Timesdependent Behavior of Rocks 137 joimss, and other materials present particular difficulties in coring and preservation. ‘of core or specimens to conditions different to those found in situ must be minimized, and “A broad range of samples is required for general investigations to qualitatively identify critical in a large project. Comprehensive testing ofa single rock or discontinuity type to generate tutive law should be carried out on a homogeneous specimen group, as variability reduction results casier to interpret. As a rock engineering philosophy, it is probably best to d the most dangerous rock well than to understand all the rocks poorly. Ariaxial specimen isa cylinder with an L to D ratio of 2-3:1 [51]. In homogeneous, sd saltrocks, using smooth graphite-coated end caps, specimens down to a ratio of 1:1 are ‘but £:D = 2:1 is recommended for all triaxial creep tests in all materials. To assess behavior of any polyerystal, the specimen should be large with respect to grain size; 0 of 1:10 for the largest crystal to specimen diameter is recommended [51], though this is often Senseny [52], using 50 and 100 mm specimens of domal salt with average grain size of owed that transient deformation in smaller specimens was a stronger function of 7; [2] than forthe larger specimens. The steady-state creep rates showed litle effect of specimen 2 Coring procedures from surface or underground excavations can be cored in the laboratory, allowing on control, but it is difficult to obtain block specimens from outside the fractured zone ind an underground gallery or in a pit. ‘underground openings (Figure 18) [42, 53). This will reduce coring time, length, and drill rig required, and gives high quality specimens. Surface rig coring can be highly and may be the only alternative; however, it is more costly and time consuming, with ntial for core damage. Air coring is best; acceptable substitute fluids are diesel oi, rine, driling mud or proprietary drilling fuids. Saturated brine can be created by Joose wall rock in water or by adding appropriate salts to a surface mud system. The best ee isto use low fluid velocities with viscous drilling mud. Cores are wiped, oriented, graphed and sealed with taped plastic wrap, protected externally with aluminum foil ‘= 10"? in = 2.54% 10-* m) plastic, and labeled again on the exterior. Thermal -may be used, and sealing end caps are hose-clamped to the tubing, Silicone grease or used 10 ensure moisture seals, and cores are then placed in a labeled core box with a foam is critical to creep behavior of most materials, including silicates and saltrocks [26, 7]. te test results are not representative; even for silicates the effect of water-weakening’ 5], Cores should not freeze; expansion causes microcrack propagation, and exposure ntal extremes (humidity, temperature, sun, wind) is ill-advised. Rough transport may effect on granite, but may be catastrophic for fissile shales, coal or saltrocks with clay j core samples from deep, highly stressed conditions are invariably damaged ‘Shear stresses during drilling, even though discrete discing is not visible [5S]. It is138 Basic Rock Properties umbere pane (dete elon eae tim, ee fester, Then (2-4.) Des im ans rena one ore bare Figure 18 Obtaining and preserving samples for excep specimen preparation ‘thus vital to minimize further damage during specimen preparation. Cores should be examined and 4 target section, smooth and free from plucked crystals, drill bit gouges, or washed-out seams, removed for preparation. Oriented subcoring may be necessary to capture planar features for testing, and lathing required to reduce the diameter. Wawersik and Preece [56] suggest turning and {eed rates of 200-500 rpm and 0.025-0.05 mm revolution" for salt, depending on its grain sizeand hardness. This is suitable for clay shales and coal, but other rocks will require slower feed rates. Exceptionally, as with oil sands, it may be necessary to freeze core to solid CO temperatures simply to permit lathe trimming. No water or laboratory grade solvents that contain traces of water should contact ereep specimens of soluble or sensitive rocks. For swelling shales, specimens must be prepared in a humidity-controlled room to avoid drying or wetting. In silicates or oxides, water may be used with relative impunity. The specimen is cut from a section up to two diameters longer if lathing is used (Le, 300-400 mm sections to prepare 200 mm specimens from 100 mm cores). Soft rocks can be end-trimmed with a fine-toothed saw in a mitre box or with a band saw; hardrocks require diamond saws. Cut ends are used for thin sections, index testing and for HO, geochemistry, mineralogy, bulk chemistry, and soluble minerals analyses. Specimen ends are dry-ground to meet ISRM standards. Grinding wheels with a fuid lubricant such as light oil may be used if the oil does not dspace moisture in the specimen or affect rock mierocrack surface tension, ‘Once a specimen is prepared, it should be measured axially (3 times at 120°) and diametally times from the top to the bottom of the core). Sonic velocity measurements on all specimens ate recommended. If immediate cell mounting is not done, specimens should be labeled and rescaled. Membranes should be flexible, thin and capable of being exposed to the cell luid, pressure ‘temperature for months without degradation. A modulus about 10? of the specimen modulus is recommended (about 20 MPa for salt testing, as an example). 653. Creep Testing 63.3.1 Equipment requirements Many authors have described triaxial creep equipment and test systems [16, 56-65]. Creep tests ‘may even be cartied out in cells with sonic wave transmission, and acoustic emission mappi capability [66]. One alternative, a compromise design [57] more economical than a large, purpose frame and cells shown in Figures 19 and 20.Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks 139 eee Lip tye se [7 sore wae aoa 4 = }— Sispocaert joe rng Axl leo piston | — elimi ram force | 75+ 14M ‘igure 19. Creep test cell sing an internal actuating cylinder confined creep, ring swell or other exposed creep tests are to be used, humidity control is fed. spring creep frame (Figure 2!) maintains constant stresses overlong periods and is good resp of concrete or granite, but the specimen should be foil and plastic wrapped to iy changes, and kept in an environmentally controlled room. During shearbox the frame it maintained at constant T, and the box shouldbe wrapped in plastic all external links. devices must: () maintain constant 6, and ¢, (10-20 kPa) for stress controled in accurate, constant axial displacement rates low enough for rate-controlled tests (i control T in the rocks and in the test assembly to avoid load or data °C for saltrocks, +£1°C for other rocks and for the test device, (iv) have ns and other features to lessen end irregularity and other effects; and (v) have easily 2¢dsplacement rate levels for longterm or stage lading For example «potash m Was carried out under the following conditions: ¢, of 05-15 MPa, 0, of140 Basic Rock Properties Feocton tore Figure 21 Spring actuated device for unconfined compression ereep 6.5.3.2 Stresses, displacements and temperatures Axial and radial stresses are generally applied hydraulically, thus monitoring can employ Bourcon pressure gauges in the hydraulic lines. For control and data acquisition, electron prewure {transducers and load cells should be used because ther voltage output can be stored digitally or seat to.a computer control program, Radial stress can be monitored directly on the confining fd, but axial stresses requite load cells or load ram pressure monitoring. Load cells monitor ini forees applied to the test specimen in the shearbox or vertical load frame, and have the advantage of ‘measuring loads directly. An internal load cell eliminates uncertainties associated with ram fiction, but measuring load ram fluid pressure or using an external load cel is usually simpler. During a triaxial creep test (c, > c,), low porosity specimens become broader, thus 0, drops asthe atea increases. This may become important if, exceeds 2%. Because ¢is high exponent function ofTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 141 ‘4, ~ 4; in many cases, stress control should be precise, less than 1% of the ¢; ~ 0, magnitude. ‘regular area corrections may be implemented with diameter changes from strain gauges or ‘lateral measuring ring, or by measuring confining and pore fluid volumes expelled. If an ion of no volume change creep is valid (salt, gypsum), a correction may be estimated by ‘the area from ¢,, assuming constant volume and a eylindrical shape Ao A= Wr aF ‘A and Ag are current and original area, and «, is axial strain, displacements can be measured by dial gauge micrometers (inexpensive back-up devices if fail, electronic transducers (eg. linearly variable diflerential transducers, LVDTs), or Strain gauges mounted on the specimen. Lateral deformation is measured with strain lateral measuring rings, or by monitoring AV of confining fluid entering or exiting the cell. rerlerior gauges of LVDTs in constant stress tests, deformations do not have to be corrected for ‘compliance. However, in constant strain rate or relaxation tests, a calibration curve and stions are necessary. LVDTs give an analog signal which is converted to a digital value, d by a data acquisition computer and used to compute corrected length fr tet control (ie. ate control). gauges can be used for é, and é, measurements. They do not require large volume cells that auges need, require no stressor strain corrections, and can be placed at various locations the specimen. However, they can be difficult to mount on some ereep-prone materials (salt, and fractured rock) and gauge/rock bond quality dificult to monitor insie the ell. I 109 gauge is used, it may cover only one or (wo crystals or fracture blocks, and not give a true fof material behavior. Many gauges will not work past 2.or 3% strain, reducing the creep test sirain capability. deformation measurements are more difficult than axial measurements, as measuring, ‘must be placed within the cell, requiring large volume cells which carry a design penalty. tings to measure ¢, are generally placed at the specimen midpoint [16, 56]. They ‘of ‘buttons, attached to a strain gauge equipped ring, which contact the specimen. With ‘buttons move in or out and strain the metal ring. Lateral deformation measurements 10.a small number of available measuring points, and if a cell is being used to test for seep ofa joint plane inclined to the axis, internal deformation measurements ae of no value. Strain giukes und rings only measure at specific location, but lateral deformations can vary along the ofa test specimen (Figure 6, p. 442 in ret. 56). Measurement of confining fluid volume changes may be done by monitoring the piston stroke in vee used to apply o,. Volumetric creep strain may be obtained by subtracting axial piston AV the confining fuid AV, but no immediate information about true specimen shape can be ‘obtained. Porous, permeable media should be tested under constant back pressure with pore fuid AV measurements, as is common in soil mechanics. Automatic AV measurements n satisfactory unless a constant pressure positive displacement piston or bellows device is “A combination of strain gauges or lateral measuring rings with confining fluid nts yields the best overall information. is provided by thermistors or thermocouples attached to a control unit to heat or cool For low T testing above room temperature (20-80 °C), a light bulb and recirculating fan in ulated box are acceptable [57]. For high T tests, rod heaters embedded in the cell wall or Sjackels are used, and the cll is insulated. Accurate T° control is less important for cks, but it good practice to avoid environmental fluctuations. IFhigh T tests are carried should remember that in situ water remains in the rock under pressure and greatly affects ates. Letting a rock specimen dry is permissible only if drying conditions will develop in the ‘Otherwise, high T creep tests are carried out under back pressure to reflect site conditions no es Bees a sero consented Tsui of a oe ” “Test Methods outlined above, the common types of creep testing are constant [¢}, constant é or deformation relaxation tests. Constant [] triaxial configurations are outlined, but procedures are {0 most other test types. The constant deviatoric stress (7; ~ @) creep test (compression142 Basic Rock Properties 02 Hf gress change of sae Time in) Figure 22. Compuction of potash specimen under a hydrostatic strese oF extension) is carried out by applying a deviatoric load to a specimen and monitoring defor- ‘mations with time. Generally, both o, and 0, are applied, although uniaxial tests ona merbraned specimen may be performed (60, 67]. To perform a constant a; —o, creep test, a number of uidelines are suggested, ‘Specimens should be kept sealed until ust before esting, then remeasured just before mounting in {the membrane and cell. For saltrocks, once the specimen is mounted, anisotropic compressive stiese ‘equal to or greater than the in situ stress should be applied for 2-3 days. Siow deformation wil terminate after 24-72 h under an isotropic load of 20-25 MPa (Figure 22) [68], and the specimen will shorten slightly (about 0.2-0.4 mm for a 200 mm cylinder. This recompaction will r¢mene soune of the microfissuring caused by coring and preparation, Isotropic stressing for a period should be Considered forall rock types to close microcracks, as open microcracks (that were closed in situ) will lead to early rupture and more rapid creep. For porous rocks, back pressuring and saturation should be carried out immediately after ‘mounting if pis to be controlled. High porosity, creep-prone rocks may begin to consolidate under small isotropic loads. Staged isotropic (or Ko-controlled) consolidation tests may be carried out for ‘materials with collapsing pore structure (chalk, coal, certain sandstones). These tests may lest ‘months, through several load stages to approach eritical conditions slowly and evaluate cumulative strain effects at several é values. Aller isotropic loading is completed and creep has slowed, a deviatoric load is quickly applied. To ‘explore transient behavior, data should be taken at short intervals initially (1-2 min) and at Drogressively longer intervals as the test progresses after a week, every 4 hours). A continuous strip chart record of deformations gives the most information, but requites hand interpretation, A dale ‘acquisition computer is best for collection of digital data for later, interactive interpretation, nee either dy or the desired dis achieved, a new load stage may be applied by charging o., ot both and continuing testing, Load stages should proceed from low to high a, ‘7. level In saltrocks or high 7’ creep where annealing mechanisms exist, damage may not be cumulative, and {otal strains of up to 7—10% are feasible. In other cases, once a critical ema i passed, c, 05 ooatol ‘may not be an option unless o, is raised, After weakening, stages are being performed on Taterial with increasing damage levels, and ¢ control is preferred. tgui > 10% is never recommended ‘excessive barrelling or necking, damage, irregular deformation, end cap tilting and membrane elects become excessive, ‘Cumulative damage means stress history ‘memory’; the rocks ‘store’ the effect of high stresses in the altered, damaged fabric. For initially isotropic rocks, creep will enerate anisotropy, with major axes of most microcracks aligned in the dau ditection, which in an isotropie rock should also be ihe direction of tas (Figure 23). I the rock was originally highly fissured or granular, more contact area develops in the mas direction during creep. It appears that even saltrocks maintain a partial memory of their load history (16, $2] but the memory effect appears to fade during each stage, resulting steady-state strain rates which are independent of stress history. 65S Evaluation of Creep Test Data ‘Transient creep has been analyzed and incorporated into many numerical schemes. However, there is currently no widely accepted method of interpretation and analysis. This is because there ‘no consensus on mechanisms and process equations forthe transient phase [23]. As the ‘ight type"Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks 143 nial wore tere sono Anistope abr leds dire canerecsos ‘gare 23. Development of anisotropic fabric during creep staining Tis! emmerts* 30-2008 6" ‘Suoey stom core (ety commer 2-4 Freraet soars ss camara Tire Stendystate creep achieved for deep saltrock mine openings after 10-20 weeks depending on mineralogy, Slow deceleration of erep rate fen meanaredbacause of cooling O¢ reduction ef oom dimensions equation is unclear at present, a reasonable function (eg. power-law, hyperbola, exponential, by minimization of statistical eror (least squares) is generally acceptable. ‘decelerating creep in saltrocks and gypsum is les important than é, and contributes percentage of em With time. The value of é at a particular ¢, ~ 03,03 and T state is ‘commonly reported result of a creep test, and yet, no universally accepted definition or jof analyzing for &, exists. The onset ofé., oF lack thereof fora given data st, can be assessed ng different analyses on the data [36], In saltrocks, the strain or time to reach é will nd on stress level and history. Wawersik and Preece [56] suggest that & develops only after percent strain in a specimen. Mrugala and Hardy [69] suggest that at low stresses (4 MP) 30 needed to achieve é. At higher streses (10 MPa) up to 50 days may be required, but olves higher strain rate, the total strain to éy is greater. The issue remains unresolved, but ssw data (Figure 24) in potash mines do imply that some form of steady-state creep is being ‘Although longer test times at slow rates (<10"° s~') do give better estimates off, slow fdening occurs in many cases, thus laboratory behavior only approximates in situ behavior. ‘engineering in salt and potash itis recommended that an inital series of tests to assess general response be performed; then, a reasonable test duration is chosen and adhered to, such as ks/stage for high stress tests on salt, more for other materials and lower stresses. A reason timate of may be calculated for each set of conditions by taking the mean rate for the last thods for determination of é, from a creep curve (Figure 25) include placing a ruler along the and measuring the slope of the ‘straight’ portion of the curve [27]; measuring slopes adjacent data points and determining where the slope becomes constant [56]; measuring144 Basic Rock Properties 0 Figure 25. Determining é fom test data: (a) by euvefiting: nd (b) by potting te diferent, using an averaging method slopes of groups of points along a et curve and determining where the slope becomes constant [56] and complex statistical analyses examining correlation coefficients of various groups of points along the e-t curve [64]. The last three methods adequately determine similar values for ¢q, although not necessarily the same value. As long as the method chosen is used consistently for the test series and carefully reported, any of the latter three methods are acceptable for engineering purposes. 66 CREEP TEST DESIGN 66.1 Overview Engineering creep programs should be designed to yield as much information as possible in ‘ short period of time to identify whether there may be a problem with time-dependent deformation, ‘or to develop a ‘sufficient’ constitutive law for use in design or simulation. fn situ conditions are reviewed to narrow the extrinsic parameter range and number of materials to be tested. Among tasks and data of interest are initial numerical sensitivity analyses, preliminary in situ testing and ‘geological study of virgin stresses, ground temperatures, geochemistry of interstitial fluids, ee. A laboratory program typically explores the eflects of [2], @ and 7: Additional variables (p, lithology, insolubles percent, etc.) may be considered constant for a given structure. Its vital to test the most susceptible material or discontinuity. ‘The fist tests bracket the range of parameters chosen, to yield upper and lower bound effect of these variables; further tests will infll between these bounds. The effect of some parameters ae relatively well defined, such as 7 effects on é, for salt, and this knowledge is used to reduce the ‘number of tests. Normal and shear stresses are critical variables, and it may be advisable to carry out ‘extension of bending creep tests to emulate field conditions more closely. In large projects with long. service life it is suggested that a number of spring-actuated unconfined creep tests be mounted, protected environmentally, loaded and stored for long periods. 662 Creep Test Variables 6.6.2.1 Parameters affecting time-dependent rock behavior Many parameters affect time-dependent behavior in a single rock type of homogeneous mite eralogy and fabric, For salt, eight primary ones have been identified [70]. Five are intrinsic parameters: grain size, grain distribution, moisture content, porosity and impurities; three are extrinsie parameters: [0], ¢ and T. In general, only extrinsic variables are examined dutig engineering studies. Intrinsic factors can often be considered constant for a given region, structure oF formation. This assumption is not correct in detail, and the rock engineer must carefully consider elects of geological detail and variability, and alter the test and prototype design details accordingly Scientific research often focuses on the intrinsic variables and their effect on creep, generating mechanism laws which ate also quite useful to the engineer. 66.2.2 Strain rate Under constant [6], é through time depends on both [¢] magnitude and T; these should be ‘chosen to obtain é values close to those in situ, to approximate real behavior better. In situ éinTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 145 saltrock mines at steady-state are generally 10~'*-10~' s~! [33]. These are difficult to achieve in ‘the laboratory in the time available for engineering testing. Minimum # of Sx 10"°—10-* s~! are achievable with most creep test equipment, although some results as low as 10~*?5~* have been obiained on scientific equipment [67]. Creep rates of interest for other materials may be much lower ‘than those measured in salt, and may turn out to be of marginal engincering interest except for long, “service lif structures. In some cases, such as pillar creep during retreat pillar robbing in a room and Bla ine o in loaded eerich rocks, fst rep rates approaching values of10-*-10-*5* may be interest. ‘fconstant é tests are to be performed for periods that will excoed 0.5% strain, the yield criterion ‘should be determined. At values of constant é higher than about 10°* s~', even saltrocks may ‘hibit strain-weakening, depending on o. For other rocks, much slower é values will stil lead to ‘yield, except in high T tests. Tests should be performed at speeds as slow as the equipment can ‘handle, ideally in the range of é expected in stu, if this is known. Literature on similar materials _ shouldbe accessed and used to plan test programs, even ifconsiderable experiential data exist for the particular case. 66.23 Stress Constant [2] tests are required to examine effects of shear and normal stress on transient and “steady-state creep. Many materials will not show significant creep unless shear stresses are above some threshold value that in turn depends on ¢,, Although the shear stress required to initiate creep ‘may be low in cases such as granular materials (< LO MPa), the strain rates at most prototype stress “sates in low porosity rocks are difficult to measure and require long test periods. Once the standard ISRM triaxial yield criterion is determined for the rocks, test stress values should be chosen to be ‘lo he short-term yl eriterion, down toa evel below which the strain rates re smal enough to Be erent ceils ruire dierent ive of sear tonto corp atthe same rte. Etinates of the <4, value required to achieve a strain rate of the order to 10°? s~* (at T'= 23°C) in halite is 25 MPa, in sylvinite ore (~ 1:1 sylvitehalite itis 20 MPa, and in carnalltic syivinite (10-20% farnllte) it is 10-15 MPa, These stresses are approximate; actual strain rates resulting from these “streses also depend on a, moisture content, grain size, etc. Ghad Temperature ‘Creep in most soft rocks is quite temperature sensitive; for example, between 25°C and 100°C, éin ‘silt can vary by two orders of magnitude [71]. Tntact hardrocks, however, require elevated _femperatures (> 300°C) for significant long-term creep. Where creep is affected by fluid-phase mass “iansler, AT also affects water viscosity and diffusivity parameters. This changes the coefficient of = ‘which will alter the time-dependent response after a load change. Thus i is important mates s be tested under constant T conditions similar to those in the prototype. In shales and inerals, slow dehydration and dehydroxylation may dominate ereep behavior if T values excess of 100°C are used without back pressures. This afects material creep response [65]. When several sets of tests are performed above and below 100°C, results should be analyzed separately to ‘if diferent behaviors are evident. Ifa AT is applied to a porous rock specimen, transient creep is evidenced, partly the result of ‘expansions of mineral and fluid phases and of the solid skeleton. This leads to pressure ents which, in shales, may dissipate lowly. Determining a quantitative relationship expressing, havior difelt because of 7. and (o] gradients that develop and persist for some time In ‘cases, such as geothermal reservoirs or rock tunnels used as exhaust conduits, cyclic temper- ‘changes lead to continued transient effects which damage rock fabric because of differential ‘expansion, leading to changes in steady-state creep behavior. For mining engineering, T values are generally 10-35°C, although 70°C is encountered in the ‘Deep Levels Mine in South Africa, 40-43 °C in potash mines at Sergipe, Brazil, and —1 to =10°C is common in northern Canadian mines where ice-rich permafrost may ereep [72]. “Applications such as nuclear waste disposal require the behavior of salt or clay shale at elevated lemperatures to be examined. Geothermal or petroleum engineering reservoir development may ‘encounter temperatures greater than 125°C, and occasionally >250°C for hot, dry rock. In ly enhanced oil recovery processes, steam injection temperatures above 300°C may be used, in fireloods, the hottest part of the combustion zone may reach 900-1150°C. These latter tures lead to calcination of limestones and other major mineralogical phase changes.146 Basic Rock Properties 663 Analysis of Creep Test Results 66.3.1 Steady-state constants (saltrocks and ice) ‘The most common equation to describe steady-state creep of salt and ice has been given earlier, and deserves repeating an’ ‘The constants n and Q are derived from creep tests where the effects of shear stress and temperature are examined with sufficient data points. The stress exponent nis the slope of steady-state creep data ‘ona In(é,)/In(a, ~ 03) plot, Regression analysis on sufficient constant 7, and o, data points give the value of n this value depends on the dominant creep mechanism(s), and a set of laboratory data may reflect more than one mechanism, with n varying from 1-2 (ice at high temperature) to 6-10 for steady-state microcracking in salt The activation energy 0 is different for various cep mechanisms. For mine design test, only one test temperature is used, therefore the value of exp”@"* is included in the constant A. However, if required, Q can be determined by Yee) (19) soda) en(2) limited to that appropriate for the ay (Q(for a single mec Clearly, the range of temperatures which may be used is mechanism for which a particular Q dominates. Both Q and n should be calculated, where possible, and reported at the conclusion of a ereep test program, along with the details of the statistical analysis used (even if it is only a ‘straight-edge’ analysis), Frnt “_Ingorronass san Teise,{i-eet-ae1) ‘Figure 26 Fiting tansient creep to an exponential law alte removing the instantaneous and the steady-state componentsTame-dependent Behavior of Rocks 147 Prenory consoldation, hen pre reas one eecce see tear 27 Consolidation fs plu secondary creep ele. The later the attenuating component of steady sce creep, and the major part ofthe consolidation cuve AV axcated with exces pore preawre equilib 63:2 Other creep parameters ‘Transient primary creep data should be fitted statistically to an appropriate curve, such as “t hyperbola, a fractional time power, or an exponential curve (Figure 26) such as a(t) = soft ~ exp(—a0) 2) ‘is transient strain, ég is basic strain (empirical constant), and 2 is an empirical time decay ta (I/s). This equation at any time ¢ can be diferentiated to give the instantaneous strain rate. ‘terminating transient creep is a diffusion process (pore pressure, T or concentration equilibra- transient strain curves should be close to typical consolidation strain curves. As the mathemat- Jor concentration-driven transient processes are similar, the form of the equations should be Care must be taken not to obscure the effects of secondary creep (Figure 275: the consolida- cure fit should be plotted with the real data, and long-term behavior examined to see if the m has entered into true é,, or slow but attenuating creep. ‘Ina constant stress test, the tertiary creep onset strain, the total strain at rupture and the time n the loading and the change in slope of the curve leading to accelerating creep should be SUMMARY Laboratory creep testing of rocks for parameters useful in design generally requires atest program ‘examines the specific effects of the range of conditions expected in stu. The results can then be to develop a semiempirical model to predict the behavior ofthe material in situ. At the present except for some materials such as salt, there is no consensus as to the appropriate equation therefore engincering creep data for geomaterials are considered gical. perform a laboratory deviatoric creep test, high quality representative samples are used to pare test specimens, which are isotropically loaded to a stress equal to or greater than in situ to some of the sampling damage. A deviatoric load is applied to the specimen and the ‘monitored. Axial stresses are kept constant by taking into account changes in cross- area, Other test configurations are possible such as relaxation tests, or other stress oF controlled configurations. Data may be analyzed for transient response and steady-state Determination of the onset and magnitude of steady-state creep must be done consistently test program using a statistical or et curve derivative technique. Reported data should all stresses, temperatures and steady-state creep rates as well as creep rate constants. Gites N. Rock Rheology. Kluwer, Dordrecht (1989) Be C Applied Sat Rac Mechanics ok | Evi, Amster (1977 Langer M. Rheological behaviour of rock masses. fn Pro. 4th It. Congr. Rock Meck, Mostreus. Vol, pp. 29-62. ‘Balkema, Roterdam (1979) ‘Biest Pand Nguyen: Minh. Time dependent behaviour of lined tannl in sot rocks In Proc. Eurotunnel 83 Conf ‘Bal pp. 57-62 (1983,0 1s 18 n. 18 w. a eB ches S$ #E¢EBS Be Pp Bs 4. Basie Rock Properties owing. D.ané Kut HX. Time-dependent sha eormation old ros joins ~a keynote tre In Pro. Symp, Financials of Rsk Jom, Byken, Seen Edited by ©. Stephan, pp. 113-122 Cente, Lae, Swede 985) {Gigs D. Creep frosts. J. Grol 47, 28-251 (199) Sal Revew of mechanic roperer ofl lang ts dome geen, fn Saline Dept, Spe. Pp. Geol St dam 8h eh 395 (oh Giner SL Snip ste ow of oka Rev. Grphys Spee Phys. M4 301-30 (970. Ganer NL and Rity 8H Teens cep amd seme Bhar of yl rocks. Pare App. Geo: 16 sora) 9m Freiman Wand Fler ER (ed Frastre mechani ocr rock nd concrete ASTM Spc Tah Pub scm, |. Paterson M.S. Esperimenal Rock Deformavon the Brite Feld. Springer-Verlag. Benin (1978) Mest D2 Soc to pil design in pataly having rock CHM Bull 7(M6B, 35-62 980, ‘Bla GW. S Elometary leony. Acadeni Prax, New York (969 Keiser PK. Tine dependent Savior of tunes in jie rock mar PhD. Thess, Department of Ci Enginering Univeriy of Albert Edmonton (1979. Fre P, Namen sion of theologal problems a rock, In Proc. 2a Im. Symp. Numerical Methods i ‘Geomechets, Edmonton, pp 193-03. Baker, Riera (1982, {ger #'N-aod Brgy 8 0. Memory supose fat rrp In Proc st Cn Mechanica Behar of Sal, Univer Park Penslvania (Edited by HR Hasdy J and Mc Langer p. 241-204 Trans Tech Asermannsdor. Switcnd (si, Fost HJ and Ashby M.F.Deformatin-Mechnim Maps: th Plasticity and Creep of Meta and Ceramic. Perera Pres, Onfor (pas othe nos Oyler author) (980 Dasstait M. 8. and Mrat D-M. Creep behaviour of sl rocks. In Proc. 1h Canaan Geotecnical Confrens Regina, Sarkatchewan 1987, ‘Dauesal MB, Rotcabug Land Kemelion PK. Trane respons simulaon using a disreteelement posh In Proc KALI 9, Hamar (1981) {io HCrep of ck based tm longterm experiments In Proc Sth It. Congr. Rock Mech, Melbourne, Section A Pp. 117-130 Bales, Rota (988) CANMET, 987, Uso Bek in New Brunswick Potash Mines, Part Ian Prepared by Denison Potacan Posh {Cop Mrat Projet Constants Lid, and Univerty of Waeoa, fo he Canada Cate for Mineral ana “hole. ap ary Mins nd Rous lumen a ter as poe pola rp and (90, Dusen MB Sarock ehuiouras an apulogucto the beavou of ok at reat depth Proc. In Symp. Rak ‘ret Depth (Eed by V. Maury and. Fouraintees) pp. 10-1 Balers, Rotedam (38, Lioutry LA. Very Sow Flow of Std Not, Dordrecht (1987, Ree Hand Chinguran GV. Compaction Argilaceous Sediments (Developments in Seientoogy 16) Eve, New York 978) ‘Wolr K. Hand Chilingrian G. . Diageneis of Sondones and Compaction. Chap. 3 i Compaction of Cone Grina Sediments Il Developments in Seimeniotogy TAB). Evie, New York Fordham C.J chasis o gral halite for in as acl in potash mine: PRD. Thess, Univesity of Waterloo (en, Spiers C. Peach C 4. Geesownky RH. Schutens P.M. T. M. Liemaberg J Land Zwart H. J, Long Tem Rheologal and Trapt ropes of Dry and Wet Sat Rocks Fial Report to the Commaion othe Boyan Communities, CEC Comat ne FIVW-O051-NL (1969), Daseaul MB, Scott] and Moran 8, Smet das and postrecamation diferent subsidence of pind reas. Clay Mh. S 16-172 (989) ‘Toreate D. Land Schubert Geodyramis Wiley, New Yor (1982. JC perline acer) mae apr Brug pe JOR. Gaps Re 4 ‘Weeruman J. Dislocation clin theory of steady-state creep, Trans. ASME 61, 681-694 (1968), Domes Mm ani Morgenstern NR. Locka sane Qo Ges 202), 117131 (98, Boron B Digest Crp of Plyeyataline Metre Team Tec Aedermansadort Switzerland (1977 Brann HE Meckanion of Creep Praca Evie, New York (988) Posner J-P. Creep of Costas Cmbenige University Pres, Cambri (1985 Rater H-The lines lock dlormation by pres sluion. Phen. Tans RS, London Ser 4,283, 33-28 0370, Hanmer FD. and Carer NL. Crp of Avery Island rocsalt In Proc. Ist Conf. Mechanical Behvir of So, Unvrty Park, PensvaiaEted by HR Hany Jr and M. Langer pp. $9°70. Tras Techy Aedermannso Sestneriand 0980) Monson D,E and Danson PR Sut constitutive modeling wing mechanism maps. In Proc. st Co, Mecha ‘Behr of Sa, Univraty Fak, Pennsyvania ited by H.R Hardy, and M, Langer) pp 717-79. Tran Teck ‘edernannedrt, Switzerland (198), and Chysng Solution presptstion cep in pls eramica. Acta Metall 29, 19-166 (1981) ‘Stl Wanton Theol son ip nthe sedptat cp i a Proc uC ch ek of Sa, Haonoer, Geran) (Eel by H.R. Hardy. Je and M. Langer pp 3-88. Trans Tech, Acermanso Sritzeriand (989) Waver W. Ro snd Zeach D, Modeling and mechani interpretation of ereep of rook salt below 200°C Tectonopyses 12h 125-152 1980). ‘Dusmult M-B, Rothenburg Land Mraz DZ. The design of pening inst wing» lip mechani acon In tn Prec 20'S. Symp Rack Meck, Toso, AZ (Edel by LW. Fare. JJ-K.Daemen, cS Dea CE Gs fod $.P. Nema) pp #38-642. Balkema, Rotterdam (198). Franklin J A Aig el tet or ensringsweling sad srinkage charateriic of ock Int. J.Rck Mech Min Sd € Geomech dbtrBG3, 13-121 1988).‘Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks 149 EN: Anderson D, A Hansen FD. and Kranz RL. Crp and crep rupture of granitic rocks. In Mechanical of Rocks. Geophys Monogr. Am. Geophys. Union 24 61-82 (981). (ed), Fracare Mecheics of Rock, Academic res, Landon (1987) aK. Dusenilt MB and Bogobowice A. An analytical solution for transient emperature and sires fd around ting Na inon no pene men In Pre, Palen Suit) CIM Con. al, Pe Cand Arthur R. C. Rock mechanics apecs of volume changer in caliom sulfate fearing rocks due to pase transitions In Proc. 25th U.S. Symp. Rock Mech, Evanson IL, pp 328-197 Balkema, Roterdam Swelling rocks review, In Rock Engnering for Foundations and Slopes, ASCE Specaty Canferene, 0, ak 1p 18 970, Hoy PM, and Smith J. W. Ets of strain rate on oi shale fracturing Int. J. Rack Mech, Min. Sek. “Abstr. 17, 35-43 (1980). 1M. B. Lofson M. and RusllD, The mechanical behaviour ofthe Kettle Point oil shale Can Gotech. J 1-93 (1986) Ted) Rock Characterisation, Testing and Monitoring: ISRM Suggested Methods, Pergamon Pres, Oxford PE Specimen size and history eflects on creep of sal. In Proc. It Conf. Mechanical Bhawan of Sal ty Pak, Pennsyvana (Edited by H.R Hardy, Je and M. Langer pp. 369-340. Trans Tech, Aedermannsdor! and (981). 7. HG. and Brown E.T. Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining. Allen & Unwin, Londen (1985) R and 20 coauthors. Core Handling Recommendation. American Peroleum Institute Subsomtitee om Core 'W.R and Preece DS, Creep testing of salt~ procedures, problems and suggestion. In Pro. It Conf Behrirof Sat, University Patk, Pennsylvania (ded by H.R. Hardy, Jr and M. Langer pp. 421-4 Tech, Aedermannsdort, Swiverlnd (1981) 1.8 ad Duseault M. B. Traual esting of intact saltrocks:promure contol presse systems cll nd frame ‘In Aitanced Traxial Testing of Sol and Rock, ASTM STP 977 (Edited by RT. Donaghe, R.C. Chaney and I Siher, pp. 155-168. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia (988) (N-L and Heard H. C, Temperature and rate dependent deformation of halite. An. J. Sc 268, 193-249 sm K. and Daemen J.J. K. Borehole Closure in Salt Report NUREG/CR-S243 prepared for US. Nudist Commision Ws ‘under contract NRC-O4-86-113 (1988) ‘Sand PassaisE- Creep tests for storage cavity prediction In Proc. Ist Cor: Mechanical Behavior of Salt aang Fs, ena (ed by HL. Haddad M Langer pp. 119-288 Trans Tech, Aemanmdo, a 1 Lax KH. and Rokabr R, Laboratory investigations and theoretical statements as bass forthe design of caverns in salt formations, In Proc. Ist Conf. Mechanical Behaior of Sal, University Park. Penassvania (Edited by H. R- ‘and M. Langer, pp 275-310. Trans Tech, Asdermannsdor., Sitacland (1981) ‘SensensP-E Creep properles of four rock salt. In Pro. 2nd Can Mechanical Behavior of Sot, Hanne, Germany by H.R. Hardy. Jr and M. Langer pp. 431-484. Trans Tech, Acdermannador,Suitzeland (1980). 'C.1, UraiJ-Ls and Lister G.S.The efit of brine inherent or aided) on rheology and dlormation mechanisms ‘in altrock In Proc. dad Con/. Mechanical Behavior of Sal, Honnoves, Germany (Edited by H.R Hardy, Je and ‘M. Lange. pp. 89-102. Trans Tech, Asdermannador, Switzerland (1980. Locker D-A; Byerlee J.D Kuksenko V. Pomonarev A and Sido A. Quasistatic ul growth snd shear facture | eee) In gante Natre (London 30, 39-42 (1991), “Measurement of creep in tock al at small strain rates. In Proc. ud Conf: Mechanical Behavior of Salt Auaor:Geany (ied by H.R ay, J and Lane pp 16796 Tram Tech, Aedermunart, {Demet MB, Mens D.M, Uno J, and Fordham C1. Tex Prostdure for Sloe ln Poe. 28 US. Symp Fock Mech. pp. 313-319, Balkema, Rovercam (1983) “Mrugata M. and Hardy H. Re. Eflet of test duration on the viscoelastic parameters of sal. In Proc. dd Con © Mechanical Bchavior of Salt, Mannover, Germany (Edited by H.R. Hardy, Je ani M Langer, pp. 245-262. Trane Tech, ‘Aedermannsdoe, Switzerland (1980) Pheile'. Wi, Senseny P. E. and Mellegard K. D. Influence of Variables on the Consolidation and. Usconfined ‘Compressive Strengh of Crished Salt. Report no. BMLONWI-627, prepared by RE/SPEC Inc forthe Office of [Nockur Waste Isolation, Battelle Memorial Insists, Clumbas, OH (1987) 'M. Subliy demonstration concept and preliminary design calculations for the Gorlsen repository. kn Pree, ‘Waste Management, Tucson, AZ, 1986, vol. pp. 143-151 (1988) “Toytovch NA. Mechons of Frozen Ground. McGraw-Hill New York (1975) i llova Mand Cadek J. Grain boundary behavior in capp ofa dispersion strengthened aluminium 0f Metals and Alloys, vol 1, pp. 207-212 The Metals Society, London (1973)6 Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks MAURICE B. DUSSEAULT University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada and CHRISTOPHER J. FORDHAM Suncor Inc., Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada 61 INTRODUCTION 62 CREEP 621 Creep Satis 622 Empricel Laws 623 Rieolorical Models 624 Creep Laws Based on Physical Processes 6241" Steady-state creep 6242 Transient primary creep 6243 Tertiary creep 5244 Compuction creep and porous media 5245 Deformation mechanums 63. CREEP TESTING 631 Types of Teng 832 Leboraiory Testing 633 In'ita Teng ‘64, TIME-DEPENDENT BEHAVIOR OF SPECIFIC ROCK TYPES 641 Hardrocks 642 Carbonates 643 Sinderoner 44 Shaler 45 Satrocs 645 Coo! 65 LABORATORY CREEP TESTING 651 Scope 652 Sample Collection 65.21" Ten specimen size 65.22 Coring procedsrer 4523 Specimen preparation 655 Eealuation of Creep Text Data G6. CREEP TEST DESIGN $61. Oversiw 662 Creep Test Variables {6.21 Parameters afeting time-dependent rock behavior 6622 Siran rae 6823 Stress 6624 Temperare 119120 Basic Rock Properties 65.3 Analysis of Creep Tost Rem 1s 6631 Steadysate constants (alrocks and ice) M6 66.32 Other creep parameters We 67 SUMMARY we 68. REFERENCES “ 61 INTRODUCTION ‘Time-dependent deformation (creep) is continued deformation without a stress change. Creep strain seldom can be recovered fully when loads are removed, thus itis largely ‘plastic’ deformation, Rarely, primary creep strain may be recovered without fabric damage when stresses are returned 10 their original state. In halite (NaC), gypsum (CaSO4°2H0), or rocks under exceptional tempera esa me (eos ean oor em Sareea of creep strains. In general, however, creep damages rock fabric, and may even lead to failire particulary if tensile stresses exist, but also under some compressive stress conditions. All rocks creep upon undergoing a load change. Commonly it terminates in a few minutes or hours, ori so small that it can be ignored in design. Most rocks creep appreciably only at T and [4] ‘values not encountered in engineering structures. Creep and rupture are issues in cases of high point loads, aggressive water chemistry, or tensile stresses that lead to time-dependent fracture growth. eee ee ee challenging. Some rocks, notably saltrocks, other evaporites and shales, creep readily within (mip exomiand hb eieaed mix aeusces Tenoonepene man en ee the laboratory or in situ to clarify creep mechanisms, of to quantify creep behavior for calculations. [1]. Of all aspects of rock behavior, creep is perhaps the most difficult to take from a theoretical concept to engincering design. For the mining engineer, slow steady creep is an excellent sign of efficient stress redistribution (2; large stress concentrations are not building up. ‘Creep is usually reported in terms of strain rate fe ener ear on eee ® where ¢ is strain rat, cs strain, ts ~ 0, is principal stress difference and Tis temperature. This chapter addresses creep mechanisms, the creep behavior of certain rock types and lal test methods. The emphasis is to examine these topics from an engineering and design viewpoint, rather than from a fundamental physics viewpoint. ‘In assessment of creep possibilities in the field, it is necessary to differentiate among: () where [and [o'] values obviate any possibility for acceleration; (i) cases where there i n0 kit ‘possibility of acceleration leading to failure and deceleration is expected for geometrical (Gi) cases where observed acceleration can be related to rock mass looscning, accompanied dilation (increasing macrodamage}; (iv) cases where there is litte dilation, but deformation increased rock damage and acceleration can be expected in the future; and (v) cases where steady-state deformation ean be reasonably assumed, and design based on this. The first corresponds to low T and [0] values. An example of the second case is time-dependent ‘compaction or kinematic lock-up ofa tunnel in a widely spaced jointed granite [3]. The third cas found typically around a tunnel (4] or along failure planes in a high pit wall slope where there is enough kinematic freedom to alloy loosening, weakening and eventual collapse. An example of fourth case is straining of coal or porous sandstone at high temperatures, or of shale around a dill hole. The final case is limited to: () materials such as ie and ice-ich materials; i) evaporites suchas halite, potash, and gypsum; and (ii) perhaps intensely jointed rock masses with halitic, serpentinitic, graphitic or gypsum joint fillings of considerable thickness, providing that freedom exists [5]. 62 CREEP 62.1 Creep Studies Creep has been studied since about 1905 {6}, although it was referred to as early as 1833 (7). work concentrated on metals, mainly creep rupture under tensile stress (extensional strain) StudyTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 121 creep began late in the 19th century and, as much current research does [8], focused on because they creep under T and [7] conditions easily applied in the laboratory. Also, ‘slrock mine, storage cavern and nuclear repository designs must address creep as it dominates “sir behavior. For most other rocks, creep attenuates rapidly or is an inconsequential part of the ‘oial strain under load changes. __ Engineering creep models include empirical creep laws, laws based on rheological models and. ‘based on fundamental physical mechanisms. No single approach is entirely satisfactory oftsel integrated approach blending theory, observations, approximations and common sense is d for rock engineering in creeping materials, Empirical Laws ‘The first creep laws described extensional deformation of metals under constant tensile load. ee sages were noted (Figure I) initially, decreasing creep rate (primary, decelerating or transient =p} then, constant creep rate (secondary or steady’state creep) and finally increasing creep rate ing to rupture accelerating or tertiary creep).In 1905, Philips (in ref. 7) presented a logarithmic _geep law of the form ear o “where # is strain rate in s~!, Bis a constant and ri time in s. In 1910, Andrade (in ref. 7) proposed “transient creep law of the form san @ Equations (2) and (3) ae fitted curves to extensional strain data, and they have shortcomings: they ict large rates at small time and continued ‘strain hardening’, they do not diferentiate between and compressive states; they are empirical, reflecting no physical mechanisms; and they do include temperature effecs. A rock will not show both steady-state and tertiary creep if its state ins unaltered. Provided extrinsic factors (T, [2], pore pressure (p)) and intrinsic structure (grain fabric, %H;O, etc) remain constant, mechanisms exist in saltrocks and ice for true steady-state as shown by constant velocities in sult and ice glaciers, mine openings and salt domes. Rocks exhibit tertiary creep leading to rupture, including most hardrocks such as granite, gness and lomite [9], probably do not experience true steady-state creep at an engineering time-scale. They ay reach apparent steady-state during transition between primary and tertiary creep, but this is iy to be an artifact of the way we look at strain-time deformation curves. ‘Geomaterials are weak in tension and also strain-weaken in shear, wherever excessive tensile or tresses develop, stress concentrations at microflaw tips promote erack propagation which Jead to rupture (10, 11]. Conservatively, for civil and mining design, one may assume that sess zones arc likely (6 creep until tensile stresses are redistributed, gradients are reduced, or planes or strain-weakened zones relieve extensional strains. In many rocks, these processes gid to an ‘equivalent opening’ ([12], Figure 2), within which rock has strain-weakened because of aro tensile fracturing. Lae > inroreim Basic Rock Properties Stes are Vacepoie Vacate Sat or pores Figute2 The equivalent opening concep in a viscoplastic saltrock mine. Inside the ellpical eon, clastopastic weakening as occurred, so the viscous material aries or helps redstbute load Benet Stess-ser0 Sere ° wn © 5 He a < = eta ee a ain © . te = é vet te Gigaly te te ean sie vot pie Figare 3 Basic rheological lernets a) clastic spring b) viscous dashpo;e) paste lider; und (4 brite yi ele 62.3 Rheological Models Rheological models are assembled to represent macroscopic stress-strain-time-yield be- havior phenomenologically [13], using four elements that emulate basic aspects of material ‘behavior (Figure 3. The spring represents elastic straining, described by a constant stiffness modulus (linear elasticity), or a stress- or strain-dependent modulus (nonlinear elasticity). When stress i removed, deformation is fully recovered instantaneously. The dashpot is the ereep strain clement when stressed, it deforms with time, and strain is not recovered. Deformation rate can be propor: tional to stress (a Newtonian fuid) or viscosity can be nonlinear, dependent on shearing stress or strain rate. The slider simulates plastic strain; to activate it, a stress atleast equal to its yield sires ‘must be applied; once exceeded, it strains irrecoverably. Yield stress can be a constant mean sheat stress (Von Mises model), a constant stress difference (¢, ~ 03 = 2K, the Tresca model), ora value related to normal stress (Drucker-Prager, Lade, Mohr-Coulomb or other stress-dependent yield models). The rupture (brittle yield) element emulates cohesion or strength loss resulting from excessive strain OF stress, and can be used to simulate approach to residual strength (14). Rheological models have deficiencies: they provide no direct predictions unless calibrated; they do not account for shear and normal stress, temperature or intrinsic structure; and they do not provie insight into fundamental creep mechanisms. Despite these limitations, rheological models allow decomposition of behavior into elastic, viscous, plastic and rupture components, aiding enginecring | |Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks 123 Smet apna ‘Sean nene rapa ° e 4 ‘Simple rheological models (a ideal linear elastic, perfectly pas behavior, (b) viscoelastic steady-state creep material (¢) viscoelastic transient behavior (Kelvn- Voight materia and (d) elastic scopastic behavior Using elements in parallel, series or various combinations, and by varying element ‘4 wide range of rock behavior can be modeled [15]. Linder and Brady [16] report [models of various types, pointing out deficiencies and advantages in their use. By placing series and parallel, and by making the element parameters nonlinear, most criticisms as to iveness can be overcome. Several simple models are shown in Figure 4 for ideal , viscoelasticity (permanent and recoverable deformation), and elasto-viscoplasticity. ehavior, more elaborate models may be used; for example, several models used for df are shown in Figure 5. The behavior of one of these models is shown in more detail Creep Laws Based on Physical Processes ‘Steady-state creep Ay ercep processes have been expressed as laws, although debate continues over the import= various mechanisms at different 7, [0] states, and how to develop macroscopic behavioral Currently, the most widely used steady-state creep law for salt accounts for both principal -diference (0; — 05, maximum deviatoric stress, also called ‘effective plastic stress’) and by = Alo, — a,Fexp(— QIRT) ” fis steady-state strain rate, A isa constant, os principal stress, nis aIn(@}-In(o, — @) plotTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks Is f carat gaa" ais og te,-09) (Mo) 7A standard log-log plot of versus efetive plastic stress 6, — 95) Not that there is no provision forthe eect of fo +6, + 03)/3}. Mechantamslnclade pret solution (1 1, dalocation glide fn ~ 3) steady-state miceofssurng im ‘alt (n= 43-10%, depending on +) and combined mechaniss Q's the activation energy of a given mechanism, R is the universal gas constant and Tis the in K. Because m is generally not an integer, equations are normalized so that units are ane ‘dp may be the shear modulus [17], or a stress level for initiation of a particular mechanism =} ano 6 1s (4) and (5) quantify é, from a single mechanism. If multiple additive mechanisms act, ‘could be, for m different mechanisms, each with its own Q, oo and A Adeat = di + hehe +0004 Side 6 A= Aettemm(-QURT) and oy = Ifereep mechanisms have discrete initiation stress levels, then the creep law may include these (see equation 8) Also, although only power law formulations are discussed here, other stress could be used (eg. hyperbolic sine). Figure 7 contains a typical log-log plot for single- steady-state creep and an example of a two-mechanism additive creep law. Because of ‘exponents, the region of curvature is limited. If mechanisms are interdependent, an law may not apply, and a purely empirical equation may be necessary. Transient primary creep ‘most common approach to a physically-based transient creep law is a diminishing rate law first-order kinetics. Simply stated, the primary creep rate decays at a rate proportional to the ‘emaining primary component. This leads to exponential laws 4 = égexp(—at) 0 and é are determined by curve fitting to transient laboratory ot in sitw creep data. In fact, fundamental physics behind these equations is the assumption that decay rate is a linear of the currently remaining transient creep ‘concentration’; no physical mechanism is cit equations based on mechanisms cannot yet be written, but there are clearly four primary processes: (i) transient response arises from stress redistribution in non-Newtonian materials126 Basic Rock Properties | (12); (i) AT leads to transient response because ofa strain rate change (equation 4) and thermal Yolume changes; (i transient response is related to rock damage during excavation or specimen preparation; and (iv) intrinsic transient response arises from grain-scale polycrystalline material behavior [19]. In the field, all four may act in damaged laboratory specimens, the last two act; and in high quality specimens. only the latter acts, as tests are usually done with constant T° [20]. ‘Currently, no link exists between laboratory and field primary creep response; design models are ‘empirical, based on practice and judgement. Numerical modeling using only a law gives mine closure rates with a primary creep component [21}. However, modeling damage zone influence requires rheological properties as functions of damage; such data do not yet exist for goomaterials. Also, annealing may reverse damage in saltrocks because of crack healing [22], and in a mine or repository some excavation damage may thus be reversed, except in the permanently damaged clastoplastic region (Figure 2). Conceptually, intrinsic primary creep is related to polycrystal fabric, including defect density and variations in ‘mineralogy and crystal properties [19]. There exist no satisfactory models linking transient creep to ‘common intrinsic properties [23], although at a thermodynamic level it may be related to the degree ‘of chaos (entropy) in the rock. A wide modulus range, random polyerystal structure, crystal defects ‘and microcracks all increase chaos and primary creep magnitude [19]. 6.243 Tertiary creep Accelerating creep in geomaterals is caused by increasing fabric damage related to the growth and coalescence of microcracks. Under certain T, [0] states, generally enhanced by cyclic changes, rupture must eventually occur because of acceleration of damage. Microcracks develop along grain boundaries, and may be nucleated from crystal defects. Tertiary creep in rock is accompanied by dilation, as the incteasing concentration of microcracks requires volume increase. A common criterion for nonfissured britle materials s that tertiary creep onset will occur when the strain (hence ‘damage) exceeds a characteristic value. In the fel, if dilation is suppressed by surrounding moterial, ‘excess stresses are redistributed to surrounding material, causing a departure from the critical stress ‘conditions. There is no acceptable fundamental equationtso describe tertiary ereep rates in geomaterials. Empirical equations based on power laws, exponential laws or other similar curves have been used, and most predictions are based entirely on site-specific field measurements. These are usually measures of deformation rate, and if accelerating deformation is observed, data are fited to empirical curves extracted from previous experience. 6.244 Compaction creep and porous media (Figure 8) Petroleum reservoirs, spoil piles, sediment compaction [24, 25] or mine backfill may exhibit volumetric ereep associated with porous medium compaction. This is related to delayed expulsion or absorption of pore water (consolidation and swelling) to grain collapse or crushing, of 10 grain-scale creep processes such as solution and reprecipitation or viscoplastic grain contact ‘deformation. ‘Consolidation and swelling are diffusive fluid transport processes driven by p, T, concentration and saturation gradients. All four factors may be evidenced in smectitic shales encountered in driling, mining and civil engineering structures. Also, cataclastic porosity loss occurs in materials such as chalk, marl, coal and high-porosity bonded clays shales, where stresses and aggressive ids may promote pore collapse and grain rupture, which also reduce rock cohesion. Grain contact viscoplasticity rapidly attenuates because contact area increases quickly, reducing local stresses Solution and reprecipitation may endure for long periods, but are unimportant except in eranulat ‘gypsum, halite [26] or cement-rich backfil, unless temperatures are elevated, as in the case of thermally enhanced oil recovery processes, Geological densification of sands now at porosities of 20-25% may have taken place at constant T; [2] and u through fuid-phase diffusive mass transfer, ‘diagenetic creep process (27] ‘Continued creep and weakening, as in time-softening of shale or coal waste piles, can lead to slope failure, perhaps involving liquefaction, many years after the waste pile eteation. Time-dependent differential settlement of shaley spoil continues for decades after reclamation as shale lumps soften and creep upon rewetting (28), It may be delayed, triggered by rainwater percolation or ground ‘water table recovery in an unsaturated regime. Mechanisms such as loss of cohesion, negative pore pressure and shear strength, may be simulated using large-seale laboratory tess, but there are noTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 127 Figwe 8 Compaction creep mechanisms in granular materials a) consolidation; b) grain collapse () vicoplastic grain ‘behavior: and () slution-precipitation mass tremler fundamental relationships, and tests must be supplemented with field instrumentation. Because ‘saturation depends on climate and drainage state, precise time predictions are impossible. 624.5 Deformation mechanisms creep data are fitted to an equation, an assumption has been made that certain mechanisms ‘dominate creep processes! This has important consequences. Ifa transient equation (equation 7) is ‘sed to predict closure of an adit, rates will continue to decelerate. Ifa liner is installed, predicted ‘tresses stabilize at values less than the original values in the rock. Ifa steady-state equation is used {equation 4), closure will decelerate slowly as the room geometry changes, but high liner stresses may be predicted. This may be of no consequence in a mine, but will totally dominate long-term “ructure or waste repository design. (Creep is caused by different mechanisms related to intrinsic and extrinsic factors (23]. Rates are ‘controlled by the dominant mechanism, such as glide (29), or by the rate-governing process of + agiven mechanism, such as precipitation rate or solute flow velocity [27, 30}, Extrapolation of ‘creep data to other conditions requires appreciation of mechanisms. These may include: dislocation climb, glide and cross-lip; diffusive mass-transfer mechanisms such as vacancy and grain ‘boundary diffusion, and pressure solution; grain boundary sliding or superplastcity; and cataclass, including grain crushing and microerack generation and propagation, with or without dynamic Dislocations are linear or planar latice imperfections [29, 31] which distort the lattice, producing high localized bond forces. Once atomic bond strength is exceeded, rupture occurs, and dislocations will propagate by climb, glide and cross-slp until they reach a different packing. grain boundary or128 Basie Rock Properties mnother ‘negative’ dislocation where annihilation occurs. If defects accumulate on a boundary, they generate a flaw (a microcrack), causing initiation of new glide planes in adjacent crystals, or polyerystal debonding. Diffusion mechanisms involve liquid or solid phase movement of individual atoms or vacancies through erystals or along boundaries in stressed polycrystals. Solid-phase diffusive mass transfer ‘occurs within the lattice (vacancy diffusion or Nabarro-Herring creep) or along grain boundaries (Coble creep). Vacancies migrate in the opposite direction to the creep strain and a vacancy ‘generating mechanism is necessary. Vacancy migration creep rates in minerals are negligible at engineering conditions and become important only at a T > 90% Of Tring it K. Liquid phase mass transfer occurs by ion movement in grain boundary thin water films in ‘a low-porosity polycrystal, or through the pore liquid in a porous medium. Examples are halite ‘ereep, dissolving of gypsum under a dam and diagenesis [25, 32]. Atoms are dissolved at high stress, regions, including defect sites (Figure 9), and as solubility increases with stress, concentration gradients are set up and material moves to precipitate in low stress regions, such as pore space surfaces [27], Solution rates are inversely proportional to d? + d? (dis grain size of the potyerystal, ‘and diffusive rates are sensitive to temperature. Three rate limiting processes in solution creep are rate of solution, transport or deposition. In high solubility halite, transport rate controls creep; in Tow solubility silicates, solution rate limits ereep rate; and in low porosity materials, precipitation rate limits creep rate. if low channels are small or poorly interconnected, transport rate will limit creep. In silicates and carbonates, solution ereep is measurable on the engineering time-scale only at exceptional T, [7] and p conditions. Grain boundary sliding accommodates shape change of adjacent erystals caused by diffusion and dislocation processes [33]. It must accompany diffusion ereep, often accompanies dislocation ereep [34] and is caused by shear stresses between grains [35]. The process is important in high porosity rocks, shaley rockgills and mine backfill. Cataciasis is brittle deformation, generally at grain contacts [36], but also passing through crystals, until at the limit, pulverization is observed. It occurs when Toads are applied beyond the frictional limit, as in fault movement; beyond grain strength, as in Notth Sea type chalks; or beyond pore structure strength, as in coal. It ceases when stresses are redistributed below these limits, but may be aided by aggressive pore fluids, In low porosity rocks,Time-dependent Behavior of Rocks 129 \eromatue Peet ee ie ae omen Soph or anieanaeastoat| of : 5 ey 3 Figure 10 A deformation mechanism map fo halite accompanies cataclasis, but dilation is suppressed by high normal stresses. At great depth, is occurs in the presence of hot, hydrothermal uid that can rapidly’ move minerals around, ‘in annealing. ‘microcracking involves crack generation along grain boundaries, accompanied by healing of microcrack-scale fluid mass transfer. In silicates, sulphides, oxides and other covalently rocks, mass transfer rates are so slow that no healing oceurs in engineering time scales. In table mierocracking is a major process and dominates creep atthe stress and strain rates "*) normally used in laboratory testing, although itis not an important process ‘normal mining strain rates (10~''—10"'* s~*), Because microcracking is sensitive to normal 2: high stresses suppress crack propagation, and microcracking leads to cteep that is tion of ¢, even in the case of saltrocks at steady-state deformation rates. Exponents of 6~10 ted for stable microcracking in saltrocks, based on laboratory tests mechanism except cataclasis has a characteristic range of slopes on a In(éy)/In(a, ~ ¢3) plot 1, and slope changes imply changes in mechanisms. As well, each creep m has of T, [2] over which it can dominate over the others (Figure 7). Theoretical and experi- data have been used to develop mechanism maps which show the range of dominance of mechanism, and Figure 10 is such a map for salt. Others may be found in the literature [17]. isms have been addressed by many authors (27, 30, 36-41], Detailed back-analysis suggests ‘exponent of 3.0 may be most justified in the viscoplastic ones around openings in salt and ‘mines once é, is achieved [21, Rothenburg, personal communication, 1991), implying that cation processes. may dominate at conditions of approximately T'= 25K; a; ~o) = .constant-slope line on a In(é/(e; — @,) plot may not adequately describe behavior over parameter range in situ. For salt and potash, Dusseault et al, [42] developed a nor- form of (4) for a single temperature 44 is the normalizing principal stress diflerence separating two creep mechanism regimes, rain rate ata stress difference of... is the slope of the high rate process (~-3 to 9), and slope of the low rate process (110 3), This law assumes that one of two mechanisms ‘reep rate (Figure 11), separated by a critical stress difference, about 10-15 MPa for lower for materials such as bischofite and carnallite. This law has been used to model ‘in several Canadian potash mines (Figure 12) and several salt mines. For New Brunswick130 Basic Rock Properties ‘Table 1 Sess Exponent for Various Creep Mechanisms Mechaniom Range References on Dislossion 3-6 31,34, 35,41 Diffusion 2 7.29, Grain boundary 23-47 A875 Shing \oate,-0y) (Po) Figure 1 The two-mechanism steady-state crep lw wed for modeling the behavior of push mines armies ore oa) Figure 12 Canadian potash mining regions, and locations of mines analyzed using 2 multiple mechanism erep lawTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 131 ic creep testing is used to explore deformation mechanisms, activation energies and to 2p constitutive laws. Scintific tests in the laboratory to develop a general constitutive law fong-term material behavior under various states (7; {21}, . Typical applica tectonophysics, glaciology and radioactive waste disposal [23]. ng testing is used for design or enhancement of material behavior understanding, Tests out over limited time frames, often in the field, to answer a specific question or choose an approach. A range of materials must be assessed, wth emphasis on critical strata, Thus, samples or structures are tested to minimize chances of a single unique geological eg. fracture filing) governing the results. In engineering creep testing, there are several : tests may be carried out to develop a quantitative constitutive law for design; to )4 qualitative assessment, comparison, or ‘feel’ for rock behavior, or, as physical simulations: models. The value of a qualitative behavioral assessment must not be underestimated: rock ag will always remain judgemental because of the complexity and uncertainty involved in hatural strata. This chapter will concentrate on engineering testing for purposes of design ack or understanding rock behavior. Laboratory Testing test types are common in laboratory creep studies (Figure 13) () constant homogeneous ii) constant strain rate tests (one of the principal strain rates, 4, is held constant); and axation tests, where a strain increment, gy, is applied, and stresses are allowed to ‘relax’ ‘Sra ne acest Sr. tire rears i TT tT Pree i ‘ 13 The common crep test moves: (a) constant sat; (0) constant axial strain rae; an) relation tests132 Basic Rock Properties ‘Constant stress creep tests can be carried out in configurations such as triaxial, beam bending, uniaxial compression, double torsion and direct tension. These are ideal for exploring steady sate ‘teep proceses. Triaxil creep tests are performed by applying constant axial and radial sess (G4. ,) to a cylindrical specimen and monitoring axial and perhaps radial deformations (e.) a8 (0, Strain rates can be calculated with respect to both axial and radial deformation (2. )and ‘volumetric strain rate (V) or porosity change rate (@) may also be determined. Constant strain rate (¢,) ests are commonly used to examine brittle rock behavior and may be used to examine long-term creep behavior. Constant strain rate triaxial tess are performed by ‘pplying and maintaining a constant ,, then imposing a constant, to the specimen and ‘Ac Except in rocks permiting steady-state cree, thes tests must eventually lead t eld because of Cumulative damage. As mechanisms may change as the stress increases, data may be dificult to interpret Relanation tests requir a stf test fame and knowledge of the constitutive law form fr a materia in order to interpret results. Relaxation test are usually carvied out by imposing an instantaneous AL, then measuring «, decay with time (da,/dr), along with lateral strain. They can also be Detformed by carrying out a constant stress creep test for some time, then closing the presse ontrol system and monitoring stresses and rates until stability ensues Nonstandard tests in standard triaxial equipment include extension test (4 < ,) torsion test exible hi-fi) spherical inclusion experiments or hollow cinder tests, Nonstandard or index creep tests such as tre triaxial (, > o> 04) three- and four-point beam bending ree swell ig Swell (43], notched cylinder or double torsion tests may be required. By modifying slightly the suggested guidelines, rational methods for these tess can be developed, ‘Test specimens seldom are lange enough (0 be representative, and often intact samples are unconsciously favored: unfortunatly these also tend to ereep more slowly, and not be the ‘eicil ‘materials. Hence, in st testing has & vital role in rock engineering 633 In Situ Testing In situ testing permits large-scale field or prototype behavior to be assessed without fear that intrinsic parameters such as moisture content have been radically altered. It can be done on a joint plane or a pillar by introducing flat jacks or loading frames (Figure 14, or loading an entre Structural component such as a room or panel (Figure 15). Testing of isolated elements, such as 4 series of clay-flled, steeply inclined faults, isa vital method for creep assessment. In cases where «reep is along a large planar feature, such asa pillar roof line in stratified deposits, itis impossible to Fart Figure 14° Flatjacks loading pillar and i st testing of «caly excavated continuity planeTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 133 representative laboratory data, thus extrapolation from these tests is not feasible, and field the only reliable source of design information. {esting of a large structural component such as a tunnel section gives ‘bulk’ material ‘and these data may also be used to verify and refine numerical model predictions. Bulk tends to ‘average’ properties and eliminate anomalous behavior related to laboratory test conditions, and puts the behavior of the eitical materials in the proper physical context. amp, salt displays strain-hardening in the laboratory because of defect annealing, but notin the free surface area of mine elements is small with respect to erystal size, thus ms relating to scale become irrelevant. ‘most serious disadvantages of in situ testing are that: () stress and strain state are rarely ous (i) stresses are seldom known accurately; (i) creep may concentrate in a single interface, but measuring devices average displacements over a gauge length; (y) the field ‘may reflect behavior of damaged or nonrepresentative material (Figure 2} (¥) few large- ‘may be possible because of cost; and (vi) a limited range of 7, [0] states is available in the ‘in situ test program. Despite these disadvantages, development of a large mine or civil rng structure susceptible to creep requires in situ tests, perhaps extended for several years f the construction phase. DEPENDENT BEHAVIOR OF SPECIFIC ROCK TYPES. ow porosity silicates cannot display significant steady-state creep under engineering conditions ‘dominant mechanism is microcrack generation and propagation along grain boundaries, damaging process that either stabilizes (¢-+ 0) or accelerates (é—» co). Dilation ‘creep in low porosity rocks under engineering conditions as polycrystal debonding and propagation require + AV. The presence of water reduces surface energy requirements tin (45) and though seemingly ry, hardrock i si have sufcent program for hardrocks usin slow constant é tests (below 10-7 10: (identify the stress or load limit below which nt processes ‘maximum strain or displacement associated with this limit ii) evaluate creep in beam unching. or other geometries if appropriate to the structure; (iv) evaluate effects of cyclic in lowering the limit in (and (v) evaluate extrinsic factors such as pore water chemistry “Ozdometric (c, = 0) or 3-D creep compaction tests in hardrock are irrelevant unless the ly weathered and the feldspars have been kaolinized, giving a high porosity or layers of, abric and filings control creep, laboratory tests on joint samples followed by field testing ‘Kinematics are analyzed, critically oriented joint sets with weak fillings are favored and care is taken to preserve clay gouge moisture content and to test joints which of graphite, MoS,, sericite or highly weathered minerals.134 Basic Rock Properties 64.2 Carbonates Carbonates are highly soluble in mildly acidic waters and have excellent cleavage compared 10 ‘most silicates. Thus, they can more easly display dislocation behavior, microeracking, crushing, dissolution and fabric deterioration. Under high stresses and with water flow in joints, carbonates ‘reep through dissolution and plastic yield of reduced-area contacts. Most massive carbonates show stylolitic features, evidence of relatively rapid dissolved state mass transfer on the geological time scale, ‘A-carbonate creep program must address pore fluid flow rate, aqueous geochemistry and changes of Tor solute saturation, as these control dissolution rate, Dissolution along grain boundaries and contacts has far-reaching effects on creep rates; dissolving of bonding minerals and grain contact weakening may trigger creep acceleration as loads are microscopically redistributed. As with any rock type, higher porosities are associated with more rapid ereep rates; thus chalks, porous oolites, and fractured or brecciated carbonates are mote likely to creep. In petroleum exploitation, high porosity chalk reservoirs may undergo structural collapse, outwards propagation ofa yield zone and accelerated creep if pore pressures are reduced. Marls and argillaceous limestones of intermediate porosity may show rapid creep rates, depend= ing on clay content and whether it exists in dserete bands rather than asa disseminated constituent, Dissolution of the carbonate content of a calcareous rock may leave clayey, weak bands in which creep may be concentrated, and dissolved karstic features may have washed-in clay infilings. 643 Sandstones A sandstone is an assemblage of grains, and individual grain properties affect creep. Creep i not usually associated with competent quarizose sandstones in civil and mining applications, low porosity sandstones behave as hardrocks and show modest transient creep before stabilizing, High porosity, poorly cemented sandstones may undergo an inerease in grain packing density on loading, {his is time-dependent only if accompanied by grain-sale creep processes such as solution, micro= cracking, or dislocation glide, or by transient pore pressures. ‘At similar porosities, greywackes creep more than arkoses, which cep more than quartz arenes ‘Small grains are usually monocrystalline and relatively stronger than large grain, but show more transient creep because pressure solution acts more rapidly in high surface area soluble materials. It isnot clear if grain sorting itself afects creep, but iffine-grained clay or organic material participates, inthe stress-carrying skeleton, large creep Values may be noted. Mineralogicaly, the following ordet will be followed for creep rates: aypsum sands, chalk and calearenites, lithic arenites, feldspathic arenites and quartz arenites. Hiigh-porosty, weakly-bonded sandstones may creep under constant [1 then suddenly demon- strate a compaction rate increase, followed by stabilization. In this case, transient creep has ‘weakened bonds so that structural collapse oocurs, followed by densification, a process most likely in chalks or high porosity (> 30%) sandstones with weak grains and brittle cement. High porosity (45-50%), oilstich siliceous diatomaceous earth (the Diatomite) is exploited for oil i California by injection of large quantities of steam, leading to massive compactive creep, shear plane creep, and surface subsidence in excess of several meters, all related to T and [o] changes and mineral creep | through dissolution and grain collapse. When fluid is withdrawn from geologically overpressured reservoirs, they experience large mean stress increases, which leads to massive time-dependent compaction, of the order of 3-6% volumetric strain. Creep testing of sandstones is carried out saturated, under back pressure and with fuid flow through the specimen at a rate thought {0 be a reasonable simulation of the prototype. Solution rates are sensitive to temperature thus environmental control is vital 644. Shales Highly overconsolidated, metamorphic or geologically old shales and slates tend not to ereep ‘except along discontinuities and fissilty planes which may be filled or coated with different minerals. Weak graphitic bedding planes in slates creep easily and redistribute stresses to intact, stiff areas under high confinement. The presence of graphite, phyllosilicates, gypsum or minerals such as serpentine isa sign that the material may be susceptible to creep processes. High porosity or chemically susceptible shales will display bulk creep deformation as well 8 discontinuity creep. Slow creep consolidation may occur in clay shales; ‘secondary’ consolidation ofTime-dependent Behavior of Rocks 135 re coh Borehole instability in shales as time-dependent weakening proces, afected by chemical thermal and pore resi ee been recognized for decades. In petroleum well drilling, continued sloughing in shale vals i related to time-dependent tangential microfissuring resulting from slow pore pressure and high deviatoric stresses (Figure 16, combined with osmotic effects, swelling and ‘Changes in T have at least five effects on shale creep: dehydration and slaking, chemical process rate changes, uid viscosity changes, and altered thermoelastic ch foster microfissuring. Furthermore, conductive heat transfer is itself time-dependent leading to continued deformation. that show little creep at engineering conditions may, upon exposure to diffrent chemical deteriorate and deform by pyrite alteration, gypsum dissolution or hydration [47], or swelling [48] triggered by pore pressure chemistry changes. Oil shales creep, and the rate {o temperature and organic content [49]. If the organic content participates in the framework [50], creep will be greater than if itis only in the interstices. Smectitie ‘upon stress rele if free water is available, and may soften, weaken, and creep more h time. Thin smectitic seams in sequences of sandstones, coal or shale will absorb water, and crm, causing extensional stan in surrounding mater, propagating weakening 7). testing of shales is one of the most challenging laboratory problems in rock engineering. use of the strong fabric, load directions have a dominant effect, and slow pore pressure contribute to the time dependency of deformations. Triaxil or shearbox creep tests are along with efforts to simulate environmental conditions correctly. ‘mainly minerals such as halite, sylvite, carnalite and bischofite, creep when subjected to ‘shear stress. Upon a stress change, saltrocks exhibit instantaneous strain followed initial rates are rapid but decelerate (primary creep) I all factors remain constant, ‘constant, resulting in true steady-state creep (Figure 1b), If structure alters (Le it136 Basic Rock Properties ‘Figwre 17 (a) Crep ofa smectite layer ins highvall, lading to opening of tension cracks: (b) creep of a mete bd in 1 coal roo, leading to pillar weakening by robe of coining stse ‘microcracking continues) salt may strain weaken or rupture; more likely, é will change and fabrie will adjust to a new equilibrium structure. Saltrocks display various rate-controlling mechanisms within the engineering range of Tand [0] Below a a, ~ as level of perhaps 4-8 MPa, solution-precipitation creep dominates, above this limit, toa; — 2, value of 10-15 MPa depending on the salt, dislocation processes dominate creep; above 10-15 MPa to perhaps 25-30 MPa, and depending on os, dominates; above 25-30 MPa, but only if oy < 15 MPa, st 3(>15 MPa) and large shear stresses, “ideally plastic’ viscous deformation without strain- Weakening occurs. A different é is associated with each 43 because microcracking is involved. Saltrocks will also show different behavior in various steady-state microcracking with healing in-weakening cataclasis occurs; and at regime; in the last three, ¢ is sensitive to regimes depending on moisture content, which must be carefully preserved in sample storage. For example, extremely ‘dry’ domal sal us 25%) will have a significantly narrowed range of ‘wet’ (1.5-2%) bedded salt. Also, the é/, — ¢3 relationships 646 Coal steady-state microfissuring, compared to fer. Coal has creep behavioral components related to mineral creep, gas dissipation from internal ‘micropores and a strong joint fabric as well as weak pores. Gas promotes internal microcracking by ‘maintaining high pressures after unloading. and this may be evidenced as ereep. Pillars in coal miney are classic examples of continued creep resulting in gradval fissuring and opening of cleat fractures. A loss of load-carrying capacity by internal pillar weakens, adjacent pillars must take the load, Perhaps putting them into jeopardy as the result of rapid creep. In tectonic regimes such as the Alberta and United States front ranges and foothills, coal may be highly sheared, and in open pit ‘mines these planes, often clay-coated, cause major problems of slope ereep instability Coal in the laboratory must be treated somewhat differently than many other roel Internal gas pressure that may be retained and released slowly from cored coal may affect behavior and may be dangerous), and prolonged exposure to oxygen will alter 65 LABORATORY CREEP TESTING 651 Scope The laboratory approaches outlined herein have been grams on halite and well to remember thi its physical properties. developed through engineering test pro- sh ore, but guidelines are applicable to creep testing of all rock types. Its itis the softer, sensitive, soluble rocks that are the most likely to creep, and are also the more difficult to sample and prepare into test specimens. High porosity chalk, clay seams,