6 Characteristic Coefficients and Parameters of the Rocket Motor is possible to define some quantities which are characteristic for the rocket motor or its components. They are useful for outline information about the ‘ocket motor, but they also allow comparison, in certain respects, of rocket engines of different sizes. Some other, dimensionless quantities, are useful to ompare theoretical and experimental results. For a better understanding of iow the latter quantities can be used to interpret test results, we will first riefly discuss the testing of rockets. 1 Some notes on rocket testing ie. most important performance parameter of the rocket motor is the irust. To measure the thrust, the rocket motor is fired on a test stand. As the rocket performances are dependent on the burning-time, 4, the chamber ressure, p,, and chamber temperature, T,, these quantities are measured ‘oo. If heat transfer, deformation, etc., are important factors, it is obvious that many more variables have to be measured. We will concern ourselves, in section, only with those quantities, that determine the rocket perfor- ances directly. ‘The rocket motor may be placed either in a horizontal, vertical or inclined ition. If the rocket is in a pure horizontal position and the thrust is lirected along the axis of symmetry, the weight of the rocket motor can be easured by the vertical support. In this position, the main components of eight and thrust are orthogonal. If the rocket is in a vertical position, the cight vector is in the same (or opposite) direction as the thrust vector, and ‘ombination of thrust and weight is measured. This may pose difficulties solid-propellant rockets, as it is not possible to determine exactly their flow at any instant. For a liquid-propellant rocket this information is, £asily obtained by measuring the mass flow from the propellant tanks. Although horizontal testing may be easier, for large rocket motors the 2 ‘Ocket structure may not be suited very well for testing in such a position, or the liquids injected in the combustion chambers of liquid-propellant rockets ‘ay stay there while not yet burned, due to the ignition time lag. This may d to an explosion. One can avoid this risk by putting the rocket motor in a ttical position. It is clear that, especially for very large rockets, this leads ‘0 More complicated structures of the teststand. 'Y Measuring the forces on the rocket in three orthogonal directions, at "ast at two different points for each direction, one can determine the forces114 Rocket Propulsion & Spaceflight Dynamics and moments on the rocket in all directions. This yields information about <4 thrust misalignment and is also important in the case of thrust vector: control. i Static rocket testing is a specialized technique and we will not discuss the various ways of measuring the important parameters. We will assume that it. is possible to measure all these quantities more or less accurately. If a rocket engine does not meet its specifications, it is necessary to determine the cause of this shortcoming. It is here that the quantities to be discussed in this chapter turn out to be convenient, because they yield specific information: 6.2 Total and specific impulse A rocket motor, which during a time interval, f, exerts a thrust, F(t), ° delivers a total impulse, I, [ F(t) dt. ‘The propellant mass which was needed for this is M,, and hence, the impulse per unit weight of the propellant, the specific impulse, I,p, is [ro dt [ro dt I= Je MpBo { gom(t) dt where gy is the standard surface gravity. Another often used definition of specific impulse, is the ratio of the impulse delivered during an infinitesimal time interval, 5t, F5t, and the propellant weight consumed during that time interval, mgy 6t, I, = Fi(mgy). (6.2-2b) This quantity is also referred to as the specific thrust, as it is the thrust per. propellant weight flow rate. Both definitions are more or less equivalent, «| and are identical if F and m are constant. I= (6.2-1) (6.2-2a) The specific impulse shows how much impulse can be obtained from a unit a weight of propellant, and as one tries to keep weights as low as possible in rocket technology, it is evident that a high specific impulse is desirable. The specific impulse may also be interpreted as the time during which a propel- lant can deliver a force which equals the propellants’ initial weight. As the specific impulse is expressed in seconds, it has the same numerical value, in both English and SI units. The specific impulse depends on both the propellant and the motor configuration. This can be seen from Eq. (5.1-51) - with V,= V,, and p, = De F=AmV,+(p.— Pa) Ae (6.2-3) Characteristic Coefficients and Parameters of the Rocket Motor 115 According to Chapter 5, the reduction factor, A, depends on the nozzle shape, while the exhaust velocity, V., and the exhaust pressure, p., depend on the expansion ratio, A,/A, and chamber pressure, p,. Using the second definition, Eq. (6.2-2b), of the specific impulse, and assuming ideal expan- sion, i.e. pp=pa, we find, taking A =1, =Ve_ Ve mg 80 (6.2-4) ‘SP Then, the specific impulse equals the ratio of the exhaust velocity and the standard surface gravity. The specific impulse attains its maximum value in the case that we expand to vacuum, ie. p,=p,=0. We then find Vi Toman = Pmt ge This value is a true propellant characteristic, as it is not dependent on (6.2-5) "pressure or expansion ratio. The direct measurement of the vacuum specific impulse is difficult, however; therefore one always should indicate the pressure ratio p/p, and the ambient pressure if one lists values of the _ Specific impulse. For solid propellants, [,, attains values roughly between 200s and 300 s. Modern liquid propellants exhibit higher values, somewhere between 250s and 460s. The values of I, for hybrid propellant combina- tions are, in general, a little higher than those for solids. The specific consumption is defined as the ratio of propellant weight consumed and the total impulse delivered. Therefore, it is the inverse of the specific impulse: 1 = a8 as aT - P { F(t) dt 6.3 The volumetric specific impulse (6.2-6) The volumetric specific impulse, I, is a measure for the influence of different propellants on the performance of a vehicle of fixed dimensions. It is defined as Ts = pplypy (6.3-1) where p, stands for the average density of the propellants. , In Chapters 11 and 12 it will be shown that AV,,, ie. the velocity --Increment of a rocket vehicle in absence of drag and gravitational forces, 'M,+M, AVia= Io ln (MEME) fe (6.3-2) is a very important performance parameter. In Eq. (6.3-2) M, is the total116 Rocket Propulsion & Spaceflight Dynamics propellant mass, and M, is the empty (final) mass of the vehicle. Then (6.3+3) where Y, is the volume available to store propellants. This volume is thought of as a fixed quantity, as we consider a rocket of fixed dimensions, and study the propellant influence on rocket performance. Now, if M,/M.<«1, we approximate the logarithm in Eq. (6.3-2) and find M, = eV, AVia= letabeg (63-4) This equation shows that for a rocket of fixed dimensions and M,/M, «1, | the ideal velocity increment, AVjz, depends on the volumetric specific impulse, J;. These small ratios of propellant mass over final mass are encountered in JATO (Jet Assisted Take-Off) rockets and small rocket weapons. The ratio M,/M, « 1 is one extreme, the other extreme is M,/M, > 1. Then in(1+22) is not very sensitive anymore to changes in M,/M,. Therefore, for very large ratios of propellant mass and final mass the specific impulse, I,, is the prime factor that determines the performance parameter, AVjz. In many practical cases, M,/M, lies somewhere between these ex- tremes. Then, both effects are noticeable. Thus, both the volumetric specific impulse and the specific impulse determine the performance. The case may as well be reversed: if a specified ideal velocity increment, AVjq, is required, which propellant combination yields the smallest vehicle possible? Solid propellants, which are much denser, exhibit higher volumetric specific impulses than liquid propellants. This is one of the reasons that solid propellants, in spite of their lower specific impulse, as compared to liquid © propellants, find so much use. 6.4 The thrust coefficient If the diverging part of the nozzle did not contribute to the thrust, and if there were no flow in the combustion chamber, the thrust delivered by the rocket motor in vacuum, Fo, would be (Fig. 6.1), Fo= peAv (64-1) As the divergent section of the nozzle does contribute to the thrust, and as i there is a flow in the combustion chamber, the thrust, F, differs from Fo. The = thrust coefficient is defined as the ratio of actual thrust and the thrust as defined by Eq. (6.4-1): (6.4-2) iy Characteristic Coefficients and Parameters of the Rocket Motor 117 FeBoAt ig. 6.1 The combustion chamber without the nozzle. The wall pressure is assumed constant all over the walls With the Eqs. (5.1-15), (5.1-39) and (6.2-3), we find, =F Crm arf = (2)" “+ (2-2) . y-l Pe. Pe Pe/ At (6.4-3) In general, one will assume A unity. The expansion ratio, A,/A, being only a function of the pressure ratio, p,/p.. and -y, (Eq. (5.1-41), means that Cp is a _ function of the pressure ratio, p,/p,, the ambient pressure, p,, y and, p,. If “we have ideal expansion, i.e. p, = p,, the thrust, F, and therefore the thrust coefficient, C,, reaches its maximum value (Section 5.1.5). In general, C; decreases with increasing values of.y for the same expansion and pressure _ ratios. The maximum value of C; is called the characteristic thrust coefficient, and indicated as Cz. From Eq. (6.4-3), we obtain, taking A =1, (6.4-4) “In Fig. 6.2 Cz and C are plotted versus the expansion ratio, A,/A,, for various pressure ratios. The dotted region indicates where separation usually Occurs. After separation has taken place (Section 5.2.1), thrust, and thrust Coefficient remain approximately constant. The maximum value for C2 “Occurs when p, = p, = 0 (expansion to vacuum), (6.4-5) The thrust coefficient can be used to compute a rocket’s thrust, but also to determine the nozzle efficiency. To get an impression of the nozzle effi- clency, one can determine experimentally the thrust coefficient according to : Eq. (6.4-2) and compare this value with the theoretical thrust coefficient as determined by Eq. (6.4-3) or Fig. 6.2. The ratio of the experimental thrust Coefficient and the theoretical one can be interpreted as a nozzle efficiency, _& From Eq. (5.2-1) and the foregoing reasoning ‘it will be clear that (6.4-6)118 Rocket Propulsion & Spaceflight Dynamics 20 & ea 215 & Z Eto 05 N NN. \ \ \ VN \ \ \ Vy \ \ Ps dT NMS A] ay Led 1fe.5, AY gy ar 20] 30 j50\] 100) Fe \ VAL iL ‘ o \ t 2 3 48 7 0 230 4050 70 700300 Expansion Ratio Ap/Ay 20, Pe13 $ | 5 os 215 ~ é SK Sohaatoh ot e Separalion 3 Nal cmbot! E idol Expan: Separatioh of E to iS \ \ \, N NS N hy VN Os T N \ NN YIN \ \ ATA \ \ By yd | 2h Jad sd | tod 0 N\A N \ 1 2 345 7 0 2 30 4050 70 100 200 300 Expansion Ratio Ae/At Fig. 6.2 The thrust coefficient versus the expansion ratio for various pressure, ratios. (a) For y= 1.2; (b) for y=1.3 6.5 The characteristic velocity According to Eq. (6.4-2), the thrust, F, is F=Cyp.A, In the case of ideal expansion and again taking A = 1, we also have, according to Eq. (6.2-3) F=mvV.. We may ask ourselves: what would the exhaust velocity be if the diverging: ae Characteristic Coefficients and Parameters of the Rocket Motor 119 part of the nozzle does not contribute to the thrust, ie. Cp=1? We will note this exhaust velocity by c*, and find F=mc*=pAy (6.5-3) m which follows cto BAe (6.5-4) m ‘The quantity, c*, is called the characteristic velocity, and we will show that it ‘a propellant property, which, as distinct from the specific impulse, is “independent of pressure ratio. To see this, consider the mass flow through é nozzle, Eq. (5.1-39). Combination of this equation and Eq. (6.5-4) gives (6.5-5) which is dependent only on chamber temperature and the properties of the combustion products. The theoretical value of c*, as computed from Eq. (6:5-5), can be compared with the value determined by a test. The ratio of those two values is an indication of how efficiently the combustion process takes place within the rocket motor. i. It follows immediately from Eq. (6.4-2) and Eq. (6.5-4) that F=C,c*m. e now have split the thrust into two contributing factors: (6.5-6) The thrust coefficient, C, which is a nozzle quality factor. -2.. The characteristic velocity, c*, which is a propellant and combustion quality factor. his is indicated schematically in Fig. 6.3. ss fe ig. 6.3 The cylindrical combustion chamber, and the regions which are of Mportance for the characteristic velocity and the thrust coefficient120 Rocket Propulsion & Spaceflight Dynamics Directly related to the characteristic velocity is the mass flow factor, Cp; defined as 5 m PcAy The mass flow factor, Cp, can be computed theoretically from Eq. (6.5-5) by using the fact that C, =1/c*, and determined experimentally according to Eq. (6.5-7). Comparing the experimental and theoretical values leads to Cp= =1c*. (6.5-7) ci Coe (6.5-8) an Cap f where use is made of Eq. (5.2-3). 6.6 The effective exhaust velocity Because Eq. (6.2-3) for the thrust of a rocket engine is not very convenient for analytical calculations, a simpler form, that avoids the pressure terms, is often used. One introduces the effective exhaust velocity, c, defined as c= Fm. (6.6-1) From Eqs. (5.1-39) and (6.2-3) we can derive Pe_ Pa\Ae VRT. c= vet (PBs) Be YRE (6.6-2) Pe PsA, T By use of the characteristic velocity, c*, we may also write Pe_ Pa\ Ae = ve (BBs) fe * 6.6-3) Pe Pel Ay ‘ Combination of the Eqs. (6.5-6) and (6.6-1) yields = Cpc* (6.6-4) From Egs. (6.6-2) and (6.6-3) it is clear that the effective exhaust velocity is dependent on the atmospheric pressure and thus will not be constant during a rocket’s ascent. However, the exhaust velocity, V,, is about constant and the contribution of the pressure thrust to the total thrust is small. Therefore, it is admissible in analytical approximations, to assume a constant effective exhaust velocity c. In that case, we find from the equation for the specific impulse, Eq. (6.2-2b), € I,=—. 6.6-5) 7, ( 6.7 Characteristic length and residence time Consider a cylindrical combustion chamber with length, L, and cross- sectional area, A, (Fig. 6.3). The volume of the converging part of the Characteristic Coefficients and Parameters of the Rocket Motor 121 ozzle is thought of as negligible as compared to the chamber volume, Y,. In regoing sections, we assumed the kinetic energy of the gas in the chamber mall as compared to the total enthalpy. Let us now consider the gas velocity in the chamber. The steady-state continuity equation states for the mass flow m=p.VA, = AVAe (6.7-1) ‘Assuming a constant velocity in the chamber, the residence time, o*, that is e average time a particle will stay in the combustion chamber, follows * z ave, (6.7-2) here L stands for the length of the chamber and Y, for the chamber lume. Multiplication of the right-hand side of Eq. (6.7-2) with p./p, and ising the fact that the chamber mass flow equals the mass flow through the “throat, Eq. (5.1-39) then leads to Yel A.TVRT, ‘The ratio of chamber volume to throat area is called the characteristic ngth, L*, of a rocket motor and is defined, even in the case that the rocket otor is not cylindrical, as, (6.7-3) peaks (6.7-4) The characteristic length, L*, is an important parameter in combustion 4nalysis [1], and it also plays an important role in certain types of combus- lion instability analysis [2] which, however, is beyond the scope of this book. should be emphasized that L* is a constant for a liquid-propellant motor, ut increases with time for solid- and hybrid-propellant motors because, Owing to the propellant consumption, the chamber volume increases. It will e clear that if one wants to have a good utilization of the propellants, the hole combustion should take place within the combustion chamber. There- fore, the residence time, r*, should at least equal the time needed for Vaporization and complete reaction of the propellants. For solid propellants, Where the combustion [3,4] is different from the combustion of liquid Propellants [5], the residence time is usually large enough. By use of Eq. 5-5) we get a relation between residence time, characteristic velocity and - characteristic length, L*c* (6.7-5)122 Rocket Propulsion & Spaceflight Dynamics References 1 Barrére, M., Jaumotte, A., Fraeijs de Veubeke, B. and Vandenkercl hove, J., (1960), Rocket Propulsion, Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 398-403. 2 Strand, L. D. (1968), Summary of a Study of the Low-pressure Combustic of Solid Propellants, Techn. Rpt. 32-1242, Jet Propulsion Laborato: California Institute of Technology, Pasadena. 3 Dadieu, A., Damm, R. and Schmidt, E.W. (1968), Raketentreibstoffe Springer, Vienna, p. 160-164. 4 Price, E. W. and Culick, F. E. C. (1969), Combustion of Solid Rocl Propellants, ALAA professional study series, New York. 5 Harrje, D. T. (ed.) (1972), Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Instabilit NASA SP-194, Washington, p. 74-100.