Transport of Fresh Produce
CB Watkins, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by C.B. Watkins, volume 2, pp. 835–845, Ó 2003, Elsevier Ltd.
Nomenclature
Controlled atmosphere storage Storages in which
atmospheres of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen (and
sometimes other gases) are controlled by external control
systems
Ethylene A plant growth regulator that controls the way
that plants proceed though development, especially
ripening processes
Fresh cut (syn. minimally processed) products Processed
products that have been prepared without application of
complete preservation procedures (heat sterilization,
freezing, etc.), retaining their unprocessed, fresh-like
properties and quality, and are used for convenient
consumption
Introduction
Few fresh crops are consumed at the point of production, and
therefore they must be transported to markets for purchase by
the consumer. The transport requirements can range from simple,
involving short walking distances to a nearby local market, to
those involving transport by land, sea, or air. The modern market-
place, particularly in developed countries, involves the sourcing
and therefore transport of fresh fruit, vegetable, and ornamental
crops from around the world. The mode of transport, the market
demand, and therefore the price obtained by the grower/shipper
for the crop, together with the requirements necessary to meet the
level of quality to satisfy the consumer, greatly affects the
economics of transport. The economics for any given crop in
the marketplace are affected by production, location, and trans-
port costs. A market niche providing high financial returns that
can justify the high costs of airfreight can be lost to development
of production in an area closer to the market, thereby allowing use
of cheaper transport methods.
Regardless of the production region, the same principles for
maintaining fresh crop quality apply to transport of fresh crops
as for on-site storage. After harvest, the objective of all fresh
crop industries is to maintain quality by the following:
1. reducing metabolic rates that result in undesirable changes
in color, composition, texture, flavor and nutritional status,
and growth (sprouting, rooting);
2. reducing water loss that can result in loss of saleable weight,
reduction in appearance factors, such as wilting and shriv-
eling, and textural quality factors of softening, limpness,
and loss of crispness;
3. minimizing bruising, friction damage, and other mechan-
ical injuries;
4. reducing spoilage caused by pathogen infection, especially
of damaged or wounded tissues;
Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394807-6.00218-5
Intermodal transport Transport that involves
a combination of road, rail, and sea
Modified atmosphere storage Similar to controlled
atmosphere storage in that atmospheres of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen are altered from normal
atmospheric levels, but the atmosphere is not controlled;
modified atmospheres are produced by plastic films or
wax around products, the final atmosphere being
a function of weight and volume of product, temperature,
permeability characteristics of the film or wax, and film
surface area
5. prevention of physiological disorders, especially freezing
and chilling injuries;
6. avoiding contamination, for example, of organic products
with synthetic chemicals and maintaining food safety.
Transport represents a greater challenge in meeting these
objectives than on-site storage, especially temperature and rela-
tive humidity. Proper refrigeration should be used during
storage, transport, and marketing, although the importance of
this is related to the product and specific market. Farmers’
markets might have poor but satisfactory cold chain manage-
ment if the crop is harvested, transported locally, and sold
within a day or two, for example, compared with need to main-
tain quality over days or weeks for shipment to distant markets.
Ideally, the objectives are met by harvesting the crop at
optimum maturity or quality for the desired market, handling
the crop carefully and rapidly to avoid mechanical injury and
minimize deterioration, applying protective chemical preserva-
tives (antioxidants, fungicides), providing protective containers
and packaging, storing at the optimum temperatures and rela-
tive humidities for the specific product, and using appropriate
modified atmosphere (MA) or controlled atmosphere (CA)
storage if possible. Some crops have specialized requirements,
e.g., pulsing of cut flowers with silver thiosulfate to inhibit
ethylene action, carbohydrates necessary for opening, and
biocides to inhibit bacterial growth. The fresh crop should be
cooled quickly to remove field heat, and, if necessary, again
after packaging. Good sanitation practices also must be main-
tained throughout these processes as well as during harvesting.
Outbreaks of foodborne illness can have a devastating effect in
the market; both for whole and fresh cut products.
While the factors involved in storage and transport are essen-
tially the same, the relative importance of each will depend on the
specific crop and production area. In some cases, the time in
transit can represent a significant part of the storage life for
351
352 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce
a product, e.g., strawberries (Fragaria
ananassa), cherries
(Prunus avium), and cut flowers, and therefore the storage
environment during this time can greatly affect product
marketability. In contrast, for products such as apple
(Malus
domestica) transported from the Southern Hemisphere
to Europe or bulb crops from Europe to North America, transit
time of 4 weeks still represents a relatively short time for a crop
that can be stored for several months. Because of the large number
of possible scenarios for managing a crop before and during
transport, this article presents general themes of importance.
For the purposes of this article, many of the examples of factors
that affect physiology of horticultural products are for fruits
and vegetables, but the principles apply to all harvested crops.
This article should also be read in the context of major
changes in rules governing transport of horticultural produce as
a result of the modernization of food safety standards in the
United States under the auspices of the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration Food Safety Modernization Act. The rule on Sanitary
Transportation of Human and Animal Food aims to protect
foods from farm to table by preventing practices during transpor-
tation that create food safety risks, such as failure to properly
refrigerate food, inadequate cleaning of vehicles between loads,
and failure to properly protect food. These include the following:
1. Vehicles and transportation equipment: The design and
maintenance of vehicles and transportation equipment to
ensure that it does not cause the food that it transports to
become unsafe. For example, they must be suitable and
adequately cleanable for their intended use and capable of
maintaining temperatures necessary for the safe transport of
food.
2. Transportation operations: The measures taken during
transportation to ensure food safety, such as adequate
temperature controls, preventing contamination of ready to
eat food from touching raw food, protection of food from
contamination by nonfood items in the same load or
previous load, and protection of food from cross-contact,
i.e., the unintentional incorporation of a food allergen.
3. Training: Training of carrier personnel in sanitary trans-
portation practices and documentation of the training. This
training is required when the carrier and shipper agree that the
carrier is responsible for sanitary conditions during transport.
4. Records: Maintenance of records of written procedures,
agreements, and training (required of carriers). The required
retention time for these records depends upon the type of
record and when the covered activity occurred, but does not
exceed 12 months.
Pre-Transport Considerations
Packaging
Packages have four primary functions: containment, protec-
tion, convenience, and communication. The product may be
graded for size and quality, and packaged manually or auto-
matically depending on the crop and market requirements.
Prepackage treatments can include application of waxes for
appearance and/or reduction of water loss from the product.
1. Containment. Containment is a basic requirement for the
movement of a product from one point to another. The
package used is a function of the growing region and
market, and ranges from very simple open containers to
highly designed packages involving technologies such as
MA generating films.
2. Protection. Packages provide protection for the product
against environmental factors such as dust and water, as
well as against bruising, both impact and compression
types, and friction injuries that can occur during handling
and transport. Cartons must have stacking strength and
durability to prevent collapse or crushing when they are on
pallets, especially under high relative humidity conditions.
Trays, cups, or other protective devices may be contained
within the package to further prevent movement and/or
contact between crop items. However, whatever the pack-
aging used, it cannot protect the product against careless
and rough handling, and maintaining product quality
requires monitoring of all handling steps before, during,
and after transport to prevent abuse.
3. Convenience. Crops may be packaged in sizes that are
convenient for the consumer, but larger containers are often
used because of the economies of scale required to transport
crops over long distances. The product may be removed
from the container and placed directly on display for
purchase as single units, or repackaged in a distribution
warehouse. Smaller packages (primary package) may also
be contained in larger packages (secondary package), e.g.,
cartons containing clamshell packages of strawberries, or
MA packages (MAP) of fresh cut produce. Secondary pack-
ages may be unitized into a tertiary package such as a plastic
pallet shroud. Package size is affected by regulations
designed to ensure that package weights are manageable by
all sexes. There is also a trend toward use of smaller cartons
for display purposes in retail markets, which reduce
handling and therefore the potential for product damage.
Apples in the UK, for example, are commonly packaged in
two-layer cartons, which are placed directly on display for
the consumer, rather than in 20-kg cartons that require
repackaging or handling of the product on to shelf display.
4. Communication. Though of lesser importance to mainte-
nance of crop quality, providing information about the
product is an important function in packaging. In addition
to the advertising factor of package marking, information is
provided about gross and net package weight, unit size of
the product, as well as declaration of the use of any post-
harvest treatments, e.g., antioxidant use or waxing of apples,
which may be required by state or national regulations.
An important secondary function of packaging for fresh
crops is to provide ventilation for rapid cooling of produce
and/or insulation against temperature changes. These functions
can be in conflict as greater area of holes in cartons can make
cooling of products more efficient, but also their warming.
The relative importance of ventilation and insulation depends
on the crop, the cooling method utilized, and the subsequent
requirements for temperature control.
Cooling Requirements
The physiology of the crop affects the cooling requirements and
methods that can be used to cool the product. The general goal,

Figure 1 Respiration rates of selected fruit (a) and vegetables (b) at
different storage temperatures.
however, is to reduce field heat rapidly, or to recool the product
after it has been packaged, to minimize respiration rates
(Figure 1) and associated heat production. Some crops with
especially high respiration rates, such as asparagus (Asparagus
officinalis), broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), ripe tomatoes
(Solanum lycopersicum), leafy vegetables, avocados (Persea amer-
icana), mangoes (Mangifera indica), stone fruit, and straw-
berries, must be cooled rapidly to reduce their metabolic
rates. Other products with lower respiration rates may have
less critical requirements for rapid cooling, but in general
should be cooled rapidly to ensure long-term storability. It
has been shown for early season apple fruit, for example, that
1 day at 20  C can result in a loss of 1 week of storage life. Cool-
ing also reduces ethylene production rates and sensitivity to its
presence, decreases water loss, decay development, and the
severity of crop responses to injury.
However, not all crops should be rapidly cooled, as some
require curing at warmer temperatures. In onions, curing is
used to dry the neck and outer scales. Potatoes are cured to
develop wound periderms over damaged surfaces, and curing
can reduce water loss and heal injuries. Curing is usually
done in the field or in curing rooms, but, in the case of new
crop potatoes, may occur during transit. Distinct from curing,
specific requirements may exist, such as for the banana (Musa
sapientum), which requires special ripening treatments and
therefore is not precooled. The final storage and/or transit
temperature for a crop will be a function of its susceptibility
to freezing and chilling injury (see below).
Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce 353
Types of Cooling
The main methods used for cooling of fresh crops after harvest
and before transport are room cooling, forced-air cooling,
hydrocooling, forced-air evaporative cooling, package icing,
and vacuum cooling. These may be applied in bulk before
storage or to packed products before transport. Detailed
descriptions of the operation of each method are available
from many sources. In general, the cooling method selected
will be a function of economy, convenience, and personal
preference, but the product type (Table 1) may greatly influ-
ence the type of cooling selected. Crops vary in their suscepti-
bility to contact with water or ice. For example, strawberry
fruit can be susceptible to decay if they become water
saturated.
1. Room cooling (syn. passive cooling). Field or shipping
containers are placed in a cold room, and cooling of the
crop occurs passively by heat exchange between the product
and the cold air. The rate of cooling is affected by the heat of
respiration of the product, the refrigeration capacity, the
final temperature desired, and the airflow around the
product. Cooling rates can be maximized by ensuring that
containers are stacked in patterns that maximize contact
between the cold air and the product, by attention to
stacking patterns in a room and ventilation of containers.
Frequently, the cooling capacity of the refrigeration equip-
ment is adequate to maintain cold temperatures of previ-
ously cooled crops, and not sufficient to ensure rapid
cooling. Passive cooling is the most widely used method of
cooling, but has the disadvantages of being slow and
resulting in excessive water loss from the product. Slow
cooling rates of products kept in stacked cartons during
passive cooling can result in faster loss of quality during
transit.
2. Forced-air cooling (syn. pressure cooling). Field or shipping
containers are stacked in patterns so that cooling air is
forced through, rather than around, the individual
container. Operationally, the method requires a slight
pressure gradient, usually developed with a fan, to force
cold air through the containers. Vent holes should be placed
in the packing material in the direction that will minimize
the interference of free movement of air through the
container. Direct contact of cold air with the product results
in much faster cooling, usually 0.1–0.25 the time that room
cooling takes to cool a product. The rate of cooling is
controlled by the volume of air passing over the product.
The economics of cooling are affected by the fan speed and
number of containers being cooled. Water loss from the
product is less than that found for room cooling, but high
relative humidity is required to minimize desiccation of
strawberries, grape (Vitis spp.) stems, and other products
susceptible to drying.
3. Hydrocooling. The temperature of the crop is reduced by cold
water flowing over the product surface, either by flooding,
spraying, or immersion of the product in an agitated bath of
chilled water. The rate of internal cooling is related to the
size and shape, and thermal conductivity of the product
being cooled. The method is simple, economic, effective,
and avoids water loss, though it is generally suited to fruit
and vegetables in bulk rather than packaged. Several
354 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce

Table 1 Cooling methods recommended for selected fresh crops

Cooling method
Forced-air
crop Room Forced air Hydrocooling Vacuum Package icing evaporative cooling

Fruit
Apples (Malus domestica), pears (Pyrus communis) x x x
Lemons (Citrus jambhiri), Oranges (Citrus sinensis) x
Apricots (Prunus armeniaca), grapes (Vitus vinifera), x x
strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa)
Vegetables
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea Capitata), cauliflower (Brassica x x x
oleracea Botrytis), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), mushrooms
(Agaricus bisporus)
Dry onions (Allium cepa) x x
Garlic (Allium sativum) x
Iceburg lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. capitata) x x
Leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa) x x x x
Sweet corn (Zea mays) x x x x
Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus), eggplant (Solanum melongena), x x x
tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Artichokes (Cynara scolumus) x x x
Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) x x
Peas (Pisum sativum) x x x x
Ornamentals
Cut flowers x x
Potted plants x

vegetables are hydrocooled after packaging, however. The 1-Methylcyclopropene

product, and its package if applicable, must be tolerant of
1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) is a compound that inhibits
wetting, and not damaged by the water flow or by the
ethylene action and can maintain the quality of many horticul-
sanitizing agent, typically chlorine. The product must be
tural products. 1-MCP is commercially available as EthylblocÔ
transferred to a cold room quickly to avoid rewarming.
for use on ornamentals in North America, and as SmartFreshÔ
4. Forced-air evaporative cooling. The principle of operation is
for use on fruits and vegetables worldwide. 1-MCP has been
the same as forced-air cooling, but the air is cooled with an
registered in over 50 countries, and for products such as apple,
evaporative cooler rather than by mechanical refrigeration.
avocado, banana, broccoli, cucumber, date, kiwifruit, mango,
It is possible to obtain air with temperatures a few degrees
melon, nectarine, papaya, peach, pear, pepper, persimmon,
above the outside wet bulb temperature and at more than
pineapple, plantain, plum, squash, and tomato. The specific
90% relative humidity. Evaporative cooling is adequate for
products that are registered within each country vary greatly
some chilling-sensitive products if shipped to local or
and according to the importance of the crop in that country.
regional markets.
However, overall, most use of 1-MCP is on apples because
5. Package icing. Products are cooled by filling packed
the ideal product in the marketplace is one that resembles
containers with ice, either as finely crushed ice, flake ice, or
that at harvest – one with a crisp fracturable texture, and an
a slurry of ice and water. The amount of ice required is
acid to sugar ratio appropriate to each variety. Also, 1-MCP
a function of the product’s weight. While more expensive
maintains quality of these fruit throughout the marketing chain
and water-tolerant packages are required, the method has
after removal of fruit from cold storage and therefore results in
the advantage of maintaining high relative humidity around
a high quality product at the consumer level. In contrast to
the product. However, the product must not be harmed by
apple, many other climacteric fruits such as the avocado,
ice or by exposure to prolonged cold and wet conditions.
banana, pear, and tomato require a delay, not an inhibition
6. Vacuum cooling. The temperature of the crop is reduced by
of ripening, to ensure that the consumer receives high quality
rapid evaporation of water, which is the primary refrigerant,
products with the expected characteristics of color, texture,
from the product under low pressure. The pressure in the
and flavor. Another factor that limits 1-MCP use is cost relative
chamber is lowered to the saturation point corresponding
to benefit, where for some products, such as vegetables, the cost
to the lowest required temperature of the water. The method
of 1-MCP application may not justify its use. Yellowing of broc-
is best suited to vegetables with a high surface area to
coli that can result from storage and transport under abusive
volume ratio, e.g., iceberg lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. cap-
conditions of high temperature and exposure to ethylene can
itata). Other leafy vegetables may be suitable, but because
be controlled by 1-MCP treatment, but such abuses are not
the weight loss associated with vacuum cooling is about
common enough to warrant treatment of a low cost
1%, many vegetables, and especially fruit, are not suited for
commodity.
cooling by this method.

Transit Vehicles and Containers
Loading
Most transit vehicles and containers have sufficient refrigera-
tion capacity to maintain, rather than cool, fresh crops. To
minimize warming of the crop and therefore avoid losing
benefits of cooling, it is necessary to ensure fast and efficient
loading. The product should be cooled properly before
loading into the container or other transit vehicle. It is desir-
able to refrigerate the loading dock and load assembly areas.
Refrigerated trucks and containers should be checked for
operation before use. In addition to calibration of tempera-
ture controllers, refrigeration, and other mechanical require-
ments, they should be inspected for cleanliness, and should
look and smell clean. Freedom from toxic materials that
might be present from previous nonfood cargoes or from
bacterial contamination should be ensured. If loads are certi-
fied as organic or as genetically modified organism-free addi-
tional steps may be required to prevent any contamination
from previously transported products or comingling. The
containers should be cooled to carrying temperature before
loading, but the refrigeration units turned off before opening
the doors for loading to prevent moisture condensing on the
evaporator coil.
Ideally, a container is filled with uniform packaged product
that has been unitized into larger units, and loaded into transit
vehicles in such a way as to allow adequate airflow for temper-
ature control. Calibrated temperature recording devices should
be placed with each load.
In Transit
During transport the primary goal of the shipper is to maintain
the optimum temperature appropriate for the fresh crop. Rela-
tive humidity, although also important to product quality, is
often a secondary consideration and is less often controlled.
The use of MA and CA regimes during transit has increased,
though their use is still relatively limited.
The primary means of maintaining the quality of harvested
fresh crops during transport is to reduce metabolic rates by use
of low temperatures in the transit container or vehicle. The
ideal temperatures for a range of fresh crops are presented in
Table 3 of Postharvest Physiology: Postharvest Physiological
Disorders of Fresh Crops. As for on-site storage, the optimum
temperature for transport can vary among fresh crops, espe-
cially susceptibility of many tropical and subtropical crops to
chilling injury if stored between 1.5 and 15  C. Susceptibility
of fresh crops to freezing injury must also be considered as
the recommended storage temperatures of each crop is only
1–3  C above its freezing point.
Temperature control during transit can be simple, for
example, by use of top ice where crushed ice is placed on
top of the load, or by ice contained within each package.
These packages may be transported without further refrigera-
tion. More typically, mechanical refrigeration is used for
maintaining temperature during transport. Mechanical refrig-
eration not only cools the container or vehicle, but also
provides heat to maintain appropriate temperatures during
sub-freezing transit conditions. Airfreight systems have little
refrigeration capacity and are considered separately below.
Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce 355
An air exchange system is utilized to ventilate the load with
outside air mostly in marine-based containers. Air exchange
can prevent depletion of oxygen and/or reduce undesirable
concentrations of carbon dioxide, ethylene, or offensive odors.
Hydrated lime and potassium permanganate also have been
used to reduce carbon dioxide and ethylene concentrations,
respectively.
The components of transport systems for good temperature
control are as follows:
1. An insulated body for the transit container or vehicle of
sufficient strength to resist shock, vibration, flexing, and
other movement, with qualities of low density, low thermal
conductivity, and low moisture permeability and retention.
The floor must be insulated, water tight, and be able to
support forklift trucks.
2. Air circulation, to ensure adequate air movement through
and around the loads. Air circulation is generally via over-
head (or top air) delivery for over-the-road vehicles. In
overhead delivery, conditioned air flows into the space
between the cargo and vehicle ceiling. Bottom-air delivery
systems are typically used in sea-going containers.
3. Temperature control based on use of automatically
controlled thermostats to control the refrigeration system.
Temperature of the air rather than the product is measured,
and often in return-air units. In some newer units, the
temperature of the supply stream in the discharge air duct is
measured, reducing the risk of freezing of the fresh crops
exposed directly to the airflow of conditioned air.
Relative humidity is a major factor in preventing moisture
loss for some crops, and therefore for maintaining their
quality (Table 2). Humidity in both iced and mechanically
refrigerated cars and trailers is usually high, but can be diffi-
cult to achieve during long transport periods. Large evapo-
rator coils on the refrigeration unit will improve control of
high relative humidity.
Modified and Controlled Atmospheres during Transport
MA and CA storage in which oxygen concentrations are low-
ered, while those of carbon dioxide are increased can be used
during transport to maintain crop quality. However, the poten-
tial for benefit and its application varies greatly by crop
(Table 3), and economically, CA transport remains a niche
market with relatively low volumes of high value commodities
such as avocado, stone fruit, pears (Pyrus communis), and
mangoes (M. indica). The economics of CA transport may
become more favorable, however, in the future. Several types
of CA containers are available, each with advantages and disad-
vantages. In one type, the desired atmosphere is injected into
highly leak-proof containers, and the atmosphere maintained
by introduction of fresh air and operation of a carbon dioxide
scrubber. More sophisticated systems with greater atmosphere
control employ nitrogen generators, along with carbon dioxide
and ethylene scrubbers.
Use of MAP systems has been investigated for many fresh
crops. MAs are usually obtained passively by product respira-
tion within a film bag, the final atmosphere obtained being
a function of film permeability to carbon dioxide and oxygen,
film area, product weight and volume, and temperature.
356 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce
Table 2 Optimum relative humidities for selected fruits and
vegetables
Relative
humidity (%) Fresh crop
50–75 Pumpkins (Cucurbita maxima)
60–70 Chili peppers (Capsicum annuum)
65–70 Bulb onions, garlic, jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus)
70–75 Squash – hard (Cucurbita maxima)
75 Coconuts (Cocos nucifera)
85 Grapes
85–90 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola), celery (Apium
graveolens), figs (Ficus carica), grapefruit (Citrus
paradisi), lemons, mangoes (Mangifera indica), sweet
corn, bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), sweet potatoes
(Ipomoea batatas), tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)
85–100 Watercress (Lepidium sativum)
90 Cantaloupe (Cucumis melo), feijoas (Feijoa sellowiana),
loquats (Eriobotrya japonica), potatoes (Solanum
tuberosum), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
90–95 Apples, apricots, bananas (Musa spp.), blueberries
(Vaccinium ashei), cherries (Prunus avium), cranberries
(Vaccinium macrocarpon), cucumbers, kiwifruit
(Actinidia deliciosa), peaches (Prunus persica), pears,
strawberries
90–98 Cauliflower
95 Beans, mushrooms, squash – soft (Cucurbita pepo)
95–100 Asparagus, broccoli (Brassica oleracea), Brussels sprouts
(Brassica oleracea), leeks (Allium ampeloprasum), green
onions (Allium cepa
Allium fistulosum), spinach
(Spinacia oleracea)
98–100 Beets (root) (Beta vulgaris), cabbage, carrots – topped
(Daucus carota), lettuce, rutabagas (Brassica
napobrassica)
Successful development of an MA requires not only films that
produce appropriate concentrations of oxygen and carbon
dioxide to maintain quality, but avoidance of injurious gaseous
concentrations when the product is exposed to different
temperatures throughout storage, transport, and marketing.
However, fermentation resulting from temperature abuse can
occur under commercial conditions, and MAP is therefore
not commonly used for whole pro-ducts. Exceptions exist,
e.g., the strawberry, which tolerates and responds positively
to elevated carbon dioxide injection into sealed plastic bags
surrounding each pallet of fruit to a final concentration of
approximately 15%.
MAP is used extensively to extend the storage life of fresh
cut (minimally processed) products, and has become the
mainstay of the industry. Fresh cut products, by definition,
involve the disruption of plant tissues, and MAP serves to
reduce water loss, cut surface browning, respiration rates,
ethylene biosynthesis and action, and microbial growth.
Desirable atmospheres may be different for fresh cut prod-
ucts than for whole products because deleterious responses,
e.g., browning, may be prevented by atmospheres that would
be unsuitable for the whole product. Cutting of products can
reduce the boundaries to gas exchange between the product
and its storage environment. Because of the generally shorter
transport/storage periods involved, the fresh cut industry
also can take advantage of the short-term tolerance of tissues
to atmospheres that would cause damage over more
extended time periods. Nevertheless, successful transport of
fresh cut products requires close attention to temperature
requirements, not only to prevent fermentation, but also to
minimize the risk of microbial contamination.
MA conditions can develop inadvertently during transport of
fresh crops, when air circulation is restricted. Development of
carbon dioxide injury can cause losses to apple fruit in ship
holds and in containers, and can be aggravated by use of cartons
with limited ventilation. Blockages of air passages, such as floor
drains, in tightly sealed containers or vehicles by debris or ice is
common during winter shipments of broccoli, rapini (Brassica
campestris), and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
that are shipped with package ice and under top ice.
Transportation Modes
Trucks, Trailers, and Containers
Both unrefrigerated and refrigerated trucks are used for short-
haul wholesale delivery from distribution centers to supermar-
kets and other outlets. In some cases, open bed trucks with or
without tarpaulins to protect the loads are used. Loss of
temperature control at this point can result in loss of crop
quality associated with moisture condensation and, subse-
quently, greater risk of decay and deterioration. Long-distance
transportation requires refrigerated vehicles such as refrigerated
semitrailers. The utilization of vehicles that are used for inter-
modal transport, i.e., the movement of containers via water,
rail, and road, is common. Intermodel containers can provide
door-to-door service with minimal handling of produce, unin-
terrupted temperature, and atmosphere control, except where
quarantine inspections are required. These containers may
have CA capacity (see above).
Sea Transport
Although containerization is an important component of the
international sea shipment of fresh crops, about 50% of reefer
cargo of perishable products is still transported by bulk and
palletized. The transport period can be close to the storage life
required for maximum product quality. Therefore, the same
criteria important for land-based storage apply to ship cargoes.
Air Transport
Airfreight is the only means to transport highly perishable
products from many parts of the world to distant markets,
but of all transport strategies tends to be the most difficult to
ensure a continuous cool chain. Ground handling can amount
to more than 70% of the time taken to transport products from
the shipper to the receiver. If airports are not well equipped for
maintaining cold temperatures, it is essential to ensure fast
movement of product pickup and delivery. Load palletization
and improved load handling systems can minimize delays.
However, indirect flights involving changing planes and off-
loading where priorities are given to passenger luggage can
result in serious losses of temperature control.
A study of asparagus temperatures in transit from New
Zealand to Japan illustrates how temperature abuses may
 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce 357

Table 3 Recommended MA or CA conditions during transport of selected fruits and vegetables

Crop CA range Potential for benefits Remarks

% O2 % CO2
Fruit
Apple 1–3 1–5 A About 50% of production is stored under CA
Apricot 2–3 2–3 C No commercial use
Cherry, sweet 3–10 10–15 B Some commercial use
Fig 5–10 15–20 B Limited commercial use
Grape 2–5 1–3 C Incompatible with SO2 fumigation
Kiwifruit 1–2 3–5 A Some commercial use: C2H4 must be
maintained below 20 ppb
Nectarine (Prunus persica) 1–2 3–5 B Limited commercial use
Peach 1–2 3–5 B Limited commercial use
Pear, Asian (Pyrus bretschneideri) 2–4 0–1 B Limited commercial use
Pear, European 1–3 0–3 A Some commercial use
Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) 3–5 5–8 B Limited commercial use
Plum and Prune (Prunus americana) 1–2 0–5 B Limited commercial use
Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) and other cane berries 5–10 15–20 A Increasing use during transport
Strawberry 5–10 15–20 A Increasing use during transport
Nuts and dried fruits 0–1 0–100 A Effective insect control method
Avocado (Persea americana) 2–5 3–10 B Limited commercial use
Banana 2–5 2–5 A Some commercial use during transport
Grapefruit 3–10 3–10 C No commercial use
Lemon 5–10 0–10 B No commercial use
Lime (Citrus limettioides) 5–10 0–10 B No commercial use
Olive (Olea europaea) 2–3 0–1 C No commercial use
Orange 5–10 0–5 C No commercial use
Mango 3–5 5–10 C Limited commercial use
Papaya (Carica papaya) 3–5 5–10 C No commercial use
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) 2–5 5–10 C No commercial use
Vegetables
Artichokes 2–3 2–3 B No commercial use
Asparagus Air 5–10 A Limited commercial use
Beans, snap 2–3 4–7 C Potential for use by processors
Beets None D 98–100% RH is best
Broccoli 1–2 5–10 A Limited commercial use
Brussels sprouts 1–2 5–7 B No commercial use
Cabbage 2–3 3–6 A Some commercial use for long-term
storage of certain cultivars
Cantaloupes 3–5 10–15 B Limited commercial use
Carrots None D 98–100% RH is best
Cauliflower 2–3 2–5 C No commercial use
Celery 1–4 0–5 B Limited commercial use in mixed loads with lettuce
Corn, sweet 2–4 5–10 B Limited commercial use
Cucumbers 3–5 0 C No commercial use
Honeydews (Cucumis melo) 3–5 0 C No commercial use
Leeks 1–2 3–5 B No commercial use
Lettuce 1–3 0 B Some commercial use with 2–3% CO2 added
Mushrooms Air 10–15 C Limited commercial use
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) 3–5 0 C No commercial use; 5–10% CO2 is
beneficial at 5–8  C
Onions, dry 1–2 0–5 B No commercial use; 75% RH
Onions, green 1–2 10–20 C Limited commercial use
Peppers, bell 3–5 0 C Limited commercial use
Peppers, chili 3–5 0 C No commercial use; 10–15% CO2 is
beneficial at 5–8  C
Potatoes None D No commercial use
Radish (Raphanus sativus) None D 98–100% RH is best
Spinach Air 10–20 B No commercial use
Tomatoes
Mature green 3–5 0–3 B Limited commercial use
Partially ripe 3–5 0–5 B Limited commercial use

MA, modified atmosphere; CA, controlled atmosphere; RH, relative humidity.

358 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce

Figure 2 Temperature profile for asparagus harvested and packed in Levin, New Zealand, and transported by road and air to Japan via Singapore.
Reproduced with permission from Bollen, A.F., Brash, D.W., Bycroft, B.L. 1998. Air-freight coolchain improvements using insulation and supple-
mental cooling. Appl. Eng. Agric. 14, 49–53.

occur during transit (Figure 2). At harvest, temperatures of the
asparagus were lowered rapidly by hydrocooling and the
spears then placed into cold storage. Product temperatures
increased during trucking to the airport because of inadequate
insulation, but were then lowered again by forced-air cooling
at the freight forwarder. After several days, the asparagus was
delivered to the airport where it was kept for 3–4 h outside
before loading on the plane. In the first flight leg to Singapore,
product temperatures increased, probably because of a higher
hold temperature required for animals or other freight. After
unloading, product temperatures were again decreased by
cold storage, increased slightly while loaded into the second
plane, and cooled during flight. The asparagus were immedi-
ately fumigated upon arrival in Japan (although delays also
can occur at this point), and then cooled in the market cold
store. It has been demonstrated that heat unit accumulation
is linearly correlated to asparagus shelf life, and therefore
a wide range of heat unit accumulation from 370 to
1160  C hours will result in considerable variation of shelf
life and quality.
Shipping packages used for air transport are usually the
same as those used for land and sea transport. Most containers
are unrefrigerated and provide minimal air circulation. Control
of relative humidity is not available, and can become as low as
4% in jets at high altitude. Insulated airfreight containers for
product shipment have not proven popular because of their
bulk and higher delivery charges. Pallets of product, however,
may be wrapped in insulating foil wrap, with or without
supplemental cooling with ice or dry ice.
Transport of Mixed Commodities
Transport of commodities preferably involves single product
types within a transit vehicle, but it is common for several
products to be transported together, especially during shorter
term transit situations. However, the transport of mixed loads
results in conflicts between the optimum stacking of different
package types as well as meeting the differing optimum
storage regimes for each product. These factors need to be
considered before such mixed products are transported as
failure to recognize the significance of each may lead to rapid
product deterioration.
1. Stacking of products within the transit vehicle. Mixed load
transportation often involves use of different size and
shape packages for each commodity. Variations in loading
patterns can result in blockages in air circulation, and
therefore less efficient temperature control. Special care is
required to avoid such blockages, and use of pallets or
racks to ensure adequate airflow along the transit vehicle
floor.
2. Temperature. Crops with incompatible storage tempera-
tures should not be stored together. However, because
chilling injury is a function of the time that the product
is kept at low temperature, chilling-sensitive crops are
sometimes transported for short distances at the subop-
timum temperatures suitable for chilling-resistant crops.
The alternative of transporting chilling-resistant crops at
higher temperatures to avoid injury of chilling suscep-
tible crops also can result in compromised quality
because of more rapid deterioration of the chilling-
resistant crops.
3. Moisture compatibility. High relative humidity is recom-
mended for most fresh crops to prevent loss of marketable
weight and quality, but some crops such as garlic and dry
onions require intermediate humidity levels (Table 2).
Failure to maintain the relative humidity appropriate to the
crops in the mixed load can result in unacceptable water loss
from some products. In general, however, it is difficult to
maintain high relative humidity during transport.
 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce 359

Table 4 Examples of ethylene-sensitive fruits, vegetables, and flowers

Fruits Vegetables Flowers

Apple Beans Anemone, windflower (Anemone spp.)

Apricot
Guava (Psidium guajava)
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Kiwifruit
Lychee (Litchi chinensis)
Mango
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)
Mamey sapote (Pouteria sapota)
Squash
Persimmon
Quince (Cydonia oblonga)
Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum)
Sweetsop (Annona squamosa)
Carrot Bouvardia (Bouvardia spp.)
Celery Carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus)
Collards (Brassica oleracea) and kale Daffodils (Narcissus spp.)
(Brassica oleracea)
Cucumber Delphinium (Delphinium, Consolida spp.)
Eggplant Gypsophila (Gypsophila spp.)
Basil (Ocimum basilicum), chives Holly, Ilex (Ilex spp.)
(Allium schoenoprasum), dill
(Anethum graveolens), parsley
(Petroselinum hortense)
Lettuce Lily (Lilium spp.)
Mushrooms Rose (some cultivars) (Rosa spp.)
Green onion Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus)
Parsnips (Pastinaca sativa)
Pear
Spinach
Tomato (mature green)
Watermelon

4. Ethylene production and sensitivity compatibility. Crops can 5. Odor. Some crops absorb odors produced by other crops
vary greatly in their sensitivity to ethylene (Table 4). (Table 5), resulting in lower market appeal. In mixed loads,
Typically, the fruit listed in Table 4 have moderate to high therefore, these crops must be kept separated from each
ethylene production rates, and sensitivity to ethylene is other.
expressed as accelerated ripening and/or decay. Most of the
vegetables listed have low ethylene production, and
symptoms of exposure to the gas include toughening, skin Summary
yellowing, accelerated ripening and senescence, and
bitterness. The incidence of the ethylene-related disorder Successful transport of any fresh crop is primarily a function of
russet spotting in lettuce (L. sativa) has been shown to be the ability of the storage operator, shipper, and retail marketer
about three times greater in mixed loads than in straight to minimize its rate of deterioration. Attention to, and under-
loads during truck shipments. Care must be taken there- standing of, the crop physiology and all aspects of the transport
fore to avoid mixed containers of crops where ethylene operation is required to produce high quality products in the
producers will cause deterioration of other crops. The use marketplace. When all optimum conditions have been met, it
of 1-MCP, where cost effective, may have a major impact is not uncommon for a crop being transported long distances
on crop compatibilities. to be of superior quality to that transported relatively short
distances. Product losses during transport can be related to
rough handling during harvesting and transport to the packing
house; delays in cooling, packing equipment damage, or trans-
port of crop after storage; and at the end of its storage potential,
Table 5 Fresh crops that absorb odors from other crops and
therefore should not be transported together loading of warm produce, improper loading, excessive vibra-
tion or refrigeration equipment failure, or improper mixing
Odor-producing crop Odor-absorbing crop of produce in the load. The importance of each factor will be
a function of the quality of the product at the time of shipping,
Apple, pear Cabbage, carrots, celery, figs, onions,
the storage potential of that product, and the transport time
potatoes
required.
Avocado Pineapple
Onion, carrot Celery
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Eggplant See also: Postharvest Biology: Postharvest Physiological
Leek Fig, grapes
Disorders of Fresh Crops; Ripening; Seed Storage.
Onion Apple, celery, pears, citrus
Green onion Fig, grapes, mushrooms, rhubarb
(Rheum rhaponticum), corn
Pepper Bean, pineapple, avocado
Carrot Celery Further Reading
Grapes, fumigated with sulfur Other fruits and vegetables
dioxide Bollen, A.F., Brash, D.W., Bycroft, B.L., 1998. Air-freight coolchain improvements
using insulation and supplemental cooling. Appl. Eng. Agric. 14, 49–53.
360 Postharvest Biology j Transport of Fresh Produce
Brecht, P.E., Dohring, S., Brecht, J.K., Benson, W., 2009. Transport technology and
applications. In: Yahia, E.M. (Ed.), Modified and Controlled Atmospheres for the
Storage, Transportation, and Packaging of Horticultural Products. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, pp. 51–71 (Chapter 3).
Gross, K.C., Wang, C.Y., Saltveit, M., 2014. The Commercial Storage of Fruits,
Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery. http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/hb66.
Food and Drug Administration, 2016. FSMA Final Rule on Sanitary Transportation of
Human and Animal Food. http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/FSMA/
ucm383763.htm.
Thompson, J.F., Brecht, P.E., Hinsch, T., Kader, A.A., 2000. Marine Container
Transport of Chilled Perishable Produce. Publication 21595. University of
California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oakland, California.
Watkins, C.B., 2015. Advances in the use of 1-MCP. In: Wills, R.B.H., Golding, J.B.
(Eds.), Advances in Postharvest Fruit and Vegetable Technology. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, pp. 117–145.