SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT THICKNESS

DESIGN BASED ON AASTHO AND ROAD NOTE 31

CHANG TUN HUA

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil – Transportation and Highway)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

NOVEMBER 2009
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“Dedicated to my beloved family and friends…”

“Thanks for your all support and guide line in order for me to
complete this project….”
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First at all, please allow me to thanks for Universiti Teknologi Malaysia to

given me this opportunities to joint and do this master project. Thank to God for
guiding and given me a smooth and successful process in preparing and completing
this master project report.

Never ever been forgotten to my dear project supervisor, Dr. Haryati whose
been guiding and teaching me a lot since I doing this project. Dr. Haryati was a
hardworking and responsible lecturer which been teaching me a lot about this project
and guide me to the right way to complete this project. Besides, I would also like to
thanks to my Co-Supervisor, Dr Rosli who was a specialist in highway engineering
with given me a lot of advice to allow me complete this project. Thanks against to
both my lovely supervisor and Co-supervisor for their professional advice and guide
lines.

Against, I also would like to thanks to Prof. Hasanan and Dr. Othman as my
professional panel in this project whose been given a lot of opinion, discussion and
guiding me in this master project.

Finally, I wish to thanks to my dear friends, Miss Yeo Pei Pei, Mr. Lim Kar
Sing, Mr. Ong Hock Chye and others more, with their comment, support,
encouragement, motivation and friendship in order for me to complete this master
project.

Thank You.
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ABSTRACT

Nowadays, road and surface failure has become a critical issue in our country
on the flexible pavement which reflects to a bad quality and error during design
stage. The thickness design of flexible pavement has become crucial element in the
overall efficiency of highway structure system to give a good performance and high
serviceability under a traffic loading during the expected design period. The
objectives of this study are to develop flexible pavement thickness design software
for AASHTO and Road Note 31 by using Visual Basic 6.0. The result comparison
between both methods was carried out shown in different of thickness and different
percentage of cost evaluations between AASHTO and Road Note 31. This computer
software could produce the design thickness of each layer for flexible pavement
structure in graphical layout for both design methods. Therefore, the users can
easily analyze and compared the result obtained to select the best design alternative
between AASHTO and Road Note 31 based on cost and thickness different. The
result analysis obtained from this computer software also can be saved and view in a
report file to be printed or keep as soft copy for reference in the future. Besides, the
result analysis obtained by this computer software is also been compared with the
manual calculation (theory) and shown that the computer software has the same and
exact result with the manual calculation (theory). Thus, the performance of this
computer software was successful tested and validated. Therefore, computer
software of flexible pavement thickness design is a very useful tool in highway
engineering especially to design the thickness of flexible pavement. By applying the
computer program, the design stage can be made in a very short time period of
design process and help to minimize the error factor compare to manual calculation
or conventional method. Computer software also can give a high accuracy and
quality of result for pavement thickness design.
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ABSTRAK

Pada masa kini, kegagalan permukaan dan struktur turapan jalan boleh lentur
telah menjadi isu yang semakin kritikal yang mungkin berpunca daripada hasil
rekabentuk yang kurang berkualiti dan kesilapan dalam proses merekabentuk. Oleh
itu, rekabentuk ketebalan jalan telah menjadi elemen yang penting untuk menentukan
keberkesanan sistem struktur jalan untuk menanggung beban trafik yang tinggi di
sepanjang tempoh perkhidmatannya. Objektif kajian bagi projek ini adalah untuk
menghasilkan aplikasi komputer dengan menggunakan Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0
bagi merekabentuk turapan boleh lentur berdasarkan kaedah AASHTO dan Road
Note 31. Hasil keputusan rekabentuk ketebalan turapan bagi kedua-dua kaedah ini
telah dibandingkan antara satu sama lain dalam bentuk peratusan dari segi perbezaan
ketebalan dan juga penilaian kos pembinaan. Aplikasi komputer ini juga boleh
menunjukkan hasil lapisan rekabentuk struktur turapan dalam bentuk grafik bagi
kedua-dua kaedah yang telah dijalankan. Oleh itu, pengguna boleh menganalisa dan
membuat perbandingan terhadap hasil keputusan yang dicapai dengan lebih mudah
dan cepat untuk memilih alternative rekabentuk yang lebih bijak dan baik antara
AASHTO dan Road Note 31 dari segi kos dan ketebalan turapan yang berbeza.
Keputusan yang telah dianalisa daripada aplikasi komputer ini juga boleh disimpan
dalam bentuk laporan file bagi tujuan dirujuk semula dan dicetak sebagai rujukan
pada masa depan. Selain itu, keputusan aplikasi komputer ini juga telah
dibandingkan dan didapati adalah sama dengan keputusan yang dikira secara manual.
Oleh itu, telah terbukti bahawa aplikasi komputer ini telah berjaya diuji dan
dijustifikasikan. Dengan ini, aplikasi komputer rekabentuk ketebalan turapan lentur
adalah amat berguna dalam kejuruteraan jalan raya bagi merekabentuk turapan jalan
dengan lebih mudah, menjimatkan masa dan tenaga serta membantu mengurangkan
kesilapan manusia jika dibandingkan dengan kaedah lama iaitu pengiraan secara
manual. Aplikasi komputer juga boleh mencapai ketepatan dan kejituan keputusan
yang tinggi bagi menjamin kualiti rekabentuk turapan boleh lentur.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiv

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statements 2
1.3 The Important Of Study 3
1.4 Objectives of the Study 5
1.5 Scope of Study 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Flexible Pavement 6
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2.2.1 Surface Course 9

2.2.2 Base Course 9
2.2.3 Subbase Course 10
2.3 Hot Mix Asphalt in Flexible Pavement 10
2.3.1 Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) Mixes 11
2.3.2 Open-Graded Mixes (HMA) 11
2.3.3 Dense-Graded Mixes 12
2.4 Advantages of HMA 13
2.5 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures 14
2.5.1 Pavement Thickness Design 15
2.5.2 AASHTO Road Test Limitation and Assumptions 18
2.6 Road Note 31 19
2.7 Computer Software 20
2.7.1 History of Programming Languages 22
2.7.2 Visual Basic 23
2.7.3 Important Components in Visual Basic 25
2.8 Flexible Pavement Thickness Design Software 28
2.8.1 DNPS 86 28
2.8.2 FPS-19 30

3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 General Framework of the Software Development 31
3.3 Design Stage of Flexible Pavement 33
3.4 Overview of AASHTO Design Stage 33
3.4.1 General Equation of Flexible Pavement Design 35
3.4.2 Predicted Number of 18-Kip ESAL, W18 36
3.4.3 Subgrade Resilient Modulus (Mr) 38
3.4.4 Design Serviceability Loss, ǻpsi 39
3.4.5 Reliability, R 39
3.4.6 Standard Deviation, So 40
3.4.7 Swelling Consideration 41
3.4.8 Determination of Structural Layer Thickness 42
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3.4.9 Pavement Layer Material Characteristic 45

3.4.10 Drainage Coefficient (Mi) 47
3.5 Overview of Design Stage for Road Note 31 47
3.6 Program Language 49

4 RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction of Computer Software Program 50
4.2 Front Interface of Software Program 51
4.3 Homepage and Main Menu 52
4.4 Current Material Price 53
4.5 AASHTO Design 53
4.5.1 AASHTO Inputs 54
4.5.2 Resilient Modulus 55
4.5.3 Roadbed Swelling (Psisw) and Drainage Coefficient (Mi) 55
4.5.4 AASHTO Thickness Design 57
4.5.5 Final Result and Cost Analysis 59
4.6 Road Note 31 60
4.7 Comparison between AASHTO and Road Note 31 62
4.8 View Report 63
4.9 Discussion 65

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Introductions 66
5.1 Advantage of the Software Program Developed 66
5.2 Disadvantage and Recommendation of the Software
Program Developed 68
5.3 Conclusion 69

REFERENCES 70

APPENDICES 72
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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

Table 3.1 DL factor (AASHTO Guide 1993) 37

Table 3.2 Suggested level of reliability for various functional classifications 40
Table 3.3 Relationship between Standard Normal deviate, ZR
and reliability, R 40
Table 3.4 Reduction in performance period of initial pavement arising from
swelling consideration 42
Table 3.5 Recommended mi value for modifying structural layer coefficients
of untreated base and subbase material in flexible pavements. 47
Table 3.6 Traffic class 48
Table 3.7 Subgred Strength class 48
Table 3.8 Subgred Strength class 48
Table 3.9 Example of structural catalogue 48
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.1 Pavement Structure Layers for Flexible Pavement 8

Figure 2.2 Different Type of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) In Flexible Pavement 12
Figure 2.3 Dense-Graded HMA VS. SMA Right 12
Figure 2.4 AASHTO Road Test (1958 – 1961) 14
Figure 2.5 Road Note 31, Structural Catalogue 19
Figure 2.6 Software Development Process 21
Figure 2.7 History of Programming Languages 22
Figure 2.8 Important Components in Visual Basic 25
Figure 2.9 Project Explorer 25
Figure 2.10 Toolbox 26
Figure 2.11 Toolbars 26
Figure 2.12 Display of DNPS86 Pavement Design Computer Program 29
Figure 2.13 Display of Feasible Pavement Thickness Design by Using FSP19 30
Figure 3.1 Framework of the Software Development 32
Figure 3.2 Overview of Design Stage of Software Program 34
Figure 3.3 Nomograph for Flexible Pavement Design 36
Figure 3.4 Estimation of Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus 38
Figure 3.5 Swell Rate Constant and Potential Vertical Rise Chart Forms 41
Figure 3.6 Roadbed Swelling Serviceability Loss Charts Form 41
Figure 3.7 Structural Number and Thickness Of Pavement Structure 43
Figure 3.8 Structural Layer Coefficient (A1)
Of Dense-Graded Asphalt Concrete Base 45
Figure 3.9 Variation In Granular Base Layer Coefficient (A2)
With Various Subbase 46
Figure 3.10 Variation In Granular Subbase Layer Coefficient (A3)
With Various Subbase 46
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Figure 4.1 Password Form 51

Figure 4.2 Read Me Form 51
Figure 4.3 Program Loading Form 52
Figure 4.4 Main Menu Form 52
Figure 4.5 Current Material Price Form 53
Figure 4.6 AASHTO Form 54
Figure 4.7 Lane Distribution Factor Form 54
Figure 4.8 Resilient Modulus Form 55
Figure 4.9 Relative Damage, u Form 55
Figure 4.10 Roadbed Swelling (Psisw) and Drainage Coefficient (Mi) Form 56
Figure 4.11 Drainage Coefficient Form 56
Figure 4.12 Swell Rate Constant and Potential Vertical Rise Chart Forms 56
Figure 4.13 Roadbed Swelling Serviceability Loss Charts Form 57
Figure 4.14 AASHTO Thickness Design Form 58
Figure 4.15 Nomograph for AASHTO Design Form 58
Figure 4.16 Corresponding Performance Period Form 59
Figure 4.17 Final Result Form 59
Figure 4.18 Road Note 31 Design Form 60
Figure 4.19 Material Definitions, Traffic and Subgred
Strength Classes for Road Note 31 61
Figure 4.20 Result Comparisons between AASHTO and Road Note 31 62
Figure 4.21 Save Report 63
Figure 4.22 Open Report File 63
Figure 4.23 View Report Form 64
Figure 4.24 Reports Filed Generated In Note Pad 64
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
ESAL Equivalent Single Axle Loads
HAPI Hawaii Asphalt Paving Industry
HMA Hot Mix Asphalt
MR Resilient Modulus
NAPA National Asphalt Pavement Association
OGFC Open Graded Friction Course
PAPA Pennsylvania Asphalt Pavement Association
PEM Porous European Mixes
PSI Present Serviceability Index
R Reliability
SO Standard Deviation
SNR Required Structural Number
SMA Stone Matrix Asphalt
VB Visual Basic
VS Versus
WADOT Washington State Highway Pavements
ZR Standard Normal Deviate
ǻPSI Change in Serviceability
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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Example Manual Calculation of AASHTO Design 72

B AASHTO Design (Cost Analysis) 79

C Road Note 31 Design (Cost Analysis) 80

D Data Save Report 81

E Coding 83
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Rapid natural growth of road traffic has become a major concern of many
highway departments worldwide. Therefore, the demand of road pavement
construction has become importantly and critically to provide an enough road
platform for the users from the time to time. Flexible pavement or known as hot mix
asphalt has become a famous highway construction material in our country
(Malaysia) in term of easy to assess the bitumen recourses from our oil and gas
product and economic aspect if compare to the other expensive material such as rigid
pavement. In general, flexible pavement is a relatively thin surface of Asphalt
Concrete Pavement (ACP) over a base and sub-base resting on a sub-grade.

Nowadays, road and surface failure has become a critical issue in our country
on the flexible pavement shown a bad quality and an error in the design stage. The
thickness design of flexible pavement has become crucial element in the overall
efficiency of highway structure system to give a good performance and high
serviceability under a traffic loading during the expected design period.

The goal of pavement thickness design is to determine the number, material

composition and thickness of the different layers within a pavement structure
required to accommodate a given loading regime. This includes the surface course
as well as any underlying base or subbase layers.
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Nowadays, computer software applications are widely used and can be apply
in design of flexible pavement thickness. Computer software can help to make the
design process become easily, faster and high accuracy result can be obtain. By
using the application of software in highway engineering, it can help the highway
engineer or designer to provide a good design with a high confidences level without
any error if compare to the manual calculation previously.

This study focuses on the development of a software application for flexible

pavement thickness design base on AASHTO and Road Note 31 method by using
Visual Basic 6.0. This software will be useful to run the design process with a high
result accuracy obtained in order to provide a good quality of thickness design for
flexible pavement and made comparison between both method to select the best
design alternative in term of thickness and economic evaluation.

1.2 Problem Statements

Road and surface failure such as cracking, depression and pothole has
become a critical issue in our country on the flexible pavement where it involves a
very high maintenance cost every year. One of the reasons causing these failures
happened is improper or error of pavement thickness design.

Currently, most of highway design departments or agencies were still practice

the conventional method by referring the hardcopy of manual design guideline and
calculation. Therefore, human factor in term of making mistake and error cannot
fully avoid in their design. Besides, manual calculation design also considering a
longer time period, energy and operating cost. A problem can be occur when an
emergency or immediately highway project are needed to be proposed in a very short
time of design period. Therefore, there was a need to use computer software to solve
this problem to propose a faster and accurate design of work for any emergency
project.
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Besides, the design of pavement thickness can become complicated where it’s
involve many data, graphs and particular selection of properties for different type of
layer and condition in pavement design stage. Therefore, there was a needed of
computer software to help manage and store this data or information in the system
for easily searching and use this data every time in the design stage by using
computer software.

There is also less of this kind thickness design software technology currently
for highway engineering in our country. Therefore, there was a need to develop a
software specialist in pavement thickness design to replace the previous conventional
and traditional method for an advance technology in highway engineering.

1.3 The Important of Study

Effective pavement design is one of the most important aspects in highway

design. The pavement is the portion of the highway which is most obvious to the
motorist. Therefore, the thickness of pavement are playing an important role to
support all the traffic loading and its must be design accurately to avoid any failure
of pavement structure.

Nowadays, computer software can help to make our life become easy
especially in highway engineering to design the thickness of flexible pavement. By
applying the computer program, the design stage can be made in a very short time
period of design process. Beside, computer software can help to minimize the error
factor compare to manual calculation or conventional method. Therefore, computer
software can give a high accuracy and quality of result for pavement thickness
design.
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Visual Basic is Microsoft's high-level object-oriented rapid application

development environment for the Windows platform. Visual Basic programmers
make user friendly interfaces and easy to used when design the pavement thickness.
The programmer then adds code to respond to user interactions with the controls to
get the design result need. Beside, computer software (Visual Basic) also can act as
an importance database system to store and install all the important data and
properties from complicated table or chart translated into visual basic coding.
Therefore, user can easily search for this kind of data and make selection option
directly from the program software developed.

In conjunction to that, the result or report obtains from the software
developed can be easily stored and recorded as softcopy in the system file or can be
directly printed on the sport as a hard copy for evidence and future reference.

The purpose of software development in the field of highway are useful in
design stage, analytical solving, the need to test, evaluate and demonstrate a
proposed course of action before implementation, to make research, learn and train
people. Confidence would be gained from the performance of the software
developed and to be justified before the design is proposed.

Besides, the software developed also become useful for any relevant body or
associations in highway engineering such as JKR and IKRAM, highway engineer
and designer, university lecturers and students for their learning and practical, and
local authority to approve any design of highway project.

Computer software is an integral part of everyday life, not only in the use of
personal computers but also behind the scenes of every business transaction,
engineering, research and studies. Therefore, by applying the computer software in
thickness design of flexible pavement can give a significant function to avoid any
wrong design that may cause failure of pavement and involve high maintenance cost
in the future. Besides, it’s also can save time, energy and builds up a high level of
comfortable, confident and greater effort in term of pavement thickness design.
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1.4 Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to develop a program model of flexible pavement

thickness design by Road Note 31 and AASHTO Guide.

The objectives of this study are:

1. To develop a thickness design software of flexible pavement by using

Visual Basic 6.0 programming language

2. Comparison between AASHTO and Road Note 31 method in term of

thickness and economic evaluation to select the best design alternative.

1.5 Scope of Study

The scope of this study is mainly focus on the flexible pavement thickness
design by using Road Note 31 and ASSTHO guideline. Furthermore, the computer
software will be develop by using application of visual basic 6.0 for design interface,
function or coding system and generate a report file for reference. Comparison were
been made between AASHTO and Road Note 31 method in term of thickness and
economic evaluation to select the best design alternative. Besides, the computer
software to be develop also will be tested and verify with the theory and manual
calculation comparison.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the review will be focus on flexible pavement (surface course,
base course and subbase course), hot mix asphalt in flexible pavement (Stone Matrix
Asphalt Mixes, Open-Graded Mixes and Dense-Graded Mixes), advantages of HMA,
AASHTO guide for design of pavement structures, Road Note 31, computer
software, history of programming languages, Visual Basic 6.0 and Flexible Pavement
Thickness Design Software (FPS-19 and DNPS 86)

2.2 Flexible Pavement

Flexible pavement is a surfaced constructed by bituminous (or asphalt)

materials. These can be either in the form of pavement surface treatments such as a
bituminous surface treatment (BST) generally found on lower volume roads and
HMA which were generally used on higher volume roads or highway network
(WSDOT,2003). Successful HMA pavement construction requires good planning,
design, construction (materials, subgrade, and workmanship) and planned future
maintenance. Asphalt pavements are constructed of one or more courses of HMA
placed directly on the subgrade or on an aggregate base (PAPA, 2006).
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Flexible pavement are called "flexible" since the total pavement structure
"bends" or "deflects" due to traffic loads. A flexible pavement structure is generally
composed of several layers of material to accommodate this "flexing" effect
(WSDOT, 2003).

The purpose of pavement is use for load support where Flexible pavement
uses more flexible surface course and distributes loads over a smaller contributing
area. It relies on a combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade.
Flexible pavements generally require some sort of maintenance or rehabilitation
every 10 to 15 years (WSDOT, 2003).

In order to take maximum advantage of this property, material layers are

usually arranged in order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load
bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load
bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom. This section describes
the typical flexible pavement structure consisting of:

• Surface Course. The layer in contact with traffic loads. It provides

characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut resistance and
drainage (Figure 2.1). In addition, it prevents entrance of surface water into
the underlying base, subbase and subgrade (WAPA, 2002). This is the top
layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic. It may be composed of
one or several different HMA sublayers.

• Base Course. The layer immediately beneath the surface course (Figure
2.1). It provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and
frost resistance (WAPA, 2002). This is the layer directly below the HMA
layer and generally consists of aggregate (either stabilized or unstabilized).

• Subbase Course. This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer (Figure
2.1). The layer between the base course and subgrade. The subbase
generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better
than the subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used.
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Figure 2.1 : Pavement structure layers for Flexible pavement

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2.2.1 Surface Course

Obviously, surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and
normally contains the highest quality of materials. Surface course play an important
role in characteristics of friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and shoving
resistance and drainage. Furthermore, surface course serves to prevent the entrance
of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and
subgrade (NAPA, 2001). This top structural layer of material is sometimes
subdivided into two layers (NAPA, 2001):

1. Wearing Course. This is the toper layer in pavement structure and direct
contact with traffic loads. A properly designed (and funded) preservation
program should be able to identify pavement surface distress while it is still
confined to the wearing course.
2. Binder Course. The purpose of this layer is to distribute load from wearing
course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA structure.

2.2.2 Base Course



The base course is a course of specified material and design thickness, which
supports the structural course and distributes the traffic loads to the subbase or
subgrade. The base course is immediately beneath the surface course
(NAPA, 2001). It provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage
and frost resistance. Different base course materials may have different thickness.
Base courses are usually constructed out of:

1. Aggregate, are the most typically constructed from durable aggregates that
will not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be either
stabilized or unsterilized.
2. HMA, used where high base stiffness is desired. In surface course HMA
mixes, it usually contains larger maximum aggregate sizes (open graded) and
subjected to more lenient specifications.
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2.2.3 Subbase Course


The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. The
subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better
than the subgrade soils. The sub-base consists of granular material - gravel, crushed
stone, reclaimed material or a combination of these materials. The subbase is a layer
of specified material and design thickness that supports the base. This generally is
limited to use with a composite base (WAPA, 2002):

For a pavement constructed over a high quality stiff subgrade may not need
the additional features offered by a subbase course. However, a pavement
constructed over a low quality soil such as swelling clay may require the additional
load distribution characteristic that require subbase course to replace and support the
poor quality subgrade. It functions primarily as structural support but it cans also
(WAPA, 2002):

1. Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
2. Improve drainage.
3. Minimize frost action damage.
4. Provide a working platform for construction.

2.3 Hot Mix Asphalt in Flexible Pavement

Obviously, there are three of the most common types of HMA mix types
used in flexible pavements (Figure. 2.2) known as Dense-Graded Mixes (HMA),
Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) Mixes and Open-Graded Mixes (HMA) (NAPA,2001).
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2.3.1 Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) Mixes

Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) relatively has been use as a surface course to
support heavy traffic loads and resist studded tire wear. SMA is a gap-graded HMA
develop to maximize rutting resistance and durability (NAPA, 1999). Since
aggregates do not deform as much as asphalt binder under load, this stone-on-stone
contact greatly reduces rutting. SMA benefits include wet weather friction due to a
coarser surface texture, lower tire noise due to a coarser surface texture and less
severe reflective cracking (NAPA, 1999).

SMA is generally more expensive than a typical dense-graded HMA because

it requires more durable aggregates, higher asphalt content, modified asphalt binder
and fibers. The Materials to construct SMA usually are:

1. Gap-graded aggregate (coarse aggregate, manufactured sands and

mineral filler all combined into a final gradation),

2. Asphalt binder (typically with a modifier).

2.3.2 Open-Graded Mixes (HMA)

Previously, dense-graded and SMA mixes usually are not permeable.

Therefore, an open-graded HMA mixture is designed to be water permeable. Open-
graded mixes use only crushed stone or gravel and a small percentage of
manufactured sands. There are three types of open-graded mixes typically used
nowadays (NAPA 1995):

1. Asphalt treated permeable bases (ATPB), Used as a drainage layer below

dense-graded HMA and SMA.
2. Open-graded friction course (OGFC). Typically 15 percent air voids, no
minimum air voids specified, lower aggregate standards than PEM.
3. Porous European mixes (PEM). Typically 18 - 22 percent air voids,
specified minimum air voids, higher aggregate standards than OGFC and
requires the use of asphalt binder modifiers.
 12

The functions of OGFC and PEM are used as surface courses only. They
reduce tire splash/spray in wet weather and typically result in smoother surfaces than
dense-graded HMA. Their high air voids trap road noise and thus reduce tire-road
noise by up to 50-percent (10 dBA) (NAPA, 1995).

2.3.3 Dense-Graded Mixes

A dense-graded mix is a well-graded HMA mixture intended for general

use. When properly designed and constructed, a dense-graded mix is relatively
impermeable. Dense-graded mixes are generally referred to by their nominal
maximum aggregate size. The purpose of Dense-graded mixes is suitable for all
pavement layers and for all traffic conditions. They work well for structural, friction,
leveling and patching needs (NAPA, 2001). Figure 2.3 show the different between
Dense-Graded HMA and SMA with a bit shinier from the extra asphalt binder.

Dense-Graded HMA SMA Surface OGFC Surface

Figure 2.2 : Different type of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) in flexible pavement

Figure 2.3 : Dense-Graded HMA (left) VS. SMA (right)

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2.4 Advantages of HMA

There are several advantages of HMA shown as below (PAPA, 2006):

1. Versatility

• HMA pavements can be designed to handle any traffic loading, soils and
materials, and can be used to salvage old pavements as well as to build new ones.
• Phased construction can easily be incorporated.

2. Economy

• HMA pavements are economical to construct, can be constructed rapidly,

immediately ready for use, can be recycled, require minimal maintenance and
provide outstanding performance.

3. HMA pavements are not affected by ice control chemicals.

4. Building and site esthetics are enhanced.

5. Traffic noise is minimized when HMA pavement is used.

6. Pavement striping is highly visible on the black HMA surface.

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2.5 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures

In 1972, the AASHTO pavement design guide was first published as an

interim guide. Updates to the guide were subsequently published in 1986 and 1993; a
new mechanistic-based design guide is currently planned for completion in 2002.
The AASHTO design procedure is based on the results of the AASHTO Road Test
that was conducted in 1958 -1961 in Ottawa, Illinois (Figure 2.4). Approximately 1.2
million axle load repetitions were applied to specially designed test tracks in the
largest road test ever conducted (AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures,
1993).

Figure 2.4 : AASHTO Road Test (1958 – 1961)

Picture from: Highway Research Board
 15

2.5.1 Pavement Thickness Design

The American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) has carries

out a Road Test at Ottawa; Illinois provided the basis for calculating the required
pavement thickness. Models (Road Test) were developed to related pavement
performance, vehicle loadings, strength of roadbed soils, and the pavement structure
(AASHTO, 1993).

Equation 2.1 is the AASHTO Empirical Equation used by the Department for
design purposes (AASHTO, 1993). Empirical equations are used to relate observed
or measurable phenomena of pavement characteristics.

§ ΔPSI ·
log¨ ¸
log W18 = Z R × S 0 + 9.36 log( SN + 1) − 0.20 + © 4.2 − 1.5 ¹ + 2.32 log(M ) − 8.07
R
1094
0.40 +
(SN + 1)5.19

Equation 2.1: 1993 AASHTO Empirical Equation

where: W18 = Predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs

ZR = Standard normal deviate

So = Combined standard error of the traffic prediction and

performance prediction

SN = Structural Nember (an index that is indicative of the total

pavement thickness required)

= a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3+...

ai = ith layer coefficient

Di = ith layer thickness (inches)

mi = ith layer drainage coefficient

 16

ǻPSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index,

po, and the design terminal serviceability index, pt

MR = Subgrade resilient modulus (in psi)

The purpose of the AASHTO model is to calculate the Required Structural

Number (SNR) in the pavement thickness design process (AASHTO, 1993). SNR is
the strength of the pavement that must be constructed to carry the mixed vehicle
loads over the roadbed soil, while providing satisfactory serviceability during the
design period. Therefore, by conducting the SNR, the pavement layer thickness can
be calculated.

Accumulated 18-kip Equivalent Single Axle Loads ESAL or (ESALD)

The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of 80 KN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
for the pavement experience over its design lifetime. The Accumulated 18-kip
Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESAL) is the traffic load information used for
pavement thickness design. The accumulation of the damage caused by mixed truck
traffic during a design period is referred to the Accumulated 18-kip Equivalent
Single Axle Loads ESAL or (ESALD).

Reliability

The reliability of the pavement design process is the probability that a pavement
section designed using the process will perform satisfactorily over the traffic and
environmental conditions for the design period (AASHTO, 1993). The use of
Reliability (%R) also to tailors the design to more closely match the needs of the
project. It is the probability of achieving the design life that the Department desires
for that facility. The ZR and So variables account for reliability.
 17

Resilient Modulus (MR)


Subgrade support is characterized by the subgrade's resilient modulus (MR).The
Resilient Modulus (MR) is a measurement of the stiffness of the roadbed soil
(AASHTO, 1993).

Standard Normal Deviate (ZR) is the corresponding Reliability (%R) value that has
been converted into logarithmic form for calculations purposes (AASHTO, 1993).

Standard Deviation (SO) of 0.45 is used in the design calculations to account for
variability in traffic load predictions and construction (AASHTO, 1993).

Present Serviceability Index (PSI) is the ability of a roadway to serve the traffic
which uses the facility. A rating of 0 to 5 is used with 5 being the best and 0 being
the worst (AASHTO, 1993). The PSI decreases as the road condition decreases due
to deterioration.

Change in Serviceability (ǻPSI) is the difference between the Initial Serviceability

(PI) and Terminal Serviceability (PT) (AASHTO, 1993).

Initial Serviceability (PI) is the condition of a newly constructed roadway.

Terminal Serviceability (PT) is the condition of a road that reaches a point where
some type of rehabilitation or reconstruction is warranted.
 18

2.5.2 AASHTO Road Test Limitation and Assumption

It is extremely important to know the equation's limitations and basic

assumptions when using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical equation, Otherwise,
This can lead to invalid results at the least and incorrect results at the worst.

The empirical equations develop from AASHTO Road Test were related to
loss in serviceability, traffic, and pavement thickness. Through the specific
conditions of the AASHTO Road Test, these equations have some significant
limitations (WSDOT, 2003):

• The equations were developed based on the specific pavement materials and
roadbed soil present at the AASHTO Road Test.
• The equations are based on an accelerated two-year testing period rather than
a longer, more typical 20+ year pavement life. Therefore, environmental
factors were difficult if not impossible to extrapolate out to a longer period.
Thus, the equations were developed based on the environment at the
AASHTO Road Test only.
• The equations were developed based on the loads of operating vehicles with
identical axle loads and configurations, as opposed to mixed traffic.

Therefore, In order to apply the equations developed as a result of the

AASHTO Road Test, some basic assumptions were made (WSDOT, 2003).

• Loading can be applied to mixed traffic by use of ESALs.

• The accelerated testing done at the AASHTO Road Test (2-year period) can
be extended to a longer design period.
• The characterizations of material may be applied to other surfaces, bases, and
subbases by assigning appropriate layer coefficients.
• The characterization of subgrade support may be extended to other subgrade
soils by an abstract soil support scale.
 19

2.6 Road Note 31

Road Note 31 which also known as overseas road notes was developed by
Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) to design flexible pavement thickness besides
understanding the behaviors of road building material, also interaction in pavement
structural layers design. In advance, Road Note 31 is confident to be applying in
tropical and sub tropical regions associated with climate and various types of
material and reliable road maintenance levels [Road Note 31 Guide].

Road note 31 is the experience base design according to the previous

successful project had been done by professional body or senior engineer. Thus, a
Road Note 31 structural catalogue (Figure 2.5) had been produce in order to design
the flexible pavement thickness design base on the traffic and subgred strength
classes’ requirement [Road Note 31 Guide].

Figure 2.5 : Road Note 31, Structural Catalogue

 20

2.7 Computer Software

Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of

computer program, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a
computer system (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 2007). Software encompasses
an extremely wide array of products and technologies developed using different
techniques such as programming languages.

In computer software development, there are four steps show as below need
to be consider known as design, code, test and maintain (Ray Hannah, 2009). By
following these four steps of program development will enhance the reputation of
programmer and develop a successful computer software program.

Design

The first step in developing a computer program is design. Producing a good design
leads to efficient code which does what it is meant to in the best way possible.
Design processes include defining the data requirements, objective, scope and chosen
of function or process to be uses clear output to be achieved.

Coding

The second step is known as coding. The program is written in the language chosen
and ensures the language syntax rules followed precisely. Techniques such as
debugging, dry running programs and meticulously checking syntax can help to find
errors.

Testing Computer Programs

The purpose of testing is to ensure that the program works as expected. There are
lots of different ways of testing includes choosing the appropriate tests for the
particular program.
 21

Maintenance of Computer Software

Maintaining of computer software is importance to the changes of

requirements for programs from time to time. Simple steps such as commenting code
can help, as well as providing a statement of intent at the top of the code and a
history of changes.

To become a successful programmer in developing computer program, the

following steps should be considering (Simhadri, 2003).

Define the problem

Outline the solution and analyze the problem

Outline of the solution into an algorithm

(procedure that leads to the solution)

Test the algorithm for correctness

Provide test data to work out the problem

Convert the algorithm into a program

Translate the instructions of algorithm into a Coding

Document the program clearly:

Describe important instruction in the program to make the program easy
to follow and for corrections or changes purpose

Run the program:

Instruct the computer to execute the program

Debug the program:

Make sure that the program runs correctly without any errors

Chart 2.1 : Software Development Process

 22

Refer to Gabriel’s paper; his arguments can be generalized as a single point:

“make it simple in four aspects of his theory (R. P. Gabriel, 1993). The language
should easy to be accepted and available on a wide variety of hardware, easy to learn
and should be similar to existing language.

1. Carefully choose the problems to through innovation and maintain the

computing speed achieved by hardware development.
2. Provide a simple model to access its performance. This will help programmer
write more efficient program.
3. Successful language should have mathematical simplicity.

2.7.1 History of programming languages

The history of programming languages were start developed since 1950s and
until the 1990s (Figure 2.6). Many “rapid application development” languages
emerged, which usually came with an IDE, garbage collection, and were descendants
of older languages. All such languages were object-oriented. These included Object
Pascal, Visual Basic, and C# (Darklama, 2008).

Figure 2.6 : History of programming languages

 23

2.7.2 Visual Basic

Visual Basic (VB) is the third-generation event-driven programming

language and integrated development environment from Microsoft for its
programming model. VB is also a relatively easy to learn and powerful programming
language, because of its graphical development features and BASIC heritage
(Sandeep Mogulla, 2004).

Using Visual Basic’s tools we can quickly translate an abstract idea into a
program design that we can actually see on the screen. Visual Basic is ideal for
developing applications that run on the Windows operating system. Developing
applications with VB can be in 3-step approach (Sandeep Mogulla, 2004).

i. Design the appearance of application

ii. Assign property settings to the objects of the program
iii. Write the code to direct specific tasks at runtime

Visual Basic is a “visual programming” environment for developing

Windows applications (Sandeep Mogulla, 2004). Visual Basic can develop
complicated applications very quickly. The programmer designs windows
graphically, drags program elements from the Visual Basic Toolbox and writes basic
code for each element. Visual Basic is “event-driven” which means that procedures
are called automatically when the end user chooses menu items, clicks the mouse,
and moves objects on the screen.

Visual Basic was derived from BASIC and enables the rapid application
development of graphical user interface applications, easy access to databases using
Data Access Objects, Remote Data Objects, or ActiveX Data objects, and creation of
ActiveX controls and objects.

The final release was version 6 (Visual Basic 6.0) in 1998. Visual
Basic 6.0 has successful improved in a number of areas, including the ability to
create web-based applications and the runtime is supported on Windows Vista,
 24

Windows Server 2008 and Windows 7. Visual Basic 6.0 is a Microsoft’s high-level
object-oriented rapid application development environment for the Windows
platform.

Visual Basic was designed to be easy to learn and use. The language not only
allows programmers to create simple graphical user interface applications, but can
also develop complex applications. Programming in VB is a combination of visually
arranging components or controls on a form, specifying attributes and actions of
those components, and writing additional lines of code for more functionality. A
simple program can be created without the programmer having to write many lines of
code. Visual Basic can create executables (EXE files) primarily used to develop
Windows applications and to interface web database systems (Sandeep Mogulla,
2004).

Visual Basic program can be developing in several hours only depending on

the scope and size of application, if compare with other programming languages like
C, C++ could take days to create an application experience by the programmer
(Sandeep Mogulla, 2004).

Visual Basic also provides many interesting sets of tools to make our life far
easier in building exciting applications because all the real hard code is already
written for us (Sandeep Mogulla, 2004). Visual Basic is not only a programming
language but also a true graphical development environment. Visual Basic also has
the ability to develop programs that can be used as a front-end application to a
database system, serving as the user interface which collects user input and displays
formatted output in a more appealing and useful form.

Visual Basic is become more popular nowadays because it allows the users
create nice looking graphical programs with less coding unlike many other languages
that take thousands of lines of programmer keyed code. As the programmer works in
the graphical environment much of the program code is automatically generated by
the Visual Basic program.
 25

2.7.3 Important Components in Visual Basic

Visual basic is divided into 5 important components as shown in Figure 2.7.

Toolbars

Project
Tool Box Explorer

Window
Properties

Window Form Layout

Figure 2.7 : Important Components in Visual Basic

Project Explorer ( Figure 2.8) is a option function in Visual Basic where it’s
include 3 main components known as view coding, view form and view folder
(H.M.Deitel, 2005).

View View View

Coding Form Folder

Figure 2.8 : Project Explorer

 26

“Toolbox” contains icons representing control used to customize forms,

which is simple and easy to practice (Figure 2.9).

Picture Box Label

Pointer Text Box

Frame
Option Button

Command Button Check Box

Combo Box
Common Dialog

Timer Progress Bar

SSTab

Figure 2.9 : Toolbox

“Toolbars” (Figure 2.10) is a command for managing the overall program and
for developing, maintaining and executing programs with a specific action
(H.M.Deitel, 2005).
  6 8 10 12 14 16  20

    9 11  15 17 19 21

Figure 2.10 : Toolbars

 27

Where;

1 = Add Standard EXE Project 2 = Add Form 3 = Menu Editor

4 = Open Project 5 = Save Project 6 = Cut
7 = Copy 8 = Paste 9 = Find
10 = Undo 11 = Redo 12 = Start/Run Project
13 = Break 14 = End 15 = Project Explore
16 = Properties Window 17 = Form Layout Window 18 = Object Browser
19 = Toolbox 20 = Data View Window
21 = Visual Component Manage

“Form” is an interface for user to key in the input in Visual Basic and coding
is a programming language in term of scientific and mathematical equation for user
to communicate with the program and working under a particular order or command
(H.M.Deitel, 2005). “Window Properties” is useful for user to make any changes or
adjustments to any components in the form such as Name, Form colour, and Font
Size (H.M.Deitel, 2005). “Window Form Layout” is use to move or set the position
of every form every time it been display (H.M.Deitel, 2005).

VB programmers make user interfaces by drawing controls and other

components onto forms. The programmer then adds code to respond to user
interactions with the controls known as events. The code can trigger events and
execute procedures by run some algorithm based on the values entered in some
control to get the output data (Darklama, 2008).
 28

2.8 Flexible Pavement Thickness Design Software

Nowadays, there was various type of Flexible Pavement Thickness Design

Software is available in the market and very easy to use and can be applies directly in
the computer, laptop or PDA phone such as:


• DNPS 86, developed by American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Official (AASHTO)

• FPS-19, developed by Texas Department of Transportation’s (TxDOT’s)

• STREETPAVE, developed by American Concrete Pavement Assorciation

• FAARFIELD (Design Software for Airport Pavement Thickness)

• SW-1, developed by Asphalt Institute

In this study, the Flexible Pavement Thickness Design Software that been
discuss are DNPS 86 and FPS 19 to increase the understanding in the development of
Flexible Pavement Thickness Design Software.

2.8.1 DNPS 86

The objective of this software is to design a flexible pavement’s layers

thickness using DNPS 86 program. DNPS 86 software was developed by American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Official (AASHTO) U.S.A. in late
1950’s and early 1960’s.
 29

The method of solution use in DNPS 86 software is based on AASHTO guide

for design of pavement structure, 1986 (J. Transp. Engrg. 1991). DNPS 86 is a user-
friendly program where the users just follow the direction of each display screen and
key in the requested input and parameters (Figure 2.11). The output can be obtained
is the required thickness of each layer including economic cost analysis.

The DNPS86 pavement design computer program is also use to produce a

minimum-cost combination of pavement layer thicknesses (J. Transp. Engrg. 1991).
The DNPS86 program has been made a subroutine of the optimization program
ongoing changes being made to DNPS86 by others can be easily accommodated.

The optimization program DNPS86 then obtains the minimum-cost design,

with corresponding layer thicknesses. Numerical examples illustrate the savings in
design time and in equivalent first cost of resulting pavement made possible by using
this optimization program (J. Transp. Engrg. 1991).

Figure 2.11 : Display of DNPS86 pavement design computer program

 30

2.8.2 FPS-19

FPS 19 is the approved flexible pavement thickness design system developed

by Texas Department of Transportation’s (TxDOT’s). Several enhancements have
been made to improve this system, including (Tom Scullion, Texas Transportation
Institute):


• Transferring FPS 19 to the Windows platform (Figure 2.12)

• Provide a thickness checking system according to the current Texas Triaxial
system
• Computational of stress and strain subsystem to estimated classical fatigue
and rutting for the designed pavement
• Incorporating an extensive and advance online help system.

The method of solution use in FPS 19 software is based on mechanistic

empirical pavement design procedures (Tom Scullion, Texas Transportation
Institute). The new procedures make analysis simpler and provide designers with
many options to crosscheck their designs with other structural design systems.

Figure 2.12 : Display of feasible pavement thickness design by using FSP 19

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Methodology is a very important part in a research or study, where it was

represented the overall research method to ensure the research will be successful
carry out. This chapter will be review on the general framework of the software
development, design stage of flexible pavement (AASHTO VS Road Note 31),
swelling consideration, determination of structural layer thickness and overview of
design stage of software development.

3.2 General Framework of the Software Development

In the flexible pavement design system, the design process for either of the
two design modes (new/reconstruction or overlay) was a 6 parts process that
illustrated in Figure 3.1. From the development of software designed, the resulting
model may be far from replicating all the important components of pavement design
with the error in assumption and simplification was made. Therefore, the
development of this software should be investigated to ensure the satisfactory of the
result represented before the software confidently used.
 32

Development of pavement design

software by using Visual Basic 6.0

Obtaining input for the software

Computing output and results with

the software developed

Verification, calibration and

validation

Apply the software

application

Documentation and
securing approval

Figure 3.1 : Framework of the Software Development

As an overview, the pavement design software been developed by using

Visual Basic 6.0 computer program languages. The inputs data were act as important
element to be read by the program and the design computing output will be done
through the Visual Basic computer program. The detail of input parameter were been
discussed in section design stage (Section 3.3)

Verification is a procedure for establish the accuracy of the computer
program. Verification process is used to examine and test the software whether can
perform and behaves simulated accordance with the real accurate result. This
process were involved the examining and the translation of the original pavement
design conceptual into a Visual Basic 6.0 computer program.

Against, to ensure the software developed was correctly presented and

verified also checking on any incorrect of calculation stage to minimize the
possibility of calculation error. Design of Flexible Pavement Structures Model
calibration is a process to compare the model output with the guideline or manual
calculation practice. In this process, the incorrect parameter value were been
 33

adjusted to provide a better quality and accurate parameter value. Before applying
the proposed software to real world problems, it was necessary to check for any
inconsistency in the software behavior and executed logic through validation process.
Validation is important to test the performance of the software to match its output
with actual design result. This was done through a number of test runs to ensure the
software developed are really stable and can be trusted.

Finally, the documentation and securing approval are important elements to
record and store the important result as a reference in the future.

3.3 Design Stage of Flexible Pavement

In this study, the design of flexible pavement is base on AASTHO guide for
“Design of Pavement Structure” published by American Association of stage
highway and transportation officials, 1993 and Road Note 31 published by Transport
Research Laboratory (TRL), 1993. In the design stage, review will be focus on the
general equation of flexible pavement design including the all the important
parameters, determination of structural layer thickness and layout of structural layer
thickness for both methods as an output of design process in report file. Finally,
both design method will be compare in term of thickness and cost evaluations.

3.4 Overview of AASHTO Design Stage

As an overview of design stage of software development, this study were

focus to 3 main parts that need to be done as input, design stage and output (Figure
3.2). Firstly we define the input data of Predicted number of 18-kip ESAL (W18),
standard normal deviate (ZR), standard error (So), design serviceability index (ΔPSI)
and subgrade resilient modulus(MR ) as the main input data file into Visual Basic
Programming for design stage. In the design stage, consideration is focus on general
flexible pavement Equation 3.1, swelling condition and determination of structural
layer thickness by using Visual Basic application. Finally, the output of software
was represented in report summary file and layout of structural thickness for flexible
pavement.
 34

Input W18, ZR , So , ΔPSI , MR , EAC, EBS, ESB

Determine the initial SN

§ ΔPSI ·
log¨ ¸
logW18 = ZR × S0 + 9.36log(SN +1) − 0.20+ © 4.2 −1.5 ¹ + 2.32log(M ) − 8.07
R
1094
0.40+
(SN +1)5.19

Use General flexible pavement equation (3.1) or Figure 3.2

Reduction in performance period of initial

Design pavement arising from swelling
Stage consideration (Table 3.4 & Figure 3.4)

Determine SN1 and SN2 by using

equation 3.1 or Figure 3.2

Determination of structural layer thickness

SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + .. anDnmn (3.8)

Result and layout of structural layer thickness

D1* , D2* , D3*

Output

Print, Plot or Summarize the data, input

parameter and result in report file

Figure 3.2: Overview of design stage of software program

 35

3.4.1 General Equation of Flexible Pavement AASHTO Design


In AASHTO guide design of pavement structure (AASHTO Guide 1993, Part II),
the general flexible pavement equation show as below is the common use in design stage.


§ ΔPSI ·
log¨ ¸
© 4.2 −1.5 ¹
logW18 = ZR × S0 + 9.36log(SN +1) − 0.20+ + 2.32log(M R ) − 8.07 (3.1)
1094
0.40+
(SN +1)5.19



Where:

W18 = Predicted number of 18-kip equivalent single axle load application

ZR = Standard normal deviate

So = Combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance

prediction

ΔPSI = Difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the
design terminal serviceability index, pt

MR = Subgrade resilient modulus (psi)

The general Equation 3.1 was derived from empirical information obtained
from AASTHO Road Test. The design nomographs presented in Figure 3.3
(AASHTO Part II, 1993) can solve this equation to determine the structural number
(SN) for flexible pavement design.
 36

Figure 3.3: Nomograph for Flexible Pavement Design

(Part II, Chapter 2, 1993 AASHTO Guide)





3.4.2 Predicted Number of 18-kip ESAL, W18



Normally, the design procedure for traffic volume is base on cumulative
expected 18-kip ESAL during the analysis period, w18 (AASHTO Guide 1993). w18
is known as Predicted number of ESALs over the pavement’s life. Thus, the traffic
during the first year in the design lane (w18) 18-kip ESAL application can be
determining by using the following equation.

w18 (traffic during first year) = DD * DL * w18 (3.2)

 37

Where:


W18 = Cumulative two direction 18-kip ESAL units predicted for a specific
section of highway during the analysis period.

DD = Directional distribution factor, express as a ratio, that accounts for the
distribution of ESAL unit by direction. (DD = 0.3 to 0.7)

DL = Lane distribution factor, express as a ratio that accounts for
distribution for distribution of traffic when two or more lanes are
available in one direction.
Table 3.1 shows the detail of DL factor.

Table 3.1: DL factor (AASHTO Guide 1993)


Number of lanes in each direction Percent of 18-kip ESAL in design lane
1 100
2 80-100
3 60-80
4 50-75

Therefore, the commutative 18-kip ESAL traffic can be determined by using

equation below (AASHTO Guide 1993):

§ (1 + g ) t − 1 ·
Cumulative 18-kip ESAL, W18= w18 (traffic during first year) ¨¨ ¸¸
© g ¹ (3.3)

*Where g is a growth rate

 38

3.4.3 Subgrade Resilient Modulus (MR)



Design subgrade resilient modulus MR, Caution must be used when selecting
a design resilient modulus. Resilient modulus (MR) values for pavement structure
design should normally be based on the properties of the compact layer of roadbed
soil. In the flexible pavement design requirements, it may necessary to convert CBR
value or R-value information to resilient modulus, MR. Typically MR for flexible
pavement is from 3,000 to 30,000 psi (AASHTO Guide 1993). The procedures of
determination of Effective Subgrade Resilient Modulus (MReff) are show as the steps
below:


1. Obtain MR values (Separate year into time intervals)
2. Compute the relative damage (u), by using Figure 3.3 Or using equation below:
Uf = 1.18 x 108 x MR -2.32 (3.4)
3. Compute average uf for entire year = ¦ u
n (3.5)
Where n is the total number of interval time.
4. Determine effective MR using average uf by using Figure 3.4 or Equation 3.4.



Figure 3.4 : Estimation of effective roadbed soil resilient modulus

 39

3.4.4 Design Serviceability Loss,ǻPSI


The term of serviceability is important to measure the performance of design
pavement during its service period. The serviceability is express in term of present
serviceability index (PSI). Therefore, the change in present serviceability index
(ǻPSI) is an important consideration in the flexible pavement design. The general
equation of change in present serviceability index equation is show in below and
typically from 1.5 to 3.0 (AASHTO Guide 1993).

ǻPSI= P0 – Pt (3.6)


Where

P0 = Original or initial serviceability

Pt = Terminal serviceability index

 

According to AASHTO Road Test, the recognized original or initial

serviceability (P0) value was 4.7 for flexible pavement. Meanwhile the terminal
serviceability index (Pt) of 2.5 or higher is suggested for design major highway and
2.0 for low traffic volume (AASHTO Guide 1993).

3.4.5 Reliability, R


In order to decrease the risk of premature deterioration below acceptable level
of serviceability, a reliability factor is included in the design process. Increase
reliability was obtained by adjustments which are based on uncertainly in each of
design variables. The reliability factor accounts the change variation for both traffic
prediction (w18) and pavement performance prediction (W18). In this study, the
reliability suggested by AASHTO is show in Table 3.2.
 40

Table 3.2 : Suggested level of reliability for various functional classifications




Against, according to Hawaii Asphalt Paving Industry (HAPI) as refer to

AASHTO Structural Design1993, the relationship between Standard Normal deviate,
ZR and reliability, R is show in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Relationship between Standard Normal deviate, ZR and reliability, R

Reliability 99.9 99 95 90 85 80 75 70 50

ZR -3.090 -2.327 -1.645 -1.282 -1.037 -0.841 -0.674 -0.524 0

3.4.6 Standard Deviation, So


According to AASHTO 1993, the recommended performances predict error
developed at the Road Test was 0.35 for flexible pavement. However, the standard
deviation must be selected according to the local conditions with 0.35 for no traffic
variation and 0.45 with traffic variation.
 41

3.4.7 Swelling Consideration

Swelling condition may affect the result of flexible pavement design and it
should be consider reducing to acceptable limits of swelling soil effect (AASHTO
Guide 1993). Swelling also has potential impact on the rate of serviceability loss.

Roadbed Swelling (PSIsw) can be determine from the data interpolation from
Figure 3.5 (Swell Rate Constant and Potential vertical Rise chart) and Figure 3.6
(roadbed swelling serviceability loss chart). Therefore, the user can easily obtain the
PSIsw value from this computer software because the entire chart had been
interpolated and stored in the system database to be applied.

Figure 3.5: Swell Rate Constant and Potential vertical Rise chart Forms

Figure 3.6: Roadbed Swelling Serviceability Loss Charts Form

 42

The swelling condition is important to be considering as important factor to

affect the overall pavement corresponding performance period. This procedure is
needed for determine the structural number (SN1 and SN2). Refer to Table 3.4; the
performance period difference should be less than 1 year to be predicted performance
period of initial pavement structure corresponding to the selected initial Structure
Number (SN).

Table 3.4: Reduction in performance period of initial pavement arising

from swelling consideration

Iteration Trial Serviceability Corresponding Allowable Corresponding

No. performance loss due to serviceability Cumulative performance
period (year) swelling loss due to traffic (18- period (year)
 traffic 
kip ESAL)

1* Should be less Figure 3.6  Figure 3.3 Equation 3.3
than the to get the
-Keep same
maximum R, SO, Initial t (year period)
SN, MR
possible
performance - new
period 

Check: (Try and Error Process)

Corresponding performance period + Trial performance period = <1.00 OK! (3.7)
2

3.4.8 Determination of Structural Layer Thickness



Structural Number (SN) is an index that is indicative of the total pavement
thickness required. It is also known as abstract number expressing structural strength.
Once the design structural number (SN) for the pavement structure is determined
from the nomograph, a set of pavement layer thickness, which when combined will
 43

provide the load-carrying capacity corresponding to the design SN can be determined

(Figure 3.7). The following equation provides the basis for converting the SN into
actual thickness of surfacing, base and subbase (AASHTO Guide 1993):

SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3 + … anDnmn (3.8)

Where:
a1, = Layer coefficients representative of surface courses (Figure 3.8)
a2, = Layer coefficients representative of, base courses (Figure 3.9)
a3 = Layer coefficients representative of subbase courses (Figure 3.10)
D1, D2, D3 = Actual thicknesses (in inches) of surface, base, and subbase courses
m2, m3 = Drainage coefficients for base and subbase layers (Table 3.5)

Figure 3.7: Structural Number and Thickness of pavement structure

 44

The general procedures to determine the thickness of pavement

corresponding to the design SN are show as below:

1. Using E2 as the MR value, determine from Figure 3.3 the structural number SN1
required to protect the base and compute the thickness of layer 1 by using
equation below:


SN1
D1* =
a1 (3.9)
Check SN1* = a1 D1* > SN1 OK!


2. Using E3 as the MR value, determine from Figure 3.3 the structural number SN2
required to protect the subbase and compute the thickness of layer 2 by using
equation below:


SN 2 − SN1 *
D2 * =
a1m2 (3.10)
SN2* = a2 D2*
Check SN1* + SN2* > SN2 OK!


3. Based on the roadbed soil resilient modulus MReff, determine from Figure 3.3
the total structure number SN3 require and compute the thickness of layer 3 by
using below:


SN 3 − ( SN1 * + SN 2 *)
D3 * =
a3 m3 (3.11)


4. Therefore, the total thickness for pavement structural = D1* + D2* + D3* (3.12)
 45

3.4.9 Pavement Layer Material Characteristic


Pavement layer material characteristic is an important input to determine the
layer coefficient (ai) for each particular layer. According to AASHTO 1993, there
are 3 common type of pavement material constituted the individual layers of the
structure known as Asphalt concrete surface course (EAC), granular base layers (EBS),
and granular subbase layers (ESB).


Therefore, the layer coefficients for a1, a2, and a3 can be determined from
Figure 3.8, Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10 respectively by applying the EAC, EBS and ESB
into the figures or using the below equation:


a2 = 0.249 (log10 EBS) – 0.977 (3.13)
a3 = 0.277 (log10 ESB) – 0.839 (3.14)

Figure 3.8: Structural layer coefficient (a1) of dense-graded asphalt concrete base
(AASHTO Guide, 1993)
 46

Figure 3.9 : Variation in granular base layer coefficient (a2) with various subbase
strength parameter (AASHTO Guide 1993).

Figure 3.10 : Variation in granular subbase layer coefficient (a3) with various
subbase strength parameter (AASHTO Guide 1993).
 47

3.4.10 Drainage Coefficient (mi)



Generally, quick draining layers that almost never saturate can have drainage
coefficients as high as 1.4, while slow-draining layers that often saturate can have
drainage coefficients as low as 0.40. For most designs, use a value of 1.0. If the
quality of drainage is known as well as the period of time and the pavement is
exposed to levels approaching saturation (AASHTO Guide 1993). Table 3.5 below
show the drainage coefficient of untreated base and subbase material in flexible
pavements.

Table 3.5 : Recommended mi value for modifying structural layer coefficients of

untreated base and subbase material in flexible pavements.

3.5 Overview of Design Stage for Road Note 31

In overview of design stage for Road Note 31 was divided to 3 main parts
shows as below:

1. Estimate the amounts of traffic and cumulative number of equivalent

standard axles over the design life of the road. The CSA obtained will be use
to identify the traffic classes (Table 3.6)

2. Determine the subgred strength classes from plasticity index and depth of
water table (Table 3.8) or based on CBR value (Table 3.7)
 48

3. Select the most economic combination of pavement material and thickness

from the structural catalogue (Table 3.9) that will meet the satisfactory of
pavement service and design life based on T and S values.

Table 3.6 : Traffic class Table 3.7 : Subgred Strength class

Table 3.8: Subgred Strength class

Depth of water Subgred Strength class

table from Non-plastic Sandy clay Sandy clay Silty clay Heavy clay
formation (m) sand PI = 10 PI =20 PI = 30 PI >40
0.5 S4 S4 S3 S2 S1
1 S5 S4 S3 S2 S1
2 S5 S5 S4 S3 S2
3 S6 S5 S4 S3 S2

Table 3.9: Example of structural catalogue

In the methodology of Road Note 31 design, the input of cumulative traffic

loading, subgred plasticity and depth of water from formation level (moisture supply)
was calling from AASHTO design that the user key in previously. Therefore, and
Road Note 31 method was sharing the same input with AASHTO method but
provided different design results.
 49

3.6 Program Language

In this study, the software development for flexible pavement thickness

design were been developed by using application of Visual Basic 6.0 programming
language. Visual Basic 6.0 is a powerful programming language in term of scientific
and engineering application solution.

Visual basic 6.0 is friendly uses software with a graphical user interface.
Therefore, Visual Basic can represent high attractive graphical and powerful
calculation tool that can be use to develop a software for flexible pavement thickness
design and act as database system to store all the important data and information to
be refer and guide in the programming.

Besides that, application of Visual Basic 6.0 also corresponding to the other
computer application such as Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access to share the
same characteristic database with each other.

Finally, the result from software developed obtain were been compare with
an appropriate and correct example to verify the accuracy of results obtain. Any
error or incorrect parameter will be corrected to achieve the actual result of flexible
pavement thickness design base on AASHTO and Road Note 31 method besides
carry a comparison of thickness and cost evaluations in the visual basic application.
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction of Computer Software Program

The development of flexible pavement thickness design software was done

by using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 programming language. The concept and
method of design applied was by using AASHTO and Road Note 31. The program
has been done in a complete set of coding including important command such as
compute, analysis and formula. All the important chart and table data were been
interpolated into coding to be refer as automatically while running the program for
calculating the result output.

Besides, a nice and simple interface of the software program were been create
for users to key in all the important inputs data required in the design process and
show the result output in report view. The result of analysis will be explained into 2
major parts in the subtitle below:

1. Result analysis of AASHTO Design

2. Result analysis of Road Note 31

The expected result finding was aim to design the flexible pavement
thickness design and comparison has been made between AASHTO and Road Note
31 method in term of thickness different and economic evaluation to select the best
design alternative by using this computer software.
 51

4.2 Front Interface of Software Program

In the front interface of software program, there was 3 important command
buttons in this form (Figure 4.1) known as Enter, Read Me and Log Out.

Figure 4.1 : Password Form

This program software was also creating password form to provide security
system and collected the users ID. This program fully control by security password
of “HARYATI” at Enter command, key in by the users in order to successful log in
the program software.

Figure 4.2: Read Me Form

Meanwhile, the Read Me button is uses to show the read me form (Figure 4.2)
to provided the important direction, introduction and improve user understanding
about the program software as an overall. Finally, the Log Out button is uses to end
the software program and successful to log out from the system.
 52

4.3 Homepage and Main Menu

Once the user had successful to log in, then the software will start loading as
shown in Figure 4.3. This process is very important in order to contribute some
second time for the program to call all the important function and data until it’s ready
to be applied by the users.

Figure 4.3 : Program Loading Form

After loading, the program will directly go to main menu form (Figure 4.4).
The function of main menu form are the main control for user to choose the form and
function they need such as Current Material Price form, AASHTO design form,
Road note 31 form, comparison between AASHTO and Road Note 31 form, View
Report form and log out button.

Figure 4.4 : Main Menu Form

 53

4.4 Current Material Price

The current material price will appear when the Current Material Price
command button had been selected. The current material price was act as an
important input in cost analysis and economic evaluation for AASHTO and Road
Note 31 design. The current material price was already been save and provided in
the system’s data base. The user just needs to open the data and call the current
material price data as shown in Figure 4.5. Beside, this current material price also
can be updated and resave it as a new material price file in the data base.

Figure 4.5 : Current Material Price Form

4.5 AASHTO Design

The AASHTO form will be appear when the AASHTO command button had
been selected. There were 5 major SS Tabs in this form known as AASHTO inputs
tab, resilient modulus tab, Roadbed Swelling (PSIsw) and drainage coefficient (mi)
tab, AASHTO thickness design tab and final result tab as shown in Figure 4.6.
 54

AASHTO
Command
Button

Figure 4.6 : AASHTO Form

4.5.1 AASHTO Inputs

The AASHTO input as shown in Figure 4.6 was an important general input
data collection for the entire program such as Reliability, Standard Deviation, initial
and terminal serviceability index, Traffic input data and Elastic modulus data for
each layer of pavement. This input are important in order to determine the result of
traffic during first year, cumulative 18-KIP ESAL, design serviceability loss,
standard normal deviate and structural layer coefficients (a1,a2 and a3). Besides, the
lane distribution factor form (Figure 4.7) also had been provided as reference for the
users to choose the percentage of 18-Kip ESAL in design lane.

Figure 4.7 : Lane Distribution Factor Form

 55

4.5.2 Resilient Modulus

The second important input in AASHTO design was Resilient Modulus

shown in Figure 4.8 to determine the effective roadbed soil resilient modulus, MR.
Besides, the relative damage (u) form show in Figure 4.9 also had been provided as
reference for the users to convert the soil modulus to relative damage values.

Figure 4.8 : Resilient Modulus Form

Figure 4.9 : Relative Damage, u Form

4.5.3 Roadbed Swelling (PSIsw) and Drainage Coefficient (Mi)

Figure 4.10 was shown the Roadbed Swelling (PSIsw) and Drainage
Coefficient (Mi) form in AASHTO design. There was 2 main input needed to
determine the drainage coefficient which can be obtained from the site condition
known as quality of drainage and percentage of pavement exposed to moisture level
as shown in Figure 4.11 also had been completely interpolated and store into the
system database.
 56

Figure 4.10 : Roadbed Swelling (PSIsw) and Drainage Coefficient (Mi) Form

Figure 4.11 : Drainage Coefficient Form

Meanwhile, Roadbed Swelling (PSIsw) can be determine from the data

interpolation from Figure 4.12 (Swell Rate Constant and Potential vertical Rise
chart) and Figure 4.13 (roadbed swelling serviceability loss chart). Therefore, the
user can easily obtain the PSIsw value from this computer software because the entire
chart had been interpolated and stored in the system database to be applied.

Figure 4.12 : Swell Rate Constant and Potential vertical Rise chart Forms
 57

Figure 4.13 : Roadbed Swelling Serviceability Loss Charts Form

The swelling condition is important to consider as important factor to affect

the overall pavement performance. Unfortunately, the calculations of swelling
condition are complicated and involved much try and error process. Therefore, this
problem can be easily solved by using this program software with high result
accuracy and confidents to apply.

4.5.4 AASHTO Thickness Design

In the AASHTO Thickness Design form (Figure 4.14), the thickness design
was calculated automatically from the AASHTO design formula which had been
coding into the system. The process of design including interpolation, try and error,
swelling condition and corresponding performance period check. Besides, all the
important input from previous process also will be calling automatically into the
form for calculation and formulating purpose. The result of AASHTO thickness
design were successful accurately verify between manual calculation and the
software program developed.
 58

Figure 4.14 : AASHTO Thickness Design Form

Figure 4.15 show the Nomograph for AASHTO design which been apply into
the system and as reference form for the users in order to determine the structural
numbers (SN) for each layer of pavement. In this design, the total thickness of
pavement was 28 inches as shown in Figure 4.14 was same and meet the accuracy of
requirement as shown in Appendix A (Sample Calculation of AASHTO Design).

Figure 4.15 : Nomograph for AASHTO Design Form

 59

Figure 4.16 : Corresponding Performance Period Form

The corresponding performance period (Figure 4.16) is important to identify

the performance of pavement within the design period to carry out the maintenance
work before it failed to avoid major road failure and road safety purposes. In this
design, the corresponding performance period is about 13 years then the maintenance
progress should be carrying out after this period.

4.5.5 Final Result and Cost Analysis

The final result for AASHTO design is shown in Figure 4.17. The final result
represents the thickness for every layer and total thickness of pavement structural in
the graphic view.

Figure 4.17 : Final Result Form

 60

Besides, this program software also provides the cost analysis to represent the
cost for the whole pavement structures as shown in Figure 4.17. The user can choose
the numbers of road lanes to identify the project cost base on the design analysis
which has been done. In this design, the total cost for AASHTO design was
RM 1057.4 per meter run. The calculation of cost analysis can be referring in
Appendix B.

4.6 Road Note 31

Another design method provided in this software program was Road Note 31.
The Road Note 31 design form will be present when user selects the Road Note 31
command button at the menu form as shown in Figure 4.18.

Road Note
31
Command
Button

Figure 4.18 : Road Note 31 Design Form

In Road Note 31 design, the input was calling from AASHTO design that the
user key in previously. This mean, both of AASHTO and Road Note 31 method was
sharing the same input but provided different design results. The inputs been sharing
was cumulative traffic loading (ESA), subgred plasticity and depth of water from
formation level (moisture supply).
 61

The cumulative traffic loading (ESA) is used to identify traffic classes,

meanwhile the subgred plasticity and depth of water from formation level is used to
identify the subgred strength classes. In this design, the traffic classes was T8 and
subgred strength classes was S1. Thus, the program will automatically generate the
T8/S1 structural catalogue (Figure 4.18) which been stored in the software database
system.

Against, the user also can choose the numbers of road lanes to identify the
project cost base on Road Notre 31 design analysis been done. In this design, the
total cost for AASHTO design was RM 1317.8 per meter run for total thickness of
1000 mm. The calculation of cost analysis can be referring in Appendix C.

The referent forms for Road Note 31 are shown in Figure 4.19 about material
definitions, traffic classes and subgred strength classes to guide the users.

Figure 4.19 : Material Definitions, Traffic and Subgred Strength Classes for Road Note 31
 62

4.7 Comparison between AASHTO and Road Note 31

Finally, the result of pavement thickness and cost evaluations comparative

was carried out (Figure 4.20) shown in different of thickness and different
percentage of cost evaluations between AASHTO and Road Note 31 Method. In this
example of design, result shows that the design of AASHTO is thinner 300mm than
Road Note 31 with 30 % different. In addition to that, the designs of AASHTO also
cheaper RM 260.50 per meter run than Road Note 31 with 19.8 % different.

Comparison
Command
Button

Figure 4.20 : Result Comparisons between AASHTO and Road Note 31

Therefore, the design of AASHTO is the best alternative in this design

example. Thus, the user can easily and clearly clarify the most economic design
between AASHTO and Road Note 31 design.

Besides, the result obtained also can be save as report file (Figure 4.21)
including important input parameter, result of comparison, user name, date and time
of design to be printed in hard copy as referenced by selected the Save Report
command button.
 63

Comparison
Command
Button

Figure 4.21 : Save Report

4.8 View Report

In this software program, the report saved can be viewed directly by selecting
the View Report command button and open the report save file directory
(Figure 4.22) then the view report form was presented shown in Figure 4.23 by using
the software program.

View Report
Command
Button

Figure 4.22 : Open Report File

 64

Figure 4.23 : View Report Form

The report file was generated in notepad file shown in Figure 4.24.
Therefore, the user can keep this file as softcopy or print it as hard copy referenced.
The complete notepad report can be referring at Appendix D.

Figure 4.24 : Reports Filed Generated in Note pad

 65

4.9 Discussion

The results obtain as shown in Figure 4.14 was almost same and meet the
accuracy of requirement as shown in appendix A (Sample Calculation of AASHTO
Design). Therefore, this software design has meet the accuracy requirement and
achieve high confident of justification. The only different between manual and
computerized result is because of different decimal place of numbering used.

The results obtained between both method (AASHTO VS Road Note 31) may
different because AASHTO thickness design consider Reliability, Standard
Deviation and Serviceability loss meanwhile Road Note 31 considers CBR value,
plasticity index and ground water table to determine the pavement thickness.
Therefore, this different of assumption and consideration between both methods may
affect the result of pavement thickness design.

Through the research finding and analysis, AASHTO design are more
accurate and economy because the thickness of pavement layer are base on each
layer of structural numbers and the strength of elastic modulus apply for each
pavement layer compared to the thickness design of Road Note 31, which are already
fix in the structural catalogue and limited of pavement thickness design. For Road
Note 31 design, most of the cases of pavement thickness design resulting more
thickly and expensive than AASHTO design. This is because Road Note 31 was an
experience base design from previous senior engineer and highway professional then
produced the structural catalogue from the past successful highway projects.

Besides, another advantage through AASHTO method is the corresponding

performance period of the pavement thickness design also can be identify by the
users for maintenance planning purpose. However, the Road Note 31 design method
is easier and simpler compare to AASHTO which require many input and
complicated.

Therefore, through this software of flexible thickness design program

development, the users can easily analyze and compared the result obtained to select
the best design alternative between AASHTO and Road Note 31 based on cost
evaluation and design thickness different.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Introductions

This chapter was discussed about the advantage and disadvantage of the
software program developed some recommendation to improve the software
developed and conclusion drawn.

5.1 Advantage of the Software Program Developed

Obviously, there are some significant and purpose to carry out a software
program development to made an advance improvement. There are several
advantages for this software program development as listed below:

1. To improve the design process with minimum error and human mistakes that
could lead to an incorrect design value.

2. Replace the conventional method from manual calculation to computerized

method which require time and energy saving.
 67

3. Made the flexible pavement design stage become flexible, easy and simple
because all the important data, parameter, formula, table and graph been
interpolated and store in the system database. Therefore, the user just need to
call and open the data require every time used this software program.

4. All the important data such as input, formula and result obtained can be store
and recorded to be printed as referenced in hard copy or keep as softcopy.

5. Useful for any emergency and critical project that required minimum time
design period for urgent approval for local authority.

6. Helpful to the designer and road engineer in the pavement thickness design
also for learning practice by student and lectures in teaching syllabus.

7. Achieve high confidently and accuracy of quality design result obtained.

Beside, the result of pavement thickness design can be represented in a nice
graphical view of the overall thickness from this software.


8. Comparison can be made in term of thickness and economic evaluation for

both AASHTO and Road Note 31 design by using the same inputs.
Therefore, the user can easily analyze and choose the best alternative by
using this software program.
 68

5.2 Disadvantage and Recommendation of the Software Program Developed

However, there are also some disadvantages and recommendations by using the
software program in flexible thickness design that can be consider as listed below:

1. The software program developed just can run or used by electronic computer
device compare to manual calculation are easier by using calculator, chart and
graph require in hardcopy. Therefore, the users are recommended to provide or
standby the sources required especially at site in case there are no electronic
device available.

2. The result been save in soft copy may disrupt or destroy by virus or computer
formatted and cause all the important design result gone and double work are
required to redesign against. Therefore, the users are recommended to print out
the result design in hard copy every time after finish design using this program.
Beside, user also can keep a backup copy on the softcopy in CD or diskette.

3. Another disadvantage of the computer software is the quality of result does not
guaranty if the input parameter are wrong. Therefore, the users are
recommended to be very careful to avoid incorrect input parameter to avoid any
wrong design. Beside, user are also recommended to carry site visit to get the
real project data on the sport such as traffic loading data, required souses of
pavement material on currently, subgred condition, drainage condition and others
more to insure the input parameter are quality and accurate.

4. Software program also require high understanding or manual guide on how to use
the computer program. Therefore, the users are recommended to practice and
learn to using the computer program before apply it into the real project design.

5. This program software also can be recommended to carry further in the future
and advance in comparison with more other design method such as Arahan
Teknik Jalan to get more alternatives for the best thickness and economic
evaluation purpose.

 69

5.3 Conclusion

Through the research of software development, the result obtained was

successful achieved as expected. The software was found to be successful in order to
determine the pavement thickness design based on AASHTO and Road Note 31.
The comparison between both methods was carried out have shown the difference in
terms of thickness and percentage of cost evaluations between AASHTO and Road
Note 31 Method. Therefore, through this software of flexible thickness design
program development, the users can easily analyze and compared the result obtained
to select the best design alternative between AASHTO and Road Note 31 based on
cost and thickness different.

Thus, development of software to design the pavement thickness is very

important to save cost, time and energy. This software is confidents to be apply and
achieve high accuracy of result obtained. Thus, the design stage can be made in a
very short time period of design process and help to minimize the error factor
compare to manual calculation or conventional method by applies this computer
program. Computer software also can give a high accuracy and quality of result for
pavement thickness design.

Apart from that, by using this software, all the important data such as input,
formula and result obtained can be store and recorded to be printed as referenced and
become helpful to the designer and road engineer in the pavement thickness design.
Therefore, computer software of flexible pavement thickness design is a very useful
tool in highway engineering especially to design the thickness of flexible pavement.
REFERENCE

AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 1993,

Published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

“AASHTO 1993 Flexible Pavement Design Equation”, Hawaii Asphalt Paving Industry

Darklama(2008) Visual Basic History, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/visual_basic.

H.M.Deitel ( 2005), “Visual Basic 2005-How To Program”,

Third edition by Pearson education, Inc.


J. Transp. Engrg. (1991): Volume 117, Issue 2, pp. 189-209 (March/April 1991)

Muench, S.T.; Mahoney, J.P. and Pierce, L.M. (2003) “The WSDOT Pavement Guide
Interactive”,. WSDOT, Olympia, WA.
http://guides.ce.washington.edu/uw/wsdot

Muench, S.T. (2002) “WAPA Asphalt Pavement Guide”.

WAPA, Seattle, WA. http://www.asphaltwa.com

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). (2001). “HMA Pavement Mix Type
Selection Guide”, Information Series 128. National Asphalt Pavement
Association. Landham, MD.

NAPA's Designing and Constructing SMA Mixtures: State-of-the-Practice, QIP 122
(1999) publication or NCHRP Report 425: “Designing Stone Matrix Asphalt
Mixtures for Rut-Resistant Pavements”.
 71

National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). (1995). “Thin Hot Mix Asphalt
Surfacings”, Information Series 110. National Asphalt Pavement
Association. Lanham, MD.

Pennsylvania Asphalt Pavement Association (PAPA)

“Providing Quality Service to Pennsylvania’s Hot-Mix Asphalt Industry”, (2006)


Ray Hannah, (Feb 13, 2009). “How to Develop a Computer Program: Four Key
Steps to Producing Code in any Programming Language”


R. P. Gabriel, (1993). The end of history and the last programming language.
Journal of Object-Oriented Programming, 6(4):90-94, July 1993.:

ROAD NOTE 31, A Guide To The Structural Design Of Bitumen Surfaced Road in Tropical
and Sub-Tropical Countries (Fourth Edition), 1993, Published by Transportation Of
Research Laboratory (TRL), ISSN: 0951-8797

Simhadri, Domain Expert, CareerCampus.net,

Copyright 2003 Globarena Iteknowledge Pvt. Ltd.

Sandeep Mogulla (2004-2007), Master's degree in Computing and Information Technology
from University of Western Sydney, NET programming with other developers,
http://www.startvbdotnet.com

Tom Scullion, Project Summary Report 0-1869-S: “Improving Flexible Pavement Design
Procedures”, Texas Transportation Institute/TTI Communications, The Texas A&M
University System, URL: http://tti.tamu.edu/documents/0-1869-S.pdf

“Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0”. Princeton University, Princeton, NJ.
http://www.wordreference.com/definition/software. Retrieved on 2007-08-19
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
 79

APPENDIX B

AASHTO DESIGN (COST ANALYSIS)

Current material Market price.

Num.of Road Lanes = 2 Lanes 2 Carriageway = 3.6m/lanes X 2 = 7.2m

Surface Thickness = 7.38 inches = 184.5 mm
Roadbase Thickness = 7.86 inches = 196.5 mm
Subbase Thickness = 12.93 inches = 323.25 mm

Total Thickness = 700 mm

Cost Analysis:

ACW = (184.5mm/2) X (RM24/50mm) = RM 44.28 m2

ACB = (184.5mm/2) X (RM24/75mm) = RM 29.52 m2
Road Base = (196.5) X (RM11/150mm) = RM 14.41 m2
Sub Base = (323.25) X (RM8/50mm) = RM 51.72 m2
Excavation Cost = 0.7m X RM6 = RM 4.20 / m3

Prime Coat = RM 1.50 / m2

Tack Coat = RM 1.20 / m2

Thus, Total Cost For 2 Ways 2 Carriageways

= RM (44.28 + 29.52 + 14.41 + 51.72 + 4.20 + 1.20 + 1.50) X 7.2m
= RM 1057.20
 80

APPENDIX C

ROAD NOTE 31 DESIGN (COST ANALYSIS)

Current Material Market price.

Num.of Road Lanes = 2 Lanes 2 Carriageway = 3.6m/lanes X 2 = 7.2m

Surface Thickness = 150 mm
Roadbase Thickness = 250 mm
Subbase Thickness = 250 mm
Subgred Thickness = 350 mm
Total Thickness = 1000 mm

Cost Analysis:

ACW = (75mm) X (RM24/50mm) = RM 36 m2

ACB = (75) X (RM24/75mm) = RM 24 m2
Road Base = (250) X (RM11/150mm) = RM18.33m2
Sub Base = (250) X (RM8/50mm) = RM 40 m2
Subgred = (350) X (RM8/50mm) = RM 56 m2
Excavation Cost = 1m X RM6 = RM 6 / m3
Prime Coat = RM 1.50 / m2
Tack Coat = RM 1.20 / m2

Thus, Total Cost For 2 Ways 2 Carriageways

= RM (36 + 24 + 18.33 + 40 + 56 + 6 + 1.2 + 1.5) X 7.2m
= RM 1317.82
 81

APPENDIX D



  

    



 

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Comparison AASHTO VS Road Note 31 (Coding)


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