..r. voro.6tc.
I o""o,r i o
^9
Pu'& ;^'
r..Ehr.^o.. I t. .T.&;*-|x t:*.'rtr. "oro.

r'rr'^c"" v'r"
-o

@
x I
tOX^'*" t

\"& x o <a &."i""&

%iq x
I

'^."
t At t t

Figure la. TAS ('total Alkali v SiO2 - anhydrous) Figure lb. Na2O v K2O for subdivisions of the
diagrrm for <rrbrlivisions of the \\'andsworth Volcanic Wandsworth Volcanic Group.
Oroup. Classification & fields frorn Le Maitre (1984).

6 r..d.r6rth volc.hlE d..vc

l\
6O-
o
o Ox A
e
o
Qo.... v"r"."r.. o
X a-.vrlt. v.!ct^r..
X hr.t...^cr.c.d

[ua.. ayoorortr
[r.-t xrrr vorc.^r..
X r.^d..o.th ....
v.rc.nrc.
o
[c.".".orn.
X r.tl..c..r. vo\c.^ia.

l! pp'

Figure I c. Variation diagrarn of Rb v Sr for subdivisions Figure ld. Ternary AFM diagram for the Wandsworth
of the Wandsworth Volcanic Group. Volcanic Group. Calc-alkaline and tholeiitic fields from
Irvine and Baragar (1971).

Figure 1. Geochemisfy
AGE

The age of ihe Wandsworth Volcanic Group is mid to latest Permian based on the lollowing evi-
dence:

1. Fauna lV or late Fauna lll fossils in the Dummy Creek Conglomerate and its equivalents indicate a
lower age limit of mid Permian (Briggs 1989).

2. An upper age limit lor the Group is latest Permian. At numerous localities throughout New
England the Group is intruded by granitoids ol the New England Batholith. ln the Stannum
district the Mole Granite has intruded the Emmaville Volcanics and Tent Hill Volcanics (e.9.
Baillie 1983). J.D. Kleeman (pers. comm. 1990) has determined an emplacement age ol
between 245 and 249 Ma based'on Rb/Sr cooling ages of 245-247 Ma lor the least altered
parts of the Mole Granite. This indicates a Permian age lor the Tent Hill Volcanics and
possibly the Dundee Rhyodacite.
38

TN

I LOCA LITIE S

::lV
1. Wyberba
2. Wallangara
3. Sunnyside
4. Darby Creek
S CALE
5. Mount Mackenzie
?, -+ ?,0^'
6. Tenl Hill
7.'Glenmore"
B. Stannum
L Big Mount Spirabo
10. Pindari Dam
1 1. Ottery mine
1 2. Deepwater Sugarloaf

19. Glen Eden

I
,;" 20. Bold Nob
2 1. Nullamanna
22. Wandsworth
AS'iFORB.
23. Tenterden
24.'Baldersleigh'
25. Parlour Mountaih
26. Jimmys Mountain
2Z 'Kurrajohg Park"
28.'why Worry'
29. Harnham Hill

State Forest 30 Georges Mountain

: Gibrallar
Range

The Razorback

-;$!
d
riibl - s,e4

IilJV f fiELL

REFERENCE
GRANITOIDS

Leucoaoamellites
fl
Uralla Pluionic Suite
:f L,: )
T
E] Moonbi Plulonic Suite
Cover

n Clarence River Plulonic Suite

Bundarra Plulonic Suile

i*"
t m Hillgrove Plutonic Suile

i9 Undifferentieled
zA [.;;,1
WANDSWORTH VOLCANIC GROUP
7:=-l
Lz .'l Dundee Rhyodacile
F::= Coombadjhs Volcanic Compler
Ph.a!anl Cr6sl Volcsnicl, Hisnana Volcrnlca,
Pi Pi lqniDbrile, Brb6p.rcy Volc.nic!,
Dund€e Rhyodaclto

[.\ Tent Hill Volcanics

Emmaville Volcanics
l1 Niota Porphyrltic Dacito Member
Gibrallar lgnimbirte,Wallangarra Volcanics
Annalee Pyroclaslics
f:
Gilgurry Mudstone

Armidale ffi
l' r .l Drake Volcanics

Fffi Dummy Creek Conglomerale and correl6tives

OTHERS

fl s"o,."n,"r, and metasedimentary sequences

[:,'.ltl se.oentinire

Fault

- Geological boundary

Figwe 2. Distibution ol the Wandsworth Volcanic Group (extapolated beneath extensiveTertiary and
Quaternary basalt and sedirnents not shown on diagram).
 39

FORM AND STRUCruRE

The rocks of the Wandsworth Volcanic Group occur predominantly as flat to shallowly dipping
sheets. ln most areas, dips rarely exceed 30o, and many of the dips probably represent original
depositional angles (e.9. McPhie 1986). However, in some areas, particularly those associated with
possible caldera structures and/or high-level plutons, dips can exceed 600. ln most instances dips
are radial and oriented towards the centre of caldera structures. Examples include the volcanics
surrounding the Parlour Mountain Granite (Cuddy 1978), the Coombadjha Volcanic Gomplex (McPhie
1986), and the Emmaville Volcanics and Tent Hill Volcanics surrounding the Dundee Rhyodacite
mass northeast of Emmaville (Godden 1982a, Meldrum 1983, Shaw et al. 1988). Volcanics also lorm
a ring structure around the southern margin of the Tenterfield mass of the Dundee Rhyodacite (Shaw
'1969, Godden 1982a, Barnes 1987).

ln many instances, the volcanics lorming arcuate belts have been intruded by later granitoids which
occupied possible eruptive centres. ln the Armidale area, Korsch (1982) suggested that the Mount
Duval Adamellite intruded a volcanic pile, possibly to levels above the general surrounding land
surface. A similar situation may have occurred in many parts of the Tenterfield region (e.9. Mount
Mackenzie) where some granitoids are exposed at levels several hundreds of metres above the
surrounding basal volcanic sections.

LITHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

Four broad associations can be recognised in the Wandsworth Volcanic Group based on lithology,
geographic distribution and stratigraphy.

1. Terrestrial and shallow marine conglomerates and minor sandstones and mudstones which lorm
the basal sediments of the at several localities. These rocks form part of the "Dummy Oeek
Association" of Korsch (1977).
2. Rhyolitic to andesitic epiclastics, pyroclastics, lavas and sub-volcanic intrusives with a marine
sedimentary component and a distinctive chemistry. These are the rocks which make up the
Drake Volcanics and the overlying Gilgurry Mudstone.
3. Rhyolitic to dacitic volcaniclastics, mainly of ignimbritic character, deposited in a terrestrial
environment. These make up the Emmaville Volcanics, Tent Hill Volcanics, and volcanic se-
quences at numerous other areas including the Wandsworth area. The Wallangana
Volcanics have been considered as possibly correlatives of the Drake Volcanics (Olgers,
Flood & Robertson 1974, Barnes & Willis 1989), but geochemical data suggest association
with Emmaville-type volcanics.
4. Porphyritic quarta feldspar, hornblende, pyroxene-bearing rhyodacite - the Dundee Rhyodacite.
The term "Dundee Rhyodacite'is a collective stratigraphic name for seven major and several
minor masses of rhyodacitic ignimbrite occurring in the Dundee to Tenterfield area. The rock
is lithologically and chemically distinctive and overlies Emmaville-type volcanics.

STRANGRAPHIC UNITS

The stratigraphy of the Wandsworth Volcanic Group is well described in local areas only. Work such
as that of Docherty (1973), Cuddy (:1978), Meldrum (1983), and McPhie (1986) has shown that
detailed mapping allows the erection of coherent stratigraphic sequences in limited areas. l-lowever,
it is unlikely that the local subdivisions will be regionally applicable. Nevertheless, these local units
can be recognised as components ol the four major lilhological associations described above. A
40

summary ol the salient features of the local units is given in Barnes et al (1991) and rable 1'

TECTONIC SETNNG

The New England Orogen was the site of a convergent plate boundary up until the Early Permian.
From the Early Permian onwards, orogenesis occurred, culminating in the intrusion of extensive
orogenic and post orogenic Late Permian and Triassic granitoids.
I
The origin of the Wandsworth Volcanics is still uncertain. The Permian tectonics of New England was I
very complex and is not well understood. Two mechanisms for their formation appear to be the most
likely. They may be subduction related (ie Andean style margin with possibly more crustal
contamination). Another possibility is that they have a similar origin to that postulated for many of the
l-type granitoids of New England (eg Hensel et al 1985). That is, they are the product of various
degrees ol partial melting of juvenile crustal material at depth. Much more isotopic and systematic
chemical work is necessary.

CONCI-USIONS

During the Late Permian, extensive volcanism occurred in much of central New England. The
volcanics were deposited in terrestrial to shallow marine settings, some with considerable local topo-
graphic relief. lnitial volcanism buried and locally preserved clastic sediments. Rhyolitic to dacitic
volcanics produced extensive ignimbritic sheets with local lava flows originating from many widely
spaced volcanic centres. Massive ignimbritic eruptions produced the Dundee Rhyodacite. ln the
Drake area, acid to intermediate volcanism occurred in a shallow marine setting, and substantial
epiclastic sedimentation occurred. Mudstone was deposited above the Drake Volcanics.

The volcanic pile thickened locally to several kilometres, and was intruded in many places by
granitoids during lhe Late Permian to Early Triassic. Erosion has stripped the initial volcanic pile to a
level where only the basal parts of the original section are preserved. The remnant volcanics and
associated sediments, although scattered over a large area, are unified by age, lithology, chemistry
and geological setting.

AO(NOVVLTOGMENTS

Former colleague lan Willis and the staff of the Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of
New England are thanked for discussions and assistance. The Department's thesis library has been
particularly valuable. Published with the permission of the Director General, N.S.W Department of
Mineral Resources.

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geological sheets, northern New England, N.S.W. Geotogicat Survey of New South Wales,
Report GS1989/351 (unpubt.).
STROUD W.J. 1990. The geology of the lnverell and Goondiwindi 1:250,000 sheet areas (N.S.W.
portions). Geological Survey of New South Wales, Report GS1990/083 (unpubl.).
STROUD W.J. 1992. New and revised geological units lrom the lnverell and Goondiwindi 1:250,0@
sheet areas, New England Fold Belt. New South Wales Geological Survey, Quartuty Notes
87, 1-16.
THOMSON J. 1976. Geology of the Drake l:100,000 Sheet 9340,185 pp. Geological Survey of New
South Wales, Sydney.
VERNON R.H. 1959. Petrology of a porphyritic rock lormed by assimilation in the Deepwater area,
N.S.W. MSc thesis, University of New England, Armidale (unpubl.).
WILKINSON J.F.G., VERNON, R.H. & SHAW S.E. 1964. The petrology of an adamellite - porphyrite
from the New England Bathylith (New South Wales). Journal of Petrotogys, 461488.
WOOD B.L. 1982. The geology and mineralization of the Emmaville tin field, New South Wales. ln
Flood P.G. & Runnegar B. eds. New Engtand Geotogy, pp. 335-344. Department of
Geology, University of New England and AHV Club, Armidale.
44

TECTONICS AND LANDFORMS OF THE NEW ENGLAND REGION

by

R.R. Coenraads and C.D. Ollier

The landscape of the New England region is dominated by two major units: the New England
Tableland in the west , and the Gorge Country to the east.

The Tableland (which in reality is varied by numerous hills and considerably dissected in places) is a
palaeoplain that came into existence in the late Palaeozoic, and which has been kept subdued by
erosion in later times. The palaeoplain was warped, probably in Tertiary times, lorming a Great Divide
along the axis ol uplift, a gentle westerly slope to the western plains, and a steeper slope to the east,
to the newly {ormed continental margin and the coast. Erosion on the steeper eastern side was much
more intense than that to the west, and deep dissected country was formed, separated from the
Tableland by a Great Esiarpment.

THE NEVII ENGI.AND TABLEI.AND

The bedrock consists ol folded Palaeozoic rocks, intruded by mainly Permian to Triassic granites. lt
appears that the area had already been planated to a large extent by the Triassic.

One intrusion, the Mole Granite, was apparently emplaced very close to this surlace, with no more
than half a kilometre of overlying rocks (Kleeman, 1984). These have been stripped off leaving the
top of the granite as a structural plateau. The stripping occurred quite early, and the Mole Plateau
has probably looked very much as it does today since the Triassic. The granite itsell is a interesting
tabular inlrusion (Figure 1) with a calculated maximum thickness ol 4 km and a more probably
thickness ol only 1 km.

Figure 1. Ooss seclion of the Mole Granite, N.S.W. Top is natural scale ; bottom is l0x vertical
exaggeralion. The location of the feeder pipe is not known. The granite was intuded close to the
surlace as indicated by the root pendant , the Mid-Permian unconformity and the ignimbite. (after
Kbernan, 19{}.
 45

Mount Duval is also a near-surface intrusion (Korsch, 1982). A large volcano was erupted on to the
palaeoplain, overlying a magma chamber at depth. The granite continued to rise until it intruded its
own volcano, reaching some hundred metres higher than the palaeoplain. The ascending granite
gave rise to a contemporaneous rim syncline around the granite in which coarse sediment
accumulated and became Permian conglomerate. The conglomerate contains fragments of the Duval
granite, indicating rapid erosion and sedimentation. Mount Duval slill rises prominently above a
{ surrounding palaeoplain, as it probably did soon after its emplacemant.
I
I

I
The Mesozoic was essentially a time of weathering and erosion; weathering of possible Cretaceous
a
age has been determined by palaeomagnetism (Schmidt and Ollier, 1988). Weathering was so
intense on a regional scale that deep regoliths were produced in which only quartz and chert resisted
decomposition. Later, when Tertiary rivers deposited the gravels that contain the deep leads of the
district, only these resistant materials were available as bedload, which is why the deep leads are so
quartz rich in contrast to the polymict gravels ol modern streams.

THE GREAT ESCARPMENT

Great Escarpments associated with swells (or uplilts) parallel to the coast are a feature of many
passive continental margins around the world, including the Drakensberg of South Africa, the
Western Ghats of lndia, and the Scandinavian Mountains. The Eastern Highlands of Australia provide
a splendid example, and the New England portion is as spectacular as any (Ollier, 1982 a,b). The
Great Escarpment is a major geomorphic boundary separating the plateaus on the west (with low
relief, slow geomorphic process rates and the frequent preservation of palaeoforms) lrom the rugged
mountain belt to the east (with great relief, rapid geomorphic processes and few palaeoforms). All the
great waterfalls of eastern Australia are lound where rivers fall from the palaeoplain over the Great
Escarpment. Wollomombi Falls near Armidale, although not the highest in Australia, are a fine
example.

The increased erosion that created the Great Escarpment probably started with uplift of the Eastern
Highlands and the opening of the Tasman Sea, perhaps 80 Ma ago. However, it took time for the
escarpment to retreat, and in New England it has cut across most ol the 20 Ma old Ebor Volcano.

VOLCANOES

Mesozoic-Cenozoic volcanic provinces form a discontinuous belt 21400 kilometres long and up to 300
I kilometres wide, within or adjacent to the Eastern Australian Highlands (Figure 3).
i
I

t The Central Volcanic Province overlies and intrudes Devonian to Triassic volcanics, metasediments
and plutonics of the Woolomin-Texas Block of the New England Fold Belt (Leitch, 1974).lt extends
from Armidale in the south, through Glen lnnes and lnverell, to the Queensland border in the north.
Ages lor the Central Province are shown on Figure 2.

The lavas are predominantly alkaline to strongly alkaline, alkali olivine basalts, basanites, hawaiites
and nepheline hawaiites. Tholeiites occur in the vicinity of lnverell. Breccias and volcaniclastic rocks
occur throughout the lnverell-Glen lnnes region at or near the base of the volcanic pile. Some of the
volcaniclastic rocks are known to contain sapphire. Relerences on Central Province volcanic rocks
are listed in Coenraads et al (1990).
46

151 E 152 E

)f

^f\ Ortline of volcanic province

$o
;
Towns

Agos ln Ma
ry 29S
tF U-Pb
a Flgslon track
0 K-Ar
40 km

tr\e t
1$(k"
o0

36c=,
\^J
O34
/
q

Bingara I

30s

-20 s

z1 fl/-
t_ _ _ _ _ __r
\\,_
CENTRAL PROVINCE > /3!!!!"r''io"r"
/ q15ts
<'1}
050
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500 km I
Vr1
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!
40S
dff
W**.. 1s2 E

Figwe 2 Location ol the Gental Province in northeastern New South Wales. The inset shows
illesozoic-Genozoic volcanic provinces ol eastern Austalia. Ages have been rounded to the nearest
Ma (after Goerraads et al, lSn).
 47

r51 E

$ 3
0 \
\
D.
BLUE NOBBY
( \ n\\
)MT , Jo \tr \i*,,
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PROVINCE

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\
Ortline ol volcanb province
Tertiary deep leads
I Towns

o Volcanic plugs lf
Landsat lineaments (strong)
Landsat linearnents (weak)
ry
0g 20 40km

151 E 152 E

Figure 3. Stuctural denrents of the Cental Province, New South Wales, determined by landsat
linearnent analysis and topographic tend analysis. The rose diagram shows total lerlgth ol landsat
linearnents at respective azimuths for the map area. The SSE-NNW peak is subparaltd to the ped
and Demon faults as well as the long axis of the @ntral Province.
48

The elongated shape of the Central Volcanic Province suggests that volcanism was localized by
preferred planes of weakness in the crust, 100 to 200 kilometres in length (Coenraads, 1990). There
appear to be four major groups of lineaments. The most significant are the NNW-SSE group
(numbered 1, 2 and 3 on Figure 3), which correspond to prominent long, straight ridges and areas of
maximum basalt thickness. These coincide with the long axis of the Central Volcanic Province and
are sub-parallel to the Peel and Demon fault traces. These trends have acted as the loci for volcanic
centres and plugs.

The ages of volcanism associated with axial lineament trends 1 and 2 difler from those associated
with, and west of, axial trend 3 ( Figures 2 & 3). Accordingly, an older East Central Province (32 - 38
Ma) and a younger West Central Province (19 - 23 Ma) can be delineated. Lineament trend 3
indicates that there is a structural link between the West Central Province and the volcanics to the
south and west ol Armidale, some of which have a similar age (20.7 Ma).

A series of radial and ring fractures centred near the Gough Sugarloal plug are clearly visible on
Landsat images (Figure 3). This centre named the Maybole Volcano by Pecover (1987), appears to
be the most significant volOanic centre in the Province. lt lies at the intersection of the four prevalent
lineament sets and coincides with a maximum thickness of basalt. The Maybole Volcano is the centre
of a large radial drainage system.

SAPPHIRE OCCURRENCES tN THE CENTRAL PROVINCE QUATERNARY ALLUVIUM

Figure 4 highlights the major rivers and creeks associated with the Central Volcanic Province. The
most obvious feature is the radial pattern ol drainage centered on the Ben Lomond-Maybole area. lt
has an approximate radius of 50 kilometres. Sapphires, together with zircon, spinel and/or ilmenite,
may be found in Quaternary gravels in most gullies, creeks, and rivers draining the 32 - 38 Ma East
Central Province. Some ol the alluvial deposits are being mined by large scale, mechanized
operations (Nunan, 1989).

Sapphires have not been reported in the streams draining the basalts of the 19 - 23 Ma West Central
Province.

DIAMOND OCCI.,,RRENCES IN THE CENTML VOLCANIC PROVINCE TER]IARY DEEP LEADS.

The volcanics of the West Central Province overlie and protect alluvial sediments lorming "deep
leads'which have been recognized for their diamond bearing potential since 1872, (MacNevin, 1977).
Cassiterite, gold, zircon, garnet, sapphire, tourmaline, and topaz are also found in the deep leads.
The deep leads outcrop exlensively around Arnnidale, in the Copeton-Gilgai-Stannifer area (south east
of lnverell) and also to the north west of lnverell extending to the Queensland border (Figure 3).

GEOLOGIC AT{D GEOMORPHIC EVOLU]ION OF THE CENTML VOLCANIC PROVINCE.

The geological and geomorphic evolution of the Central Volcanic Province is summarized as follows:-

a) Pre-volcanic doming, and/or uplift along the Great Divide altered the pre-volcanic topographic
surlace producing high ground and disrupting drainage. This was accompanied by laulting
and the opening of deeply penetrating NNW trending lractures sub-parallel to the pre-existing
fabric of the New England Fold Belt.
b) lnjection of breccias and explosive eruption of pyroclastic material took place prior to 36 Ma,
 49
forming a blanket of volcanic debris, (some sapphire_bearing), on the pre_basaltic
topography.
c) Explosive volcanic eruption continued, as well as lava exlrusion, with a general decrease in the
amount ol explosive activity with time. Early basaltic lavas llowed down valley systems and
may be found lying direcfly on basement rocks in places.
d) Maior effusive basaltic eruptions took place along the Eastern Axial and Wellingrove lineaments
and parallel fracture sets at about 32 - 36 Ma. This produced a "lava field" with an overall
SSE-NNW elongation.
e) Erosion and reworking, particularly of the less resistant volcaniclastic rocks, took place
over some
10 million years and this material was deposited around the edges of the East Central
Province. Alluvial concentration ol tin, tourmaline, topaz and gold (rom the granites),
diamonds (from local intrusives and breccias near Copeton) and sapphire and zircon (fom
the volcaniclastics and basalts) took place.
f) The next phase of volcanism, also controlled by SSE/NNW trending planes
ol
weakness, occuryed
turther to the west. Basaltic eruptions ranging from tholeiitic to alkaline occurred
at about
19-23 Ma and formed the West Central Province, which also includes volcanics
south and
west of Armidale. The basalts covered the Tertiary alluvium, and thus formed the
deep leads.
To the east of the East Central Province these alluvials have long since been removed
due to
the westward migration of the Great Escarpment and the lack of a protective
basalt cap, but
pockets remain to the northwest, west and south.
g) The development of the west Central Province deflected the west and northwesterly
flowing
drainage system radiating from the Maybole high. The Gwydir, Copes, Swan Brook,
Middle
and the Macintyre, appear to have been diverted to the west and northeast of lnverell.
Swan
Brook, Middle Creek and the Macintyre have been deflected to the north in the
vicinity of
lnverell, and copes creek and the Gwydir deflected to the west.
h) The West Central Province created its own radiating drainage network centered on the
Delungra-Mount Russell areas. Croppa, Gourmana, Mosquito, Reedy, Kelly's,
Sheep Station
and Myall Creeks flow westerly from the volcanic high ground. Oafleys and Bannockburn
creeks llow northward, and Auburn Vale Creek flows to the south. Numerous
small creeks
drain to the east and southeast from the volcanic high ground, but the radial pattern is not
fully developed due to the pre-existing high ground ol the East Central province.

DRAINAGE PATTERNS

The rivers of New England have patterns that record drainage from Mesozoic
times, modified in later
episodes by tectonic movements and volcanoes.

The Clarence River wds once continuous with the Condamine River. lt flows now
along the edge of a
Jurassic sedimentary basin, whose sediments were deposited by some ancestor of the
Clarence-Condamine that carried sediment to the Great Artesian Basin. The
river is parly
superimposed from a more extensive Jurassic cover. The most obvious feature is the
barbed
drainage, that of the Mitchell and orara almosi reaching the coast. (The Lower
Clarence below
Grafton is an overflow channel along a local tectonic trough). The lormerly continuous
drainage to
the Condamine was broken by uplift of the Great Divide (Haworth and Ollier, 19g2).

The drainage pattern of the Macleay and associated gorge country is much modilied
by the radial
drainage pattern inherited from the Ebor Volcano.
50

MIGRANON OF THE GREAT DMDE SINCE THE TEF|NARY

Mapping of the sub-basaltic surface below the 32-38 Ma East Central Volcanic Province at the
1:25,000 scale (Coenraads, 1990) has provided understanding of the evolution of the Great Divide
since that time. Data from 430 water bores were used in the analysis. The bore data generally
indicated that the basalt filled valleys are steeper and deeper than surlace form suggests.

The present position of the Great Divide is plotted, and the present- and palaeodrainages are
compared in Figure 4. The palaeodrainages indicate that a radial drainage pattern was present
around the Maybole Volcano at the onsel ol Central Province volcanism.

The coincidence ol the sub volcanic topographic high, the present topographic high, and the
maximum thickness of the Central Province volcanic pile, in the vicinity of Maybole, N.S.W. suggests
that doming, and/or uplift, most likely accompanied the onset of Central Province volcanism. This
has been observed in some other volcanic provinces (Wellman, 19BB). lt suggests that the Tertiary
drainage and watershed picture may have already been disrupted by uplift prior to being fossilized by
the Central Province volcanism.

The Great Divide, separating easterly and westerly flowing drainage, appears to be in much the same
position today as it was at the onset of Central Province volcanism, 32-38 million years ago (Figure
4). ln a number of places, however some westward movement is evident. These areas are highlighted
on Figure 4 and enlarged in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The remains of westward-trending, basalt-filled
palaeodrainage systems on, or slightly east ol, the present Great Divide indicate a westward
migration ol the divide of the order of approximately two to three kilometres in these areas since the
Tertiary.

Six kilometres to the east of Glen lnnes (GR:840080 , Glen lnnes 1:100,000 sheet, Figure 5), a
north-south oriented, basalt-filled palaeochannel lies along the Great Divide. This channel originally
flowed southward to GR:840060 and then westward, indicating that lhe Great Divide once existed to
its east. Today the Mann River and Beardy Waters, together with their tributaries, have relief inverted
this channel and it forms part ol the Great Divide. This indicates a westward shift of the Great Divide
by about 2 kilometres since the Tertiary.

At Blair Hill Lagoon (GR:818960, Glen lnnes, 1:100,000 sheet, Figure 6) a palaeochannel flowed either
to the northwest across the present Great Divide, or formed part ol a westerly trending palaeochannel
that also crossed the present divide. Blair Hill Lagoon originally formed on the flat floor of this basalt
filled palaeochannel, however today it is situated on a relief inverted basalt plateau. The present Great
Divide lies to the west of the lagoon indicatinga westward shift of some 1 to 2 kilometres in this area
since the Tertiary.

At Barley Field Lagoon (GR:774905, Glen lnnes, 1;100,000, Figure 7), the basalt-filled \Mlliams Creek
palaeochannel originally flowed west across the present Great Divide. Barley Field Lagoon originally
lormed on the flat floor ol this basalt filled palaeochannel, and today the Great Divide passes to the
west ol the lagoon. This indicates that, the Divide has migrated at least 1 kilometre west since the
Tertiary.

Llangothlin and Little Llangothlin lagoons are also situated in a northwesterly trending, basalt-filled
palaeochannel however, the basalt thickness is too great to determine if this channel once continued
westwards across lhe Great Divide. The watershed lor the area in which the lagoons are now
 51

t
E
s ') li
$('t

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r/a

fi--\ cttt
*9

ii'bq#
ffi:_ '\ \.\ t.i-..-
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t
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t)
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5
t s

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a4loe4
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{d
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 s
situated once passed io the east of them. Since that time, Little Llangothlin Lagoon has been
captured by the Oban River.

Apart from the westward migration of the Great Divide and the Great Escarpment, there has been
headward erosion ol the radial streams of the Central Province volcanic high (Coenraads, 1990). To
the north of the province, Kings Plains, Arrawatta, Camerons and Wellingrove creeks have cut
southward, in some cases creating some classic captures. Retreat has possibly been of the order of
live kilometres along some of the streams since the Tertiary. To the northeast, Reddestone,
Furacabad, Stonehenge creeks and Beardy Waters now cut the more northerly and northwesterly
flowing palaeo-Reddestone system. To the south Burying Ground Creek and Gara River have cut into
a larger palaeosystem flowing close to Armidale.

Lagoons lound along the entire length the Great Divide were first recognized by Ollier (1979, 1982c),
who suggested that they formed by tectonic activity, with uplitt of the Eastern Highlands levelling
lormerly westerly flowing streams and thereby causing the drainage to become stagnant. Coenraads
(1989) describes the morphology of the lagoons in detail and their association with the basalt filled
palaeodrainage of tlie Central Province. A number of them situated near the Great Divide, such as
Molher of Ducks, Llangothlin, Barley Field and Bald Bair lagoons, are all related to the divide in the
same way. All lie in basalt filled palaeodrainage systems that once flowed west. These systems were
flooded with basalt 32-38 million years ago with the lagoons lorming on the resultant flat valley floors.
Barley Field and Bald Bair lagoons clearly formed on the western side of the Great Divide but
are now situated some 1 to 2 kilometres east of it.

Gaotions for Fiqures 5. 6 and 7 opposite

Egure 5. Section of a basalt filled palaeochannd, rdief inverted by lateral strearns, forms a part of the
Great DMde. The axis of the soutfrcdy and then westerly trending palaeochannd is indi&ted as a
healry line. The heavy lines, with spot elevations in rnetres, indicate the outcrop position of the
basaFbasement contact, and the contours indicate the intepreted topographic su-rtace prior to the
32-38 Ma basallic eruptions. The contours are dashed Ueneatn basdt: anO'sotiO wlrere [rasenrent is
exposed or interpreted to have once been exposed. The Great Divide has migrated westwards by
about 2 kilornetes in this area.

Figure 6. Blair Hill Lagoon, situated on a relief inverted basalt plateau which forms a portion of the
present Great Divide..Au<es_of westely and northwesterly tending palaeochannds are indicated as a
heavy lines. The present Great Divide lies to the west of the lagoon indicating a westurard shift ol
sorne 1 to 2 kilornetes since the Tertiary.

Figure 7. Barley Fidd lagoon, situated on the basalt filled Williams Oed( palaeochannd which
originally fowed westwards. The Great Divide now passe{i across the axis of the \Mlliams Oeek
palaeochannd indicating that the divide has migrated by at least 1 kilonretre since the Tertiary.
54

REFERENCES

Coenraads, R.R. (1989), Evaluation of the natural lagoons of the Central Province, N.S.W. - are they
sapphire producing maars? Bulletin of the Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists,
n, u7-363.
Coenraads, R.R., (1990). Key areas lor alluvial diamond and sapphire exploration in the New England
Gemfields, New South Wales, Australia. Economic Geology 85, 1186-1207.
Coenraads, R.R. (1990). Palaeogeography of the Braemar sapphire deposit: lmplications lor
deep-lead sapphire exploration in the Central Volcanic Province, New South Wales. Journal
and Proceedings of the Royal Society ol New South Wales,123.,75-U.
Coenraads, R.R., Sutherland, F.L. and Kinny, P.D. (1990). The origin ol sapphires: U-Pb dating of
zircon inclusions sheds new light. Mineralogical Magazine, 54, 113-122.
Haworth, R.J. and Ollier, C.D. (1992). Morphtectonics of the Clarence Moreton Basin. Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms. ln press.
Kleeman, J. (1984). The anatomy of a tin mineralising A-type granite. in Flood, P.G. and Runnegar, B.
(eds) Ner,v England Geology. Geology Dept. University of New England. 327-3U.
Korsch, R.J. (1982). Mount Duval: geomorphology of a near-surface granite diapir. Zeitschrift fur
Geomorphologie 6, 151-162.
Leitch, E.C. (1974). The geological development of the southern part ol the New England Fold Belt.
Journal of the Geological Society of Australia,21 133-156.
Nunan, T.J. (1989). The mining of sapphires. The Australian Gemmologist, 17(1) 7-12.
MacNevin, A.A. (1977). Diamonds in New South Wales. Department of Mines, Geological Survey of
New South Wales, Minqal Resources 52. 1-125.
Ollier, C.D. (1979). Evolutionary geomorphology of Australia and Papua- New Guinea. Transcripts of
the lnstitute of British Geographers 4, 516-539.
Ollier, C.D. (1982 a). The Great Escarpment of eastern Australia: tectonic and geomorphic
signilicance. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia n, 13-23.
Ollier, C.D. (1982 b). Geomorphology and tectonics of the Dorrigo Plateau, N.S.W. Journal of the
Geological Society of Australia 29, 431-435.
Ollier, C.D. (1982 c). Geomorphology and tectonics of the Armidale region. ln P.G. Flood and B.
Runnegar, eds. Voisey Symposium 1982, New England Geology.
@gover S.R. (1987). Tertiary maar volcanism and the origin ol sapphires in northeastern New South
Wales, Department of Mineral Resources, extended abstracts from a seminar on Teriiary
volcanics and sapphires in the New England District, 1st May, 13-21. New South Wales
Geological Survey, Report GS 1987/058.
Schmidt, P.W. and Ollier, C. D. (1988). Palaeomagnetic dating of Late Cretaceous to Early
Tertiary weathering in New England, N.S.W. , Australia. Earth Science Reviews, %,
363-372.
Wellman, P. (1988). lntrusions beneath large intraplate volcanoes. gth Australian Geological
Convention, February 1-5. Geological Society of Australia, Abstracts2l.
 55

A GUIDE TO THE GEOLOGY OF ECONOMIC SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS

IN THE CENTRAL VOLCANIC PROVINCE, NORTHEASTERN N.S.W.

by

Simon R. Pecover
Exploration Manager and Chief Geologist
T.J. & P.V. Nunan Pty Ltd

INTRODUCNON

Sapphires occur throughout the lnverell - Glen lnnes - Guyra district of northeastern New South
Wales (Figure 1) in Quaternary and Tertiary alluvial deposits, derived from ihe weathering and
erosion ol Tertiary volcanics and underlying Palaeozoic basement rocks.

ln the past, these sapphires were thought to have been derived solely lrom nearby basallic lava flows
(MacNevin 1972). However, whilst corundum/sapphire has occasionally been found in fine-grained
basalt clasts, it has not been recorded from in situ deposits of basaltic lava in the region. Since
1982, pyroclastic and volcaniclastic rocks, located at or near the base ol the Tertiary volcanic pile,
have been recognized as a major additional source for sapphires occurring in juxtaposed alluvial
systems ( Lishmund and Oakes 1983, Pecover 1987, Brown and Pecover 1986a & b, Pecover and
Coenraads 1989).

Sapphires were lirst mined in the lnverell district, along Frazers Creek in 1919. Between 1919 and
1960, atl production came from small scale, hand mining operations. During the late 1960's the sale
of rough sapphire to Thai gem buyers resulted in a boom, with hundreds ol small operations
springing-up along many of the streams in the lnverell - Glen lnnes - Guyra area. These operations
concentrated on mining rich, easily worked, shallow alluvial deposits (Laurence 1990).

Since the mid 1970's, production from these rich, shallow alluvial deposits has been declining. This
has lead to the search for new deposits, within large alluvial valley drainage systems. The bulk of
this exptoration and mining has been carried out by T.J. & P.V. Nunan Pty Ltd, using Calweld bucket
drills and backhoe excavators, to systematically grid drill and pit previously unexplored alluvial
systems. As a result, new placer deposits of sapphire continue to be discovered within the valleys
around lnverell, Glen lnnes, and Guyra.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND STRUCTUML SETNNG

The regional geology of the lnverell - Glen lnnes - Guyra district comprises Tertiary (19 to 37 Ma old)
basaltic volcanics, intrusives, and minor sediments ol the Central Volcanic Province ol McDougall
and Wilkinson (1967). These Tertiary rocks in turn locally overlie and intrude Devonian to Triassic
volcanics, metasediments, and plutonics of the Central Block ol the New England Fold Belt (Leitch
1974, Gilligan et al. 1986).

The Central Block locally includes rr,,,0,.-O"rormed, low-grade regionally metamorphosed lithic
wacke, siltstone, minor chert, and metabasalt of the Devonian-Carboniferous Sandon and Texas
56

1510 152 1530

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AUSTRALIAN \(
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-') (-
6REAT

ur.R ,j
lo /
,/'--- )
tt,
AUSTRALTAN
I

) .Tenterf ietd ( CLARENCE -

(\ MoREToN
Yqa'A)" ,'.\'^; )

Fig.4 r BASIN
CENTRAL
,-\
$ F(
Fs i
\
'Kings BLOCK
/q
KMN,s I F
ld'unv
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Ptains /

Gten lnnes
0(fi
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o
z I .6 rafton r/
e I
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6 [encoe
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lr
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TAMWORTH
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Barraba.
CENTRAL

BELT
BLOCK SCALE
At 020

.
f Km

FiguTE I REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE CENTRAL VOLCANIC PROVINCE

beds, and flat-lying, Early Permian lelsic volcaniclastics, minor lavas, and rare sediments. These
rocks are intruded by dykes and plutons of Late Permian to Early Triassic granitoids.

Structurally, the Central Volcanic Province lies between the curvo-linear, northwest-southeast trending
Peel and Demon Faults, and it is transected by numerous lineament fracture zones, many of which
are sub-parallel to these laults. Other lineament lracture zones trend in northeast-southwest, and
near east-west directions (Figures 1 & 2).

SAPPHIRE-BEARING TERIIARY VOLCANIC GEOLOGY

Vent @mpls<es and Volcanic Tenains

The sapphire-bearing eastern portion of the Central Volcanic Province is dominated by at least two
large basaltic vent complexes, and several imaller vent complexes, which have controlled landform
development since the commencement ol volcanism in the province (Figure 2). The two most
prominant prominant vent complexes are the Maybole Volcano (Pecover 1987) and the Swan Brook -
Kings Plains Vent Complex (this paper).
 57

The Maybole Volcano

The largest of these vent complexes is the Maybole Volcano, approximately 20 km southwest of Glen
lnnes, and immediately west of Glencoe; this was first recognized and named by Pecover (1987).

It consists of a central dome of basaltic rocks approximately 6 km in diameter which rises to a

maximum height ol 1,441 m asl (1.8 km east of "Nethsley'). lts circumference is defined by
pronounced circular drainage comprising Maybole Creek and Grahams Valley Creek, which coalesce
to form the head-waters of Beardy Waters. The central dome is surrounded by a well developed
system of radially draining streams and interfluve basalt ridges, which extends the overall diameter of
the structure to greater than 40 km (Figure 2).

Numerous plugs, and some breccia-filled diatremes occur scattered in and around the confines of
the volcano; a feature that strongly suggests that the Maybole Volcano is an eroded shield volcano,
similar to the Tweed, Focal Peak, Nandewar, and Canobolas volcanic centres.

The Maybole Volcano lies on the intersection of three large-scale lineaments, and a number of
smaller-scale crustal fracture zones. Locally, the most prominent lineament is a NNW-SSE trending
lineament defined by Wellingrove Creek (Pecover 1987). This lineament is sub-parallel, and
approximately halfway between the Peel and Demon faults. A second lineament trends NNW - SSE,
and intersects both the Maybole Volcano, and several other volcanic centres to the southeast,
including Balbair Sugarloaf, and Chandlers Peak, east of Guyra (Coenraads 1988). The third
lineament is a much larger, NNE-SSW trending structure lhat also passes through the Nandewar
Shield Volcano, to the southwest. This third lineament has been named and described by Scheibner
(1973 & 1979) as lhe Nandewar Lineament. Strike-slip movement on the Nandewar Lineament during
the Tertiary may have lacilitated extensional dilation on slructures such as the Wellingrove Creek
Lineament, thereby providing a pathway lor the eruption of basaltic volcanics fom the Maybole
Volcano. Several other northeast-southwest, and near east-west trending fracture systems also
intersect the volcano.

The Maybole Volcano is similar to shield volcanoes from plains-basalt provinces, where eruptions
take place from central vents. lt also appears to have been a long lived polygenelic volcanic centre,
which produced a diversity of products, including low-aspect-ratio, shield-forming pyroclastic rocks
and lavas, and high-aspect-ratio lava domes.
Volcanic rocks associated with this vent complex include basaltic pyroclastic/volcaniclastic
sediments, (containing clasts of both Palaeozoic basement lithologies and basalt) and fine to very
coarse-grained, mildly to strongly undersaturated basaltic lavas. Evolved felsic rocks appear to be
absent in the confines of this volcano. l-iowever, these rocks may exist, as virlually no detailed
mapping of lava types making up the structure of the Maybole Volcano has been canied out to-date.

Mrtuallv all the streams that drain from the Mavbole Volcano are saophire-bearino.
 ' \ 152"E

/r q\.
) ",o
REFERENCE

290 S

Yalo-rsti
t.G
)rb. l
I,r ,..\ \ \
t/ .o

E Outline of
volco n
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provtnce
ic
29"S

;-\-\. -
[x1L Lineomenl
froclu re
zone

SWAN EROOK-
KINCS PLAINS
VENT COMPLEX
!? FitF^

azri,q)a

o
500s
i.Y / - 3OoS
. ar} sarg &^ _
z\
(A

\ 4 R

\
ili:)S s/
;'tggrl9)
LOCALITY MAP o VOLCANIC PLUGS \\
I Blue Nobby Min \
2 Ml Russell
3 Bolfours Peok
4 Grogin Peok
5 The Nob
6 Swon Peok
7 Woterloo Sugorloof
I Spring Mtn
9 Gough Sugorloof
lo Mt Mitchell
ll Bolboir Sugorloof
12 Chondlers Peok
Ll Arrowotto Creek Lineoment
LZ
L3
Wellingrove Creek Lineomenl
Nondewor Lineomenl
oto 40
l5lo E 152"8
Kllomctrcs

Figure 2 , MAJOR STRUCTURAL, VOLCANIC, AND DRAINAGE FEATURES OF

THE SAPPHIRE-BEARING CENTRAL VOLCANIC PROV]NCE
60

While evolved rocks such as hawaiite, mugearite, analcimite, and phonolite are minor to rare
components of the volcano-stratigraphy, good exposures of phonolite Gt Swan Peak) and hawaiite
bt Stony Knob) occur within the confines of the Swan Brook - Kings Plains Vent Complex. \Mthin
the confines of the Maybole Volcano, analcimite occurs at Spring Mountain.

Xenolith and megacryst-bearing lavas are common throughout the province. Xenoliths include
peidotite, spinel pyroxenite, and rarer Palaeozoic basement rocks (wfh basement rocks being more
common in and around vent structures). Megacryst species include Al-rich augite (very common in
teschenitic ankaramites), bronzite, kaersutite, anorthoclase, andesine titanbiotite, pleonaste, ilmenite,
magnetite, and rarer zircon and corundum/sapphire.

ln generell, the basallic lavas of the province occur as flat-lying flows, ranging from a few metres
thick, to tens of metres thick. ln total they form a thin veneer thal is typically less than 100 m thick,
but may be up to 300 m thick.

Field mapping by the author in the lnverell - Glen lnnes - Guyra district has revealed a common
association between the distribution ol certain fine-graineci basaltic lava flows (particutarty alkati
basaltd and the distribution of corundum/sapphire, zircon, and pleonaste in soils derived directly
fom the weathering and erosion of these lavas. Furthermore, all the samples of basaltic lava
containing crystals of corundum/sapphire which have been observed by the author (six in all, from
widely spaced locations), are of fine-grained alkali basalt.

Pyroclaslic and Volcaniclastic Rock Types

Pyroclastic and associated volcaniclastic rocks occur at many widely spaced locations throughout
the district. Numerous line and coarse-grained varieties exist, with lithic clasts ranging from
Palaeozoic metasedimentary and granitic types to Tertiary basaltic volcanic types. In general, these
rocks display a distinctive red to reddish brown colour, with coarse angular clasts supported in a
matrix of highly lerruginous silty clay. At many locations, these rocks show varying degrees of
weathering and replacement by ferricrete. ln the volcanic stratigraphy, these rocks occur at or near
lhe base of the volcanic pile, commonly overlying Palaeozoic basement rocks. At some locations,
they are interbedded with weathered basaltic lavas. ln general these rocks occur as flat-lying units,
ranging fom thin beds, 1 to 5 metres lhick, to units that are in excess ol ten metres thick.

The lragmental nature of these rocks, and their concentration near the base of the volcanic pile,
suggests that they have primarily been derived from extremely explosive volcanic eruptions that took
place early in the eruptive history ol the province (Barron, 1987; Brown, 1987; Lishmund, 1987;
Pecover, 1987 and 1988; Brown and Pecover'1986a & b).

At "Braema/', near Elsmore, east of lnverell (figure 3), red-brown pyroclastic rocks occur as intrusive,
breccia filled dykes, in Devonian - Carboniferous metasiltstones (Pecover and Coenraads, 1989). The
dykes comprise masses of red, fine-grained, highly ferruginous, silty clay, that has been emplaced
along factures in .the metasiltstone. The red clay matrix supports numerous angular clasts of
comminuted metasiltstone, with some clasts being up to 0.5 m across.

Adiacent to these dykes, red fine-grained siliy clay was found to have penetrated numerous hairline
cracks within the metasiltstones, suggesting high fluidity and hydraulic pressure, at the time of
injection. Along the sides of the dykes, lragments of metasiltstone have broken away from the walls,
creating a jig-saw-fit pattern. Most ol the dykes also showed evidence of repeated injection and
 61

hydraulic fracturing, with metasiltstone clasts near the walls of the dykes having
been progressively
more dislodged, fractured, and rotated. Towards the centre of the dykes, many
clasts showed
evidence of entrainment and flow alignment. However. oerhaos the most siqnificant
characterislic of

the metasiltstone wallrocks and clasts.

Around Elsmore, and elsewhere in the district, this feature is also commonly seen in
unweathered
exposures of similar red lragmental rocks, where they form flow units overlying palaeozoic
basement
rocks. The red, silty clay matrix of these rocks is therefore considered to be of primary votcanic
origin, and to be indicative of hydrovolcanic activity (Barron, 19g7; pecover, 19g7; pecover
and
Coenraads 19Bg).

ln some exposures of pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks, the arrangement of clasts is chaotic,

commonly showing repeated clast fragmentation. ln other locations, pyroclastic/volcaniclastic
units
show well developed sorting, and normal and reverse grading of clasts. Along the western
side of
Wellingrove Creek below Arthurs Seat, exposures of these rocks containing predominantly
basalt
clasts, show well developed llow banding that is similar to the llow banding commonly
seen in
rhyolitic rocks.

The chemistry of these rocks varies greatly, due to the wide range of palaeozoic
basement tithologies
that have been incorporated during eruption, and the admixture of basaltic rocks
and highly evolved
exotic igneous material. Nevertheless, Barron (1987) found that a plot of TiOr/AlrO3 versus
ztlNb
showed that these rocks exhibit four general component groupings; namely iertiiry
alkali basaltic,
Tertiary and Permian rhyolitic, Permian metasedimentary basement, and lastly, highly
exotic material.
pecover and coenraads (1989) found
that the red pyroclastic rocks at Braemar and around Elsmore
contain high zirconium.

ln fresh exposures, the red matrix of these rocks is primarily composed of hematite
and limonite. ln
weathered exposures, these rocks commonly show a progressive alteration to lateritic
lerricrete, with
the clastic component providing the nucleus for iron migration and the concretionary
deposition of
goethite and limonite. This process eventually leads to the formation
of pisolitic laterite deposits.

ln locations where deposits ol red-brown pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks have been

subjected to a
high degree ol water' saturation (for exampte within intra-volcanic, and post-votcanic
ailuvial
systerns), the iron oxide component of these rocks is largely removed through leaching.
As a result,
the fragmental texture of these rocks can be virtually obliterated, leaving pnly grey
and/or off-white
clayey sediments, whose origins are difficult to interpret in the field. Mild reworking
in
fluvio-lacustrine environments can also destroy most of the original pyroclastic
textures of these
rocks' Nevertheless, the demonstrated sapphire-bearing nature of these rocks, together with
documented examples of economic concentrations associated with only mildly reworked
deposits
derived from them, indicates that they were an important original source of sapphire in the province.
62

The Timing of Volcanism

The volcanics ol the Central Province were originally subdivided into two age groups, termed the
Older and Newer series, based on stratigraphic relationships between lava flows, associated
lacustrine sediments, and the presence or absence ol overlying lateritic profiles (David, 1887;
Browne, 1933; Owen 1954). However, the recognition that many ol the lateritic profiles in the lnverell
- Glen lnnes - Guyra area and beyond have been derived from the weathering of originally highly
ferric pyroclastic and volcaniclastic rocks ( Barron, 1987; Pecover, 1987; Brown and Pecover, 1986a
&b; Pecover and Coenraads, 1989) indicates that the use of laterite surlaces as indicators ol
prolonged deep weathering and eruptive quiescence, may be incorrect.

K-Ar age dating appear to define a bimodal distribution of ages G4-37 Ma & 22-19 Ma) lor lhe
proMnce (Cooper et al., 1963; McDougall & \Mlkinson 1967; Wellmen & McDougall, 1974, Coenraads,
Sutherland & Kinny 1990). On the basis of this dating Coenraads (1988) subdivided the Central
Province into two separate sub-provinces, termed the West Central Province, and the East Central
Province.

The West Central Province is said to encompass Tertiary basaltic volcanics lying to the west and
northwest ol the Macintyre River, while the East Central Province is said to encompass Tertiary
basaltic volcanics lying to the northeast, east and southeast of Swan Peak. A zone of overlap
approximately 25 km wide, is also said to exist between the two sub-provinces. However, the small
number ol K-Ar dales (relative to the size of the province), and the poor field control on the dated
samples @articularly in tqms of stratigraphic position within the volcanic pile, and the relationship of
ampled lavas to source vents) is not suflicient evidence to support such a subdivision.

Cleady, a considerable amount of additional field mapping, together with a more carelul control on
the selection of samples lor age dating, will be needed in the future to more accurately determine the
complex volcanic history of the Central Volcanic Province.

THE GEOLOGY OF ALLUVIAL SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS

Since mining commenced in the district early this century, most of the production has come from
Holocene alluvial deposits that occupied the floors of post-volcanic drainage systems. However,
several economically, and geologically important deposits of alluvial sapphire have been mined from
sediments that are sandwiched between basalt lava flows.

ln both intra-volcanic, and post-volcanic settings, rich deposits of sapphire have been mined from
sediments whose detritus has been deriVed either directly from juxtaposed sapphire-bearing
pyroclastic and volcaniclastic rocks and lavas, or indirectly from more widely spread source rocks

lrilraVolcanic Alwial Deposits

lntra-volcanic deposits of alluvial sapphire have been mined at "Braema/', near Elsmore, and at
'Wanandah', near Kings Plains. At both locations, the sapphire-bearing alluvium consists of mildly
reworked basaltic/felsic pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks and basaltic lavas, sandwiched between
flows of basalt.
 63

The "Braemaf' lntra-Volcanic Alluvial Sapphire Deposit

"Braemar" is adjacent to the Gwydir Highway, approximately 18 km east of lnverell and 2.5 km
northeast ol Elsmore (Figure 3). The property lies on the northern flank of a narrow east -
west-trending ridge that divides the drainage of Swan Brook to the north from the drainage of the
Macintyre River to the south.

ln the southeastern corner of the property, a verv immature sequence ol Eocene/Oligocene,

sapphire-bearing, coarse white and finer grey tuffaceous, clay-rich, fluvio-lacustrine sediments occurs.
These rocks are underlain in some parts by deeply weathered basalts, and in other parts by
Devonian - Carbonilerous metasiltstones. The sequence is capped by a moderately weathered
Oligocene basalt lava flow.

The alluvial deposits at "Braemar", exhibit a complex depositional history. The highest concentration
ol sapphire occurs in channel structures at the base ol the sequence, associated with pebble to
cobble-sized gravels that are intermixed with debris-flow deposits. Overlying these rocks is a
sequence of clayey tuffaceous sediments. These clayey sediments consist of alternating beds ol
whitish, granular to pebble-sized conglomerate-breccias, interbedded with light greV, silt to
coarse-sand-sized claystones. The white conglomerate-breccias are thickly bedded, and exhibit poor
sorting and crude layering of angular clasts. The grey units are thinly bedded, and show poor to
moderate sorting of angular clasts in upward fining cycles. Fluviatile sedimentary structures in these
rocks include, wavy bedforms, multiple cycles of erosion and deposition (e.g.scour-and-ftll
structures), soft-sediment deformation (e.9. incorporation of undulying finegrained grey sediment
into ovulying coarsegrained white sediment), and crude crossbedding (evident in some of the white
units). Clast types include bleached Tertiary red-brown pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks, and
weathered basalt, intermixed with clasts of weathered Palaeozoic metasediments, and granite
(Pecover and Coenraads 1989).

Sapphire, zircon, ilmenite, and minor pleonaste occur scattered throughout the white
conglomerate-breccia units. They occur as broken fragments, and as subhedral and euhedral
crystals. Many of the sapphire and zircon crystals are typically smooth and glossy, suggesting
closeness to source, but pitted and frosted grains also occur, suggesting a more distal source for
some of them.

Detailed mapping by Brown and Pecover (1986a) and Pecover and Coenraads (1989) showed that
these sediments were derived lrom the erosion ol nearby Tertiary red volcanic breccia dykes, and
surficial red pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks, basaltic lavas, and Devonian - Carboniferous basement
rocks.

The intrusive and stratigraphic relationships exposed at "Braemar" suggest a volcano-alluvial history
involving explosive Tertiary basaltic volcanism, contemporaneous with on-going alluvial processes.
These processes have infilled Palaeozoic basemenl topographic lows with sapphire-bearing volcanic
deposits, and fluvio-lacustrine sediments. Deposition in this system was linally terminated by the
eruption of Oligocene basaltic lava which infilled the channel structure.

Since the end of volcanic activity in the area, erosion and exhumation of all the above rocks, has
resulted in the formation of new sapphire-bearing Holocene alluvial deposits in the creeks and
streams that currently drain the area.
&r

Oa I
/-\-- )

l - ---/

q
o
Tb

Tb

.I ELSMORE

++
++
++
++
++

SCALE
10.50 12
Km

REFERENCE

@ A[[uvium
f Tufl votcanic breccia, epictastics

E Tertiary basatts Ef 6raniie

m Ferricrete / Lateriie lII] -

Deformed metasedimenh

Figure 3 ' GEOLOGY OF THE ELSMORE, AND "BRAEMAR" AREA,

CENTRAL VOLCANIC PROVINCE
Figure 4' GEOLOGY OF THE KINGS PLAINS, AND,'WARRANDAH,.
AREA,
CENTRAL VOLCANIC PROVINCE
66

The "Warrandah" I ntra-Vol cani c Al I uvial Sap p hire Dep osi t

'Warrandah" is within the upland valley of Kings Plains Creek, approximately 45 km northeast of
lnverell, and 10 km northeast ol Swan Peak (Figures 2 & 4). Warrandah is one of several properties
that occupy the western and eastern feeder drainages, at the headwaters of Kings Plains Creek. The
geology of the Kings Plains upland was mapped by Brown and Pecover (1986b). As mentioned
previously the upland valley ol Kings Plains appears to be part of a large volcanic vent complex (the
Swan Brook - Kings Plains Vent Complex).

\Mthin the western leeder drainage of Kings Plains Creek, sapphire-bearing gravels have been mined
lor the last 15 years by T.J. & P.V. Nunan Pty Ltd, lrom a narrow palaeo-alluvial system that is over
10 kilometres in length. This system comprises several channel structures, that were part of a
straight to slightly sinuous Tertiary drainage regime.

Belore mining, the stratigraphy of the palaeo-alluvial system at Warrandah consisted of 1 m to 3 m of

grey, calcrete-rich, laminated claystone overlain by 1-1.5 m of fine-grained basalt. These claystones
graded at depth into pooriy sorted, clay-matrix-supported, gravel, comprising pebble to cobble sized
clasts of fine-grained basalt; suggesting either deposition lrom a debris flow, or deposition during the
waning stage of a tractional current. Overlying sediments consisted of fluvio-lacustrine silty clays, cut
by channels containing recent sandy alluvium.

The pebbly claystones were underlain by (possibly gradational withl a unit of orange-brown,
clay-rich, clast supported gravel, comprising granule to pebble sized clasts, arranged in crude
horizontally-bedded sub-units. Sorting of clasts was poor to moderate, with small scale ( <'50 mm)
upward fining layers evident in some parts of the unit. The fabric ranged from unordered to
moderately ordered, with crude imbrication evident in some sections. The granule to pebble-sized
clasts making up this unit, consisted of fine-grained basalt, and reworked, clay-altered, volcaniclastic
sediments, comprising fragmental, ashy mudstones and tuffaceous detritus. Ferricrete and silcrete
"pseudo-clasts" were also common.

Crystals of sapphire, zircon, pleonaste, and ilmenite were found to be partly confined to basal
traction zones within individual layers of these gravels, althouoh the hiqhest concentration ol heaw
minerals was located at the base of the unit. immediatelv overlvino weathered basalt. Small scale
undulations (, l0 m x 0.3 m) in the palaeo-streambed (ie in the weathqed basalt base), appeared to
have exerted a maior influence on the tractional flow regime of the palaeo alluvial system, and hence
the concentration and localization of very rich concentrations of sapphire/corundum (at times with
concentrations in excess of 200 grams per bank cubic metrd.

A high proportion of the sapphire, and zircon recovered lrom this deposit consisted ol glossy,
subhedral and euhedral crystals; suggesting closeness to source, and minimal transport within a low-
energy fluvial regime.

Where mining has taken place, lo the north and south ol Warrandah, the sapphire-bearing
palaeo-channel gravel lag deposits have not been capped by basalt. This suggests only partial
inundation of the palaeo-alluvial system by bqsalt and/or subsequent removal by erosion.
On "strathdan'', south ol Warrandah, sapphii'e mining is presently taking place within an extension to
the system described above. At the location of the current mine face, the sapphire-bearing gravel
layer is confined to a channel structure, which displays a high width/depth ratio, with low to
moderate relief on the basal scour surface, Lateral bed accretion by tractional processes, appears to
 67
have dominated sediment infill within a straight to slightly sinuous channel system. However, recent
drilling to the south has revealed that this channel system is beginning to anastomose into several
smaller, narrower channels; most of which contain lower grades of corundum/sapphire.

During . construction of a tailings dam lor the current mining operations, red-brown
pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks were uncovered adjacent to the alluvial system described
above.
Along the tailings dam wall these rocks grade into tuflaceous grey clays that contain thin gravel
layers comprising whitish clasts ol ashy mudstone.

As with the Braemar sapphire deposit described above, the sapphire deposits at Warrandah/Kings
Plains appear to have been largely derived from the mild reworking of pyroclastic/volcaniclastic
rocks and fine-grained basaltic lavas.

Post-Volcanic Alluvial Deposits

Post-volcanic drainage systems provide an important proportion of the economic alluvial sapphire
deposits of the lnvereil - Glen lnnes - Guyra district. With the exception of the phenomenally rich
deposits of sapphire mined at Kings Plains, post-volcanic alluvial systems have provided the bulk of
the sapphire mined in the Central Volcanic Province. Mrtually all of the Holocene drainage systems
surrounding the Maybole Volcano, and the Swan Brook - Kings Plains Vent Complex have yielded
economic concentrations of sapphire.

T.J. & P.V. Nunan Pty Ltd have explored most of the alluvial valleys in the district, and have mined
deposits along Swan Brook, Wellingrove Creek, Reddestone Creek, and Back plains Creek. ln most
ol these systems, the ratio of thickness of overburden to sapphire-bearing channel lag deposits has
varied from 10:1 to 20:1. At the mine lace, these deposits have exhibited a range of channel
geometries, ranging from isolated narrow gutters, to overlapping ribbons and discontinuous
sheets,
depending on the size and shape of the valley in which they occur. in some valleys, (e.g.
Wellingrove Creek and Back Ptains Creek) multiple channels were evident, with stacking geometries
ranging from vertical, through lateral, to isolated.

The pattern of palaeo-stream erosion and deposition in these valleys appears to have been
characterized by lateral accretion, with the development of multiple channels comprising deposits of
diagonal and point-bar sands and gravels, that overlie heavy mineral-bearing channel lag deposits.
These sediments are commonly as thick as the channel is deep, and are composed of poorly sorted
to, well sorted gravel, sand, and silty clay. Coarse and fine sediments are interlayered due to
variationsin stream discharge rates. ln this depositional environment, considerable reworking of
sediment has taken plice, resulting in a continual, vertical concentration of corundum/sapphire,
zircon, ilmenite, and pleonaste over time.

The corundum/sapphire crystals in these alluvial deposits are typically abraded, with crystal surfaces
having a low sheen due to the presence of numerous tiny pits. Despite the heavily abraded nature of
these grains, the amount of gem sapphire can be relatively high, due to the tendency of internally
flawed, weaker stones, to be destroyed by prolonged reworking.

Valley structure, and morphology, is perhaps the most important controlling factor in the lormation of
economic sapphire deposits in the Central Volcanic Province. Features such as rock bars, valley
pinch-outs, changes in stream gradient, and small to large scale undulations in the stream
bed of
these systems, are all'important in localizing concentrations of heavy minerals.
68

The Wellingrove Creek PostVolcanic Alluvial Sapphhe Deposit

The Wellingrove Creek alluvial sapphire deposit is a good example ol the role played by valley
bedform geometry in the concentration of heavy minerals.

Drilling and testing of sapphire-bearing gravels in the Wellingrove Creek fluvial system at Wellingrove
revealed the importance of stream bed geometry in localization and concentration of
corundum/sapphire. Figures 5 and 6 show the corundum/sapphire grade contours, and 3D surface
morphology of the bed of the creek. ln nearly all cases the highest grades occurred at the base of
the alluvial sequence, directly overlying Permian felsic volcanic basement rocks. However, in some
parts. of the deposit high grades of corundum/sapphire did not appear to coincide exclusively with
areas of maximum depth or lows in the basement morphology.

Contouring the distribution ol corundum/sapphire in the Wellingrove Creek deposit revealed the
presence of two distinct lobes of sediment (Figure 5). The highest grades were lound to occur at the
southern and northern ends of the northern and southern lobes respectively. Comparison with the
3D reconstruction of the basement morphology, revealed that these sediment lobes were llanking a
northeast trending basement high, or rock bar, at grid reference 60600 20600; which transected the
palaeo-alluvial system (Figure 6).Concentrations of corundum/sapphire appear to have been
localized behind this rock-bar, in a region of lower stream energy. Another area of high
corundum/sapphire concentration was found, where the palaeochannel, below the rock bar, swings
to the north, (imrnediatety after its easterty course across the bar). This concentration appears to be
located in the easterly part of the bottom of the northern sediment lobe at grid referehce 60650
20900.

When mining of this deposit commenced, the basement undulations were found to be similar too, but
much greater than, revealed by the 3D reconstruction. These undulations proved to be a
considerable headache; with the mining being unable to proceed on a straight lorward transverse
face. lnstead, the operation was reduced to selectively mining pot-holes; a practice which proved to
be only marginally economic.

THE ORIGIN OF SAPPHIRE IN THE CENTML VOLCANIC PROVINCE

The tuffaceous nature of detritus making up the sediments in a number of rich, sapphire-bearing,
intra-volcanic and post-volcanic alluvial systems, throughout the eastern portion of the Central
Volcanic Province, suggests that these deposits represent mildly reworked basaltic
pyroclastic/volcaniclastic rocks, whose initial sapphire/corundum content was much higher than
compositionally similar baSaltic lava flows.

The dominance of line grained, alkali basalt clasts in the alluvium, further suggests that basaltic
magma of this type was responsible for elevating sapphire/corundum from lower crust/upper mantle
depths.

Thus, it is considered likely that partially lragtionated basaltic magmas, generated in the mantle (ie the
finegrained basatts mentioned above), were responsible for melting, stoping, and sampling, older
(pqhaps onty stightty older - as evidenced by 35.9 to 33.7 mittion year otd zircon inclusions in
sapphire reported by Coenraads, Sutherland & Kinny, /990), higher-level sapphire/corundum-bearing
lractionated basaltic magmas, and that the sapphire/corundum/zircon/pleonaste/ilmenite-bearing
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 71

component ol those magmas was rapidly elevated to the earths surface, atop the head of a rising
column of molten basaltic lava.

When the head of this volcanic column reached the zone of brittle-fractured crust, (1-2 km below the
earths'surface), expansion ol entrained volatiles, together with ground water contact, resulted in
violent hydrovolcanic eruptions at the earths surface. These eruptions are likely to have produced a
variety of explosion-derived volcanic products, including ash fall deposits and pyroclastic flow
deposits, relatively high in sapphire/corundum (though probably only containing sub-economic
concentrations of sapphire).

The rapid and immediate reworking of these deposits into nearby alluvial systems is likely to have
increased the concentration of corundumlsapphire to economic levels, particularly in the basal parts
of channel, gravel lag deposits.

The above, early explosive phase volcanic model for sapphirelcorundum distribution in the lnverell -
Glen lnnes - Guyra area, is essentially the same as that proposed for the formation of some rich,
diamond-bearing tuffaceous crater facies rocks, in diatremes such as the Argyle and Ellendale
lamproite diamond pipes, in Western Australia (as well as a numbq of othq diamond-bearing
diatreme deposits in southern Africa) (Hall and Smith 1985; Atkinson et al 19&t). ln these deposits,
the highest concentration of diamonds occurs in the earliest tormed eruptive products (ie in volcanic
ash deposits), while subsequent eruptions of magma contain comparatively low concentrations ol
diamond.

llthe above model lor sapphire genesis is correct, then many of the large-scale alluvial systems
associated with previously unexplored Cainozoic basaltic/felsic volcanic provinces occurring in
eastern Australia, Southeast Asia, and western Africa, would have to be considered prospective for
the discovery of new deposits of gem sapphire.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

ln the Central Volcanic Provin6e, sapphire occurs in Tertiary deposits of pyroclastic/volcaniclastic

rocks, and lavas. These rocks appear to have provided a high proportion ol the detritus making up
intra-volcanic and post-volcanic alluvial sapphire deposits.

Valley morphology coupled with changes in stream energy over time, are the major local factors that
have given rise to the formation of economic sapphire deposits. ln addition, lhe reworking of
sapphire grains over long periods of time, or within high-energy stream systems, can upgrade the
value of some deposits, by destroying intbrnally flawed, weaker stones, thereby leading to an overall
increase in the proportion of gem-quality sapphire.

ACKNOVVLEDGEMENTS

The permission of Mr Tom Nunan (Managing Director), and Mr David Laurence (Genqal Managu),
ol T.J. & P.V. Nunan Pty Ltd, to publish this paper is gratefully acknowledged.
72

REFERENCES

ATKINSON, W.J., HUGHES, F.E., and SMITH, C.8., 1984. A review of kimberlitic rocks in Western
in Kimberlites
Australia, and related rocks. lnternational Kimberlite Confqence, Srd -
Proceedings 1, 195-225.
BARRON, L.M., 1987. Summary of petrology and chemistry of rocks lrom the sapphire project. in
Extended abstracts lrom seminar on Tertiary volcanics and sapphires in the New England
district. New South Wales Geological Survey - Report GS 1987/058, 26-35 (unpubl.).
BROWN, R.E., 1987. Detailed geological mapping in the Elsmore and Kings Plains areas. in
Extended abstracts from seminar on Tertiary volcanics and sapphires in the New England
district. New South Wales Geological Survey - Report GS 1987/058,23-25 (unpubl.).
BROWN, R.E., and PECOVER, S.R., 1986a. The geology of the "Braemar" sapphire field. New South
Wales Geological Survey - Report GS 1986/270, 1-40 (unpubt.).
BROWN, R.E., and PECOVER, S.R., 1986b. The geology of the Kings Plains sapphire deposit. New
South Wales Geological Survey - Report GS 1986/271, 1-35 (unpubl.).
BROWNE, W.R., 1933. Presidential address. An account of post Palaeozoic igneous activity in New
South Wales. Journat and Proceedings of the Royat Society of New South Wales,6-/, 9-95.
COENRAADS, R.R., 1988. Structural control and timing of volcanism in the Central Province.
lmplications lor regional targeting of prospective areas for sapphire and diamond exploration.
ln New England Orogen Tectonics and Metallogenesis (Kleeman J. D., ed), Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of New England, Armidale, Australia, 302-7.
COENRMDS, R.8., SUTHERLAND, F.L., and K|NNY, P.D., 1990. The origin of sapphires: U-Pb
dating of zircon inclusions sheds new light. Mineralogical Magazine, il, 113-122.
COOPER, J.A., RICHARDS, J.R., and WEBB, A.W., 1963. Some potassium-argon ages in New
England, New South Wales. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia,10, 313-316.
DAVID, T.W.E., 1887. Origin ol the laterite on the New England district of New South Wales.
Australsian Association for the Advancement of Science - Report, 1,233-241.
DUGGAN, N.T., 1972. Tertiary volcanics of the lnverell area. A study of the mineralogy, petrology
and chemistry of basaltic rocks near lnverell, northern New South Wales. Universiiy ol New
England (Armidale) - B.Sc Hons Thesis, (unpubl.).
GILLIGAN, L.8., BROWNLOW, J.W., CAMERON, R.G., and HENLEY, H.F., 1986. Dorrigo - Coffs
Harbour 1:250,000 Metallogenic Map SH 56-10, 11, Metallogenic study. New South Wales
Geological Survey - Report GS 1986/003, (unpubt.).
HALL, A.E., and SMITH, C.8., 1985. Lamproite diamonds - are they different. in Kimberlite
Occurrence and Origin: A basis lor conceptual models in exploration. lJnivusity of Westqn
Australia, Department of Geotogy and lJniversity Extension - Publication 8, 167-212.
LAURENCE, D.C., 1990. Alluvial sapphire mining in the New England Region of New South Wales.
AuslMM Annual Conference, Rotorua,'New Zealand.
LEITCH, E.C., 1974. The geological development of the southern part ol the New England Fold Belt.
Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 21, 133-156.
LISHMUND, S.R., 1987. Regional distribution ol sapphire, diamond and volcaniclastic rocks. in
Extended abstracts from seminar on Tertiary volcanics and sapphires in the New England
district. New South Wales Geological Survey - Report GS 1987/058, 10-13 (unpubl.).
LISHMUND, S.R., and OAKES, G.M., 1983. Diamonds, sapphires and Cretaceous/Tertiary diatremes
in New South Wales. New South Wates Geotogicatsurvey - Quartuty Notes58',23-27.
MACNEVIN, A.A., 1972. Sapphires in the'New England district, New South Wales. New South
Wales Geological Survey - Records 14 (1), 1g-3S.
 73

MCDOUGALL, 1., and WILKINSON, J.F.G., 1967. Potassium - argon dates on some Cainozoic
volcanic rocks lrom northeastern New South Wales. Journal of the Geological Society of
Au stral i a 14 (2), 225-233.
OWEN, H.8., 1954. Bauxite in Australia. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia ' Bulletin,24.
PECOVER, S.R., 1987. Tertiary maar volcanism and the origin ol sapphires in northeastern New
South Wales, rn Extended abstracts from seminar on Tertiary volcanics and sapphires in the
New England district. New South Wales Geological Survey - Report GS 1987/058, 13-21
(unpubl.).
PECOVER, S.R., 1988. Cainozoic maar volcanism and the origin of sapphire and possibly diamond
in eastern Australia - achievements in Australian geoscience. Australian Geological
Convention,9th, Brisbane - Abstracts 21, 314-315.
PECOVER, S.R., 1991. Exploration Licences 29BB and 2989. Exploration lor economic sapphire
deposits in the lnverell - Glen lnnes District, northeastern New South Wales. Final summary
report covering the period 15th January 1988 to 14lh January 1990. (New South Wales
Geological Survey - File GS 1989/003) (unpubl.)
PECOVER, S.R., and COENRAADS R.R., 1989. Tertiary volcanism, alluvial processes, and the origin
ol sapphire deposits at "Braemar", near Elsmore, northeastern New South Wales. New South
Wales Geological Survey - Quarterly NotesTI,l-23.
SCHEIBNER, E., 1973. Structural map of New South Wales. New South Wales Geological Survey
(unpubl.).
SCHEIBNER, E., 1979. Geological significance of some lineaments in New South Wales. The First
Australian Landsat Conference - Proceedings LANDSAT 79,318-332.
WELLMAN, P., and MCDOUGALL, 1., 1974. Potassium-argon ages ol the Cainozoic volcanic rocks of
New South Wales, Australia. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia21,247'272.
WILKINSON, J.F.G., and DUGGAN, N.T., 1973. Some tholeiites from the lnverell area, New South
Wales, and their bearing on low pressure iholeiitic fractionation. Journal of Petrology 14,
339-348.
74

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COPETON/BINGARA DIAMOND FIELD

by

P.J. Kennewell and R.G. Adamson

Clull Resources Pacific Limited

The first discovery of diamonds in eastern Australia was in 1851. Subsequently, lhey have been
found throughout the length of the Palaeozoic fold belt from Cape York Peninsula to Tasmania.

\Mth its recorded production of around 200,000 carats of principally gem quality stones (mostly in the
years 1895-1905), the Bingara-Copeton district of northern New South Wales was, until the advent of
the Argyle and Bow River mines, the most productive diamond field in Australia. The apparently
fluviatile association and absence of kimberlitic indicators and source rocks has hitherto been
something of an enigma.

The discovery in March 1989 of a lamprophyric rock at Mount Ross, one of the Copeton prospects,
initiated Cluffs lundamental re-appraisal of the geology ol these diamond occurrences. Field and
laboratory observations and re-interpretation ol literature and previous exploration records has
enabled the development of a comprehensive, unifying hypothesis of origin and emplacement.
Essentially, this envisages the deposits as crater-fillings extending downward into vents, which were
created by gas-rich diatreme eruptions associated with lamprophyric magmas of mantle derivation.
Their preservation has been assisted by the related extrusion ol laier basalt flows. Cluff has identified
certain mantle-derived indicator minerals which, with the eclogitic affinities of the diamonds and
preliminary dating data, are consistent with their emplacement within the eastern Australia fold belt.

The diatreme model, in contrast to the fluviatile deep-lead hypothesis which has prevailed for over a
century, significantly enhances prospectivity. Diamonds can be expected, and have been found,
within a variety of rock types ol the diatreme, crater and maar-lake facies. Overall, this greatly
increases the available volume of potentially diamond-bearing ground. This also acts to signilicantly
lower overburden ratios and thereby enhances the possibility of large open-cut operations.
Furthermore, the proximity of several diamantiferous diatremes may allow working ol several
resources in a single operation.

GENISES OF THE DEPOSITS

ln 1895, Mercer, a mining engineer.from Kimberley, South Africa, who developed some of the
Bingara diamond mines, presented a paper proposing lhat the Bingara diamonds occurred within a
volcanic pipe. His concept was opposed by Australian geologists of that time who argued that
Tertiary palaeodrainage systems had carried the diamonds from unknown and distant sources to
deposit them in deep leads. Not even the recovery of diamonds from a "dolerite" dyke. (now
recognised as lamprophyric) seems to have shaken that belief for most subsequent researchers.

Whilst there is little doubt lhat many parts of these diamond deposits show varying degrees of
aqueous reworking, Clufl has accumulat6d overwhelming evidence that the diamonds are locally
sourced and hosted in structures ol volcanic.origin.

The apparent lack of the usual "kimberlilic" indicator minerals was considered strong evidence for a
 75

long transport history. However, Cluff has consistently recovered chrome-bearing spinels fom all
samples taken from rock units known to contain diamonds, the Oakey Creek lamprophyre included.
These chrome-bearing spinels have a wide compositional range; titaniferous magnesian chromites
with compositions similar to chromite lrom kimberlite-like rocks are common, and a
magnesiochromite with composition in the diamond inclusion lield has been found. Grains are lresh
and show few signs of abrasion, and the surlace morphologies of the chrome spinels are identical
with chromites lrom kimberlites and lamproites. ln the Bingara field, a pyrope-type garnet also occurs
with diamonds and chrome spinels.

The term "wash" was given to diamond host rocks by the early miners. Observations in old workings
demonstrate that this term includes a wide variety of rocks ranging from tuffisites and slurry tuffs to
fluvial lag deposits, all of which are consistent with a volcanic pipe or diatreme origin.

Diamonds were recovered from a magmatic rock at Oakey Creek in 1904 and the early miners
considered dykes of this "dolerite'to be closely associated with diamonds in several of the Copeton
deposits. Petrographically, these dyke rocks are lamprophyric and are now considered to be a
magmatic phase of diatreme activity. The provisional identification of altered lamprophyres at Mount
Ross, firstly in surface float and then in drill core from both the volcanic pile and a dyke in granite,
provided Cluff with the first evidence that fhe long-standing lluviatile hypothesis was suspect.

The overall rounded aspect of Copeton diamonds is historically ascribed to alluvial abrasion and a
long transport history. Microscopically however, only a small proportion of Copeton diamonds (10%)
show any signs of classic abrasion features. Rather, detailed examination clearly shows that it is
advanced chemical resorption which has led to most ol the rounded forms.

A marked absence of stones under 1mm in diameter has been said to be characteristic of alluvial
transport in which the finer stones are winnowed out. However, fine-grained heavy indicator minerals
intimately associated with the diamonds demonstrate that such alluvial yinnowing cannot have
occurred. Prelerential resorption of finer diamonds in the high temperature environment of a volcanic
pipe is a more likely reason for the lack of fine diamonds.

Production records suggest ,population morphologies differ between some of the deposits.
Differences in size distribution between adjacent deposits is consistent with local sources lor the
diamonds.

Several palaeodrainage systems linking all the deposits of the Copeton and Bingara fields have been
proposed. Detailed topographic analysis now clearly shows that without considerable tectonic
"shuffling", these proposed systems are incoherent.

Basement topography below the diamond deposits is generally in the form of one or more closed
depressions which lack the exit channels expected of a river system; as such, they are more typical
of crater forms. ln underground exposures, the diamantiferous sequences commonly dip inward,
sometimes at over 300, toward postulated vent positions. The lower surfaces of many overlying
basalt flows also conform to volcanic crater shapes.

The distribution of the diamantiferous diatreme pipes shows clear structural control, as expected ol
eruptive phenomena. The Ryders, Collas Hill and Mount Ross deposits lie alorrg the north-south
trending Maids Creek linear feature. Staggy Creek, Wonderland, Oakey Creek, Malacca and Mount
Ross are aligned east-west along a lineament which extends westward through the Bingara deposit.
76

The various Bingara diatremes are themselves aligned on the north-trending Campo Santo Thrust.

THE DIATREME MODEL

lnclusion studies on Copeton diamonds show a unique eclogitic suite of inclusions. Additionally,
carbon isotopic ratios ol the diamonds indicate a crustal contribution. This suggests a genesis
ditlerent lrom the well-known cratonic diamond provinces. lt is postulated that the eruptive rocks
associated with these diamonds are not necessarily kimberlitic or lamproitic, but reflect instead the
particular chemical composition of the mantle beneath eastern Australia, as the area has been a
geosynclinal mobile belt since Ordovician time.

Volcanic diatreme pipes ol many types are now widely recognised throughout northern New South
Wales. They range lrom parakimberlitic breccias carrying rare microdiamonds (at Barrington Tops),
to pipes comprised entirely of brecciated country rock but with mantle-derived chrome spinels in the
matrix (at Miowera, Bingara). ln the mid 1980's the sapphires of lnverell and Glen lnnes were shown
to be associated with diatreme breccia pipes ol basaltic affinity.

There is clear evidence that the region was extensively intruded by volcanic diatremes in late
Mesozoic - early Tertiary time. Some were dominantly of mantle-derived material, others were
admixtures of the country rocks. The diamantiferous diatremes of Bingara-Copeton are considered to
be but one of the several varieties of mantle-sourced volcanic activity in the district.

PERSPECil/E

The land surlace on which lhe Copeton-Bingara diatremes erupted is little eroded and associated
leatures interpreted as tutt ring, maar lake and stream deposits can still be found. Very few intact
diatremes have been described in the geological literature as almost all have been eroded and only
their vent zone is exposed - hence there are few examples for direct comparison. Furthermore,
postulated eruption mechanisms at Copeton-Bingara generally are not kimberlitic but volatile rich. At
Copeton and Bingara, the lack of erosion implies that the diatremes and their diamond content are
almost entirely preserved. The early miners had therelore to resort to underground methods to
recover the richer concentrations of diamonds at the margins of the crater facies.

PR@IJCTION

The first discovery of diamonds in northern New South Wales was at the Bingara field in 1872. They
were recovered in the course of washing gold from the Eaglehawk deposits on the north-east flank of
the major Bingara diatreme. ln about 1882 the Monte Christo mine, on the margin of the diatreme
crater was opened up and by 1904 had produced approximately 18,000 carats of diamonds, with a
totallor the lield of about 34,0@ carats. Developmeni of the Bingara field was substantially hampered
by lack ol a dependable water supply and although plans were advanced lor piping water fom the
Gwydir River, these did not materialise, probably due to the relatively low prices then received for the
rough stones. lt was at the Bingara field in particular that the early miners considered they had
evidence for a pipe-host to the diamonds.
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78

ln the Copeton field, washing ol stream alluvium for cassiterite yielded diamonds in Copes Creek in
1875. lt was not until 1883, however, that in-situ diamonds were recognised under the basaltic cap
ol Mount Ross. The earliest of these workings appears to have been the Streak of Luck and Crown
Jewel mines on the south-west flank of the diatreme. Over the next forty years, about 167,000 carats
were produced from at least thirteen separate deposits in the Copeton area extending from Ryders-
Kenzies (8km south ol Mount Ross) to Staggy Creek (16km west-north-west). Peak production was in
the years 1898-1904 (approximately 90,000 carats) under the stimulus ol the higher prices caused by
shorlages of South African diamonds during the Boer War.

Overall, mining was by primitive undergound meansr without the guidance of systematic prospecting
or .geological understanding. The lields were renowned lor patchiness ol distribution often
compensated by sections of spectacularly rich ground, at times over 100 carats per tonne.

CLUFFS WORK

Cluff Resources Pacific Limited has been actively prospecting in the diamond province since 1989,
reinterpreting old geological data, reopening and mapping old diamond mines, determining heavy
mineral indicator assemblies and bulk sampling the flanks of several diamantiferous diamonds. To
March 1992, 681 diamonds weighing 132.U carats have been recovered. They are shown to be
dominantly ol gem quality, including white and yellow diamonds, many with no visible inclusions. The
myth that Copeton diamonds are too hard to cut has been destroyed, with the recent cutting of
twelve stones, many containing hard deformation lamellae (or naats) into brilliant gems.
 THE TIMBARRA GOLD PROJECT
- A MODEL FOR

PNEUMATOLYTIC GOLD DISSEMINATION IN LEUCOGRANITES

by

Nicholas Matherl and Brian Roach2

lManaging Director, Levu Gold NL

2Project Manager, Timbarra Project, Levu Gold NL

ARSTRACT

The Timbarra gold deposit is situated in an unusual geological environment, in structurally unprepared
and unveined leucogranites near Tenterlield, NSW. Detailed study of macroscopic texturalevidence and
gold in soils geochemistry indicate late stage alteration (chlorite) has prepared receptive, reactive
subhorizontalzones for pneumatolytic gold mineralisation. Field evidence indicates aplile sills and dykes
present impermeable barriers to mineralising processes. ApproximatelySm tonnes at 1.4 gm/tonne gold
have been outlined to date.

Structural characteristics have not been resolved and while some degree of vertical northwest structural
control is evident, evidence exists for extensive subhorizontal zones of ore grade mineralisation under
the Timbarra plateau.

Very mobile exploration drilling techniques with an understanding of the geology has lacilitated a
discovery cost of approximately $1/ounce to date.

The upside of the project is indicated by comparison to Fort Knox in Alaska, USA.

INTRODUCTION (Figure 1 )

The llmbarra Project consists currently ol a joint venture between Levu Gold NL (earning 51%) and
Auralia Resources NL.

Auralia acquired the tenements in 1986 and by 1991 had outlined some 700,000 tonnes at 1.4 g/t at
Poverty Point and Poverty North. Limited soils sampling by Auralia outlined several zones above 0.1 ppm
gold.

Follow-up drilling (Table 1) (Figures a-B) by Levu has outlined the Big Hill prospect with approximately
4.2mtat 1.49/t, CP'l and SouthSill prospects. Furthersoilsampling hasoutlined lurtherdrilltargetsat
Lush's Hill, Lush's Hill North and Miserable Swamp South.

Previous workers have included Utah Development Corporation, Newmont Mining Australia Ltd, AOG
Minerals Ltd, and Auralia Resources NL. Work by Auralia was found to be the most definitive and led
to Levu's interpretation ol lhe subhorizontal zones of mineralisation.

The area lies 40km south east of Tenterfield, accessible by the Bruxner Highway and lorestry tracks in
4 hours lrom Brisbane.

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK . NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT

2

GEOLOGY

@iond Geology Ovenriew (Figures 1, 2, 3)

Two Permian granitoid intrusions, the Stanthorpe Adamellite and the Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite,
outcrop in the tenements and around the Timbarra Goldfield. The Stanthorpe Adamellite is a medium
to coarse-grained biotite-oligoclase adamellite, containing smokey quartz as anhedral phenocrysts. The
Bungulla Porphyritic Adamellite is coarse to very coarse grained with euhedral potassium feldspar
phenocrysts up to 10cm long.

The Stanthorpe Adamellite is an l-type metallogenic intermediate derivative from an orogenic tectonic
phase. lt is characterised by its gold-molybdenum-tin-tungsten metalliferous associations. lt intrudes
the older Bungalla Adamellite and Permian (acid-intermediale) Drake Volcanics.

Gold mineralisation occurs in a weakly altered porphyritic unit in the Triassic Stanthorpe Adamellite.

Mineralisation is pervasive and low in sulphide and silica. There is no obvious tracturing or veining, but
hydrothermal conduits are thought to have developed on late stage vertical and horizontal joints and
weaknesses which developed as the pluton cooled.

Late-stage micro-granites and aplites forming sills and dykes appear to limit the extent ol mineralisation
vertically and laterally.

The Drake Volcanics do not outcrop in the tenements, but are found east ol the Timbarra River in the
Malara area. Eruption of the Drake Volcanics is thought to be a part ol the mechanism of unloading of
the batholiths in the T'imbarra tenements and the likely cause of spheroidal structures in the apophyses
of the adamellite intrusions.

The western side of the Timbarra plateau is truncated both topographically and geologically by the
Demon Fault. An increase in dilatant fracturing and silicification in the west ol the tenements is thought
to be related to this fault.

Quartz veining does not appear to be related to the gold mineralising event at Timbarra, and movement
on the Demon Fault is postulated to be the latest event in the evolution of the area.

Geological Modd of Gold Mireralisation in the Timbarra Tenernents (Figure 2)

Reassessment of data as presented by Auralia Resources and recent Levu data, has resulted in an
updated model for gold mobilisation and emplacement within the adamellites found within the tenements.

The model is based upon the hydrothermaland pneumatolytic processes as presented by Lees (1988),
but is adapted to allow lor the possible conduiting of auriferous volatiles and fluids on joints also lilled
by the aplite dykes and sills.

The present model suggests a relationship exists between sericite alteration ol the adamellite ground

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT

mass, and aplite sills and dykes around areas of gold mineralisation and historic gold workings.

The relationship is postulated as follows:

The adamellites outcropping in the tenements have been intruded by flat lying to moderately dipping
aplite/micro adamellite sills, interconnected by a cogenetic aplitic dyke system.

The dyke system is thought to feed auriferous fluids, volatiles and aplite into a set ol dilational fractures
which are possibly hemispherical and also interconnecting.

Dilational fractures within the apophyses of the batholith are possibly a result of unloading during the
venting of the nearby Drake Volcanics.

lntroduction ol the aplite into these structures was followed by the flow ol volatiles into the adamellite
altering potassium leldspars to sericite and plagioclase to a chlorite/sericite mixture.

Alteration ol the adamellite is most intense at the top margin and lateral extremities ol sills, where the
adamellite acts as a reservoir lor pervading sericite and chlorite alteration.

Drilling results indicate lhat gold mineralisation is strongest where sericite alteration is only moderate.
The gold appears to be deposited as a 'first flush' emplacement marginal to altered plagioclase. More
intensive alteration appears to llush the gold mineralisation ahead again into an alteration front, leaving
behind a greisen-textured altered adamellite, only weakly auriferous.

Drilling through lhe centre of heavily altered adamellite lracture zones gave anomalous results only
(LRC3, CP1); however drilling on weakly altered anomalous soil areas generally returned significant ore-
grade results (eg LRCs 2,7, CP1).

zoning of calcic plagioclases

It is believed that crystal layering in the adamellite is associated with reverse
in the melt. This has resulted in increased permeability ol the adamellite and development of a
favourable precipator for gold.

A recent review ol work carried out by Auralia Resources, more specifically the fact mapping by Lees
(1988), has provided a relationship between the contact between the two adamellites (Stanthorpe and
Bungulla) GR1 and GR2 as mapped.

It appears that mineralisation is introduced iri volatiles conduited on lracturing and beside impermeable
aplite sills and dykes invading GR1 along the GR2/GR1 contact. This contact is predicted to be striking
between Big Hill and the Poverty point workings and dipping at a low angle to the Central Swamp and
Nelsons' Oeek/South Swamp areas.

Aplites which have not encountered this contact zone and intruded other adamellite types are not
mineralised.

Furlher detailed mapping ol adamellite boundaries and alteration zones, along with detailed petrographic
analysis, is indicated to deline an accurate technique lor in-field identification of prospective rock types.

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT

7

DISCI.JSSION

The Timbarra project is most unusual in that the Stanthorpe Adamellite has undergone no structural
preparation prior to mineralisation.

Recognition of sublle textural variations in weathering surfaces of the grey, more plagioclaserich
adamellite phase coincident with anomalous soil geochemistry leads to definition of drilling targets.

Geophysical techniques have not been definitive in the past.

The postulated presence of subhorizontal favourable receptor zones under the llmbarra plateau will be
tested by reverse circulation holes during the 1992 field season.

The tenements also cover prospective areas in the surlace hill area on the western side ol the proiect
area. This area has been extensivelysluiced and presents potentiallor mineralisation similar to the style
of the Miserable Swamp-Big Hill zone.

The project has several striking similarities to the Fort Knox deposit in Alaska, USA, viz:

TIMBARRA FORT KNOX

Porphyritic adamellite host Granite Porphyry host

Very low pyrite Pyrite near absent

Greisenised sericitic zones Large potassic alteration zone

Traces of molybdenite, bismuthinite,
cassiterite, scheelite and wollramite in area
Gold grade 1.49/t
Tonnage upside 200,000t/m vertically
Traces of molybdenite, bismuthinite,
scheelite, wolframite, tetradymite and
cassiterite in the deposit
Gold grade 1.24glt
Tonnage upside 656,000t/ m vertically

REFERENCES

ANON, 1981: Exploration Licence 1393'Timbarra", Report on Exploration During the Six Months to 28
January 1981. AOG Minerals Limited.

ANON, 1981: Exploration Licence 1393'Timbarra", Report on Exploration During the Six Months lo July
28, 1981 AOG Minerals Limited.

ANON, 1982: Timbarra EL 1393, Final Repirrt on Exploration. AOG Minerals Limited.

ANON, 1988: A Petrographics Study ol Gold Bearing Adamellites Showing Exfoliation. Minpet Report
Ne 74188 prepared for B Roach.

ANON, 1988: Petrographic/Minerographic Study ol Drill Cores, 41 to A7 series lrom Tenterfield with
Appendices ol Past Petrographics Reports by D M Haysen and A W G Whittle. Minpet Seruices
Report Ne 75/88 prepared lor B Roach.

ANON, 1989: Report on heap leach test work lor Poverty Point material. Report prepared by Normet
Pty Limited for Auralia Resources N L.

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGI.AND D]STRICT

 5

ALLAN, A.D., 1988: EL 2619'Timbarra" Tenterlield district, northeast NSW. Fourth six-monthlyreport on
exploration lor the Period Ended 19th June, 1988. EZ Company of Australasia Limited, Timbarra
Mines NL JV.

COCHMNE, G.W., 1973: Application for Grant ol Prospecting Aid. Exploration License Application Ne
1553. Newmont Proprietary Limited letter and appendices to the Department ol Mines. NSW.

COCHRANE, G.W., 1974: Final Report on Exploration of Exploration Licence Ne 633, 'fimbarra Goldfield,
New South Wales, Vol. 1. Newmont Proprietary Limited Report to Department of Mines. NSW.

GILLIGAN, L.B., and BARNES, R.G., 1990: New England Fold Belt, New south Wales - regional geology
and mineralisation, in F. E. Hughes (Ed) Geology of the Minsal Deposits of Australia and Papua
New Guinea,2,14'17 - 1423.

LEES, T., 1988: Report on 1:5000 scale mapping, Poverty Point area. Auralia Resources NL, Report No
2205t9.2.

MARKHAM, N.L., 1975: Demon, Emu Creek, and Beenleigh Blocks, in N.L. Markham and H. Basden
(Eds). The Minqal Deposits of New South Wales,4U - 418.

MCCARTHY, J.V., 1989: lndependent Geological Report for Timbarra Mines NL, Timbarra Mines NL
Prospectus dated 3 May, 1989.

MILL, J.H.A., 1988: T1mbarra Project PLs 1084-1086 & PL 1082, Report on exploration lrom February
1988 & October 1988. Auralia Resources NL, Reporl Ne 22051 12.2.

MILL, J.H.A., and KWIECIEN, B.S., 1989: Timbarra Project, PLs 1084-1086 & PL 1082, Report on
exploration lrom February 1989 to August 1989. Auralia Resources NL, Report No 2205/17.'1.

MILLIGAN, 1.M., 1985: Final Report on Tlmbarra Exploration Licences 2224 and 2225. Earlh Resources
Australia Pty limited Report No A/ 175 prepared lor Carbon Minerals NL.

MORGAN, K.H., '1987: lndependent Geologists Report, Auralia Resources NL, Prospectus dated 19 May
1987.

ROACH, B., and MATHER, N., '1991: Imbarra Project (ELs 1084, 1085, 1086, 1082), Tenterfield NSW.
Drill Program, First Report. Prepared by B Roach and Levu Gold NL for the Department ol
Minerals and Energy, NSW.

ROSEHHAIN, A., 1988: Report on mapping project PL 1082 NSW. Auralia Resources NL, Report No
220s111.2.

SCHMIDT, B.L., and TAYLOR, G., 1989: EL 2619'Timbarra", Tenterlield district, northeast NSW. Fifth
six-monthly report on exploration for {he period ending 19 December 1998 EZ Company of
Australasia Limited,]lmbarra Mines NL JV.

SMITH, L., 19BB: Air photo interpretation, Poverty Point area. Auralia Resources NL, Report Ne 2205/ 10.2.

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT

 TABLE 1 - DRILLING INTERSECTION STJMMARY - BIG HILL AND CP1
PROSPE TS, TIMBAFIRA PROJECT

(SeeFigures4- 10)

HOLE NA LOCATION AZIMUTH/ NNTTH OF INTERCEPT GRADE

INCLINATION HOLE (M) (M) ' GIT

BIGHILL
LBH-l 13837.5E1227tN Vertical 50 50 t.2t
incl20 1.67
and l6 l.l9
LBH-2 138s6.6El2306N 80'/ -60" 50 50 0.76

LBH-3 13976.5812415.5N 250" I -60" 100 100 0.98

and 50 t.67
incl22 3.29

LBH-4 r4004.6812420.5N Vertical 50 20 l.5l

incl 6 2.t3
4 l.l7
LBH-5 13958.4812312.9N 320" I -60" 50 50 0.s6

LBH-6 13930E/2420N 120" / -60" 70 0-70 1.34

LBH-7 13904E/240sN 120'I -60" 70 0- l0 0.30

l 0-70 t.20
LBH-8 13880E/2384N ll0'/ -60" 70 0-36 0.43
36-64 1.89
64-80 0.03

LBHl0 13970E/2450N 140" I -60' 70 0-8 .7

8-60 r.87
60-70 .41

LBHl2 13808.781226r.2N Vertical 50 1.30

LBHl4 t3760.t812273.8N Vertical 50 26-50 l.l6

LBHI5 1384r.5E12310.4N lzc, l -60" 70 8-s6 1.03

LBH- l6 t3853.5E12242.3N 240" I -60" 70 36-68 1.39

cPl
LRC2 50 0-50 .89

LRC-7 l32l lEl2568N Vertical 70 0-20 1.84

20-64 0.51
64-70 0.08

LRC-8 l32l3E/2616N Vertical 70 0- 10 0.04

l0- l6 0.24
16-42 <0.01

42-56 0.45
56-70 0.06
* Hole bottomed in gold mineralisation.

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGI.AND DISTRICT

 TIMBARRA FIELD GUIDE

SifOP 1 MAIN PIT 'THREEPENNY HILL" (Figure 7)

Bulk Sample Sites - Tors exposed reveal the diffuse alternation of adamellite, the samples
here yield from 1.5 to 3 gms gold.

A transverse thin quartz vein is exposed, with abundant molybdenite; the quartz vein and
associated molybdenite post date gold emplacement. Research into signature minerals
has found little or no association with molybdenite arsenic, and high gold values in the
T'imbarra area. Note also, sub-horizontal crystal fabrics in the adamellite.

SifOP 2 THE ARGENTINE DYKE - BIAO(S MINE (Figure 7)

The Aplite dyke has been underhand sloped to about 30m. Assays and reports suggest
gold values up to 172 oz at the top - subsequent mining indicated mineralisation becoming
"sub-economic at depth".

The dyke is some 150 m long and is thought to have been a major conduit lor gold and
mineralising lluids. Aplite dykes have been found to be critical in the dissemination ol
gold grades in the Tlmbarra Model. Soil geochemistry and mapping have shown a close
aplite association with gold mineralisation.

STOP 3 POVERW NORTH (Figure 9)

Poverty North is an extension ol the Main Workings slightly dislocated by a fault in the
creek between the two workings.

Poverty North has been mineralised due to entrapment of pneumatolytic fluids - a group
ol vertical dykes intersect in the main pit here and mineralisation is located in the
orthogonal zone.

Mapping of the area has outlined a large subhorizontal sill exposed in the wall of \Mlliams
Creek, visible lrom the look-out on top ol Poverty North. Numerous vertical dykes which
conform with jointing have carried lluids vertically from the sill mineralising the adamellite
above - a large high value soil anomaly has been outlined above, roughly corresponding
to the extremities ol the sill.

It has been shown by mapping that the sill would have been in place over the north
workings and intersecting the dykes in the pit, lurther it can be assumed the sill would
have connected with the with the Argentine Dyke in the vicinity ol the Poverty main
prospect.

Note also the slope SW of the Poverty North workings containing anomalous values to
1.24 g/t gold.

STOP 4 CP-1 (Figure 10)

The CP-1 area was defined as a "new find" by soil geochemistry; subsequent drilling has
delineated ore grade material here to 50m depth.

A major point to notice here is tt're greisen ore zone in the centre ol the clearing.
Conventional mineralisation modelling dictates this should yield the best grades, however,
drilling has shown the gold values lie in the least altered adamellite surrounding the core

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGLAND DIS]RICT

I
zone. Mapping has also delineated an aplite sill which projects to the apex of the
mineralisation topographically above the core zone.

Point ol Note:

During transit lrom Stop 4 to Stop 5 you will observe a large area ol disturbance and
signs of drilling/exploration. This area is the RMT prospect of EZ lndustries, now being
explored by Homestake and Saracen. This is also a sub-horizontal sill and vertical dyke-
set with entrapped gold mineralisation directly below the commix sill structure.

Sf,OP 5 BIG HILL (Figwe 4)

At Big Hill the adamellite body has been mineralised to in excess of 70m vertically.

The area was originally worked by racing water around the contour lrom the swamp areas
and slicing the decomposed granite.

The Big Hill area fits the model proposed. A sill at the very top of the workings has
entrapped volatile fluids and gold beiween itsell and vertical dyke exposed in the creek
below.

Drilling has also shown the sill acts as a cap with mineralisation entrapped below.

Note the more intense alteration in the Big Hill system.

Note surtace sill mineralisation and sluice area north of the Scout Hut, west of track on
left of track leaving tenements.

SUPPLEMENT TO GSA 1992 FIELD CONFERENCE GUIDEBOOK - NEW ENGLAND DISTRICT

 +
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 3800E 3900E 4000E

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 16 holes
r Ave. arade l.sd/t

Extensively sluiced valley

3/0.9-

Aptlta dykes

I 4m, vertical drillholes

RC drillhole & diagrammatic
histogram of gold grade
"/5/1.07 POVERTY NORTH
Drillhole intersection metres/g/t gold Gross-section
lnlerred base of gold mineralisation
0 40m
Figure 9a

31 008

l0/0.54 H2-A)
I t A,
t2/0.41 (0-12) \ \"\
t 8/1.26 02-30)
m/lt58 60-5A)
\' \'[\./\
21/1.87 (0 - 24)
'
(24&)

Oln r
o.l4r r0.4ll

54
\
.0.ts 0.02r
.o37
.e /, ;
\--__
Altered granite
Kaolinised granite
Aplite
0utcrop boundary
0.02 0 Approx boundary of
isolated boulders (lloat)
0.07
Vertical.50m. RC drillhole
<0.0t
lntersection metres/
ave. grade g/l gold
(int?rsection depth)

Shallow 4m drillhole
ave. grade g/t gold

Channel samole.
o 0.07 ave. grade git gold
.0.t5 Soil sample, grade g/t gold

Eoundary ol sluice workings

f ffi:RL contour, lOm interval

CPI Proep.ct Pl.n

Fhun
Prepared by Robcrtson Australia Pty Linitctl Fburt/O
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