3D Solid Modeling

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 Engineering Geometry
Geometry Provides the building blocks
of the engineering design process
Coordinate Space

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3D Coordinate Spaces

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Coordinate axes in Multi-View

Only two axes of the three coordinates can be seen in each view

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Right-Hand rule to
Determine the Positive
Direction of the Axes
Right-hand rule defines the X, Y and Z
axes, as well as the positive and
negative directions of rotation on each
axis

X: Thumb
Y: Indexing finger
Z: Middle figure

Fist wrapped around the

axes, with the thumb pointing
to the positive direction of
the axis

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Polar Coordinate System

A distance in X-Y plane and

an angle from the X axis

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Example I: Polar to Cartesian

D=4.5
α=30°

x= D × Cos(α)
y= D × Sin(α)

x=3.897
y=2.250

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Example II: Cartesian to Polar

x=4
y=6.928 6.928
D = ± x2 + y2
D
⎛y ⎞
α = atan ⎜ ⎟ α
⎝ x ⎠
4
X

D=8
α=60°

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Cylindrical Coordinate System

A polar system with a Z

distance

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Spherical Coordinate System

An angle in one plane, an

angle in another plane and
one length

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Absolute Coordinates

Points are referenced to the

fixed origin

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Relative Coordinates

Starting point,
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referenced to the origin 12
Classification of Geometric Elements

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Representation of Points (examples)

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Representation of Lines (examples)

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Lines Relationships

Parallel Condition Non-parallel Perpendicular Intersecting

Condition Condition Lines

Tangent Intersection of
Condition Two Planes

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Curved Lines
Path generated by a point moving in a constantly changing direction
Single Curved Line: All points of the line are in a plane
(Circle, Ellipse, Parabola, Hyperbola Spiral, Spline, Involute, Cycloid)
Double Curved Line: No four consecutive points are in the same plane
(Cylindrical helix, 3D Spline)

Regular Curve: Radius is constant

Irregular Curve: Radius varies, such as parabola, hyperbola, spline….
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Tangencies
Planar tangents exists when two geometries forms meet
at a single point and do not intersect
(touch in one and only one point)

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Tangencies in 3D Geometries

Plane touches
but not intersect
the another
surface at one or Smooth transition between
more consecutive two geometric entities
points Note: Corner between two
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geometric entities indicates a 19
non-tangent condition
Tangencies of Line and Surfaces
A line is tangent to a surface, if the line touches the
surface only at a single point

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Circles
Circle is a single
curved plane with all
points at an equal
distance from the
point called center.

Diameter is a chord
that passes through
the center

Secant is a line
passing through the
circle but not the
center

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Conics
Single curved lines
can be described by
algebraic equations,
loci of points or a
section of a cone

Many applications in
Engineering and sciences

1. Ellipse
2. Parabola
3. Hyperbola

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Parabola
When a plane
intersects a right
circular cone parallel
to the side (element)

Mathematically,
Parabola is defined as
a set of points in a
plane which are
equidistance from a
given fixed point,
called focus and a
fixed line, called
directix.

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Engineering Application of Parabola

Rays originating at the focus, Rays coming into the parabola,

parallel to the axis are reflected
are reflected out of the
to the focus.
parabola parallel to the axis.

Parabola revolved about its axis generates a 3D ruled surface called a paraboloid
(Auditorium ceiling reduces reverberation)

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Hyperbola
When a plane
intersects a right
circular cone and
makes a smaller
angle with the axis
than do the elements

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Hyperbola – Mathematical Definition

Mathematically, Hyperbola
is defined as a set of
points in a plane whose
distances from two fixed
points called the foci, in
the plane have a constant
difference.

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Engineering Application of Hyperbola

™ Ernest Rutherford discovered

that when alpha particles are
shot toward the nucleus of an
atom, they are repulsed away
from the nucleus along
hyperbolic paths.

™ In astronomy, a comet that

does not return to the sun
follows a hyperbolic path.

™ Reflecting Telescopes

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Ellipse
When a plane intersects a right
circular cone at an angle to the
axis that is greater than the
angle between the axis and the
sides

Major diameter is the longest

straight line distance between
elements and is through the
foci.

Minor diameter is the shortest

straight line distance between
elements and is through the
perpendicular bisector of the
major axis.
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Ellipse Templates

A line of sight other than 90 degrees

changes the appearance of a circle to
an ellipse.

Ellipse templates come in intervals of 5

degrees.
The viewing angle relative to the circle,
determines the ellipse template to be used.

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Free Form Surfaces

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Free Form Curves

Interpolation vs. Approximation

Parametric Equations:
1- Splines
2-Bezier
3- B-Spline
4-NURBS

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Free Form Curves
Spline curve is a
smooth free form
curve that
connects a
series of control
points

Bezier, B-Spline
and NURBS are
flexible
techniques to
create modified
smooth curve that
passes close to
but not through
the all of control
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Angles
How to define…

Acute
Right
Obtuse

Relationships

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Planes

How to define…

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Quadrilaterals

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Regular Polygons
A Polygon with equal sides
3 sides 4 sides 5 sides 6 sides 7 sides

8 sides 9 sides 10 sides 12 sides 20 sides

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Triangles

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Surfaces
Finite portion of a plane
or the outer face of an
object bounded by an
identifiable perimeter

Ruled Surface is
generated by a moving
line, called Generatrix
The path of the moving
line is called Directrix

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Classification of Surfaces
A) 2D bounded Surface
B) Straight line generatrix revolved
around an axis directrix
C) A curved line generatrix revolved
around a line, center or a vertex
D) A single and double curved
transitional surface
E) Follows no set pattern; more
sophisticated math is required
Another Classification
F) Planar, Single curved or
wrapped surface with a
straight line generatrix
G) Can be unfolded or unrolled onto a
plane without distortion
H) Can’t be unfolded or unrolled
onto a plane without distortion

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Classification of Ruled Surfaces
1) Polyhedra
2) Single- Curved Surface
3) Wrapped Surface

Classification of Single- Curved Surfaces

An straight line generatrix and path such that any two
consecutive position of the generatrix are either parallel,
intersecting or tangent to a double curved line (convolute)

OR
Sweeping a curved generatrix along a straight line

1) Polyhedra
2) Single- Curved Surface
3) Wrapped Surface

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Classification of Cones

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Classification of Cylinders

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Convolutes
A convolute is a single- curved surface generated by a line moving
always tangent to a double curved line

Helical
convolute is a
special case
formed by
sweep of the
line tangent to
a helix curve.

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Polyhedra
A symmetrical or asymmetrical geometry with multiple polygonal sides called facet

4 facets 6 facets 8 facets

12 facets 20 facets
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Polygons Prisms
A polyhedron that has two
equal parallel facets

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3-D Modeling
3D computer model of an object

1) Wire frame
2) Surface Modeling
3) Solid Modeling

B-Rep
CSG Tree
Hybrid

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Wire frame
Only vertex and edges Linear and circular edges

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Surface Modeling
Lacking of uniqueness in wire
frame

Sweeping generator entities

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Surface Modeling

Complex surfaces by sweeping

Revolved Surface

A directrix can be rotated about an

axis, between 1 and 360 degrees

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Surface Modeling
Lofting Surface
A series of directrix paths and a
generatrix curve

Freeform Surface patches

using parametric equations
Generating the surface patches
from the boundary curves

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