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5962 7276e PDF
5962 7276e PDF
Effective Machinery
Measurements using
Dynamic Signal Analyzers
Chapter 1. Introduction 3
1.1 Benefits of Vibration Analysis 4
1.2 Using This Application Note 5
Glossary 75
References 82
Index 84
Chapter 1
Introduction
1) Product/machine research
and development
2) Production and quality control
(this includes rebuilding and
Figure 1-2
overhaul) The individual
components of
3) In service maintenance and vibration are
monitoring shown in DSA
displays of
amplitude versus
In the cases of these differing frequency.
application categories; the gen-
eral principles and measurements
are often the same, but the perfor-
mance characteristics, measure-
ment flexibility functionality and
data presentation formats can
vary.
3
Dynamic Signal Analyzers can Figure 1-3
also display the vibration ampli- DSA display
of amplitude
tude as a function of time (Figure versus time are
1-3), a format that is especially especially useful
for analyzing
useful for investigating impulsive impulsive
vibration (e.g. from a chipped vibration that
is characteristic
gear). The waterfall/spectral map of gear and
format (Figure 1-4) adds a third rolling element
defects.
dimension to vibration amplitude
versus frequency displays. The
third dimension can be time, rpm
or a count triggered by an exter-
nal event (e.g. load, delay from
top-dead-center, etc.). DSAs
come in many shapes, sizes and
configurations. They range from
stand- alone battery operated por-
tables, to bench-top precision in-
struments, to rack-mounted
computer controlled systems. Figure 1-4
DSA map displays
They range from single-channel illustrate changes
units up through multi-channel in vibration with
rpm, load, or
(~500) systems. Virtually all can time. This map
be computer automated and con- is a collection
of vibration
trolled, and a wide variety of measurements
post-processing capabilities and made during a
machine runup.
programs are available.
4
The principle objectives in analyz- elements in the machine and machine defects, and (4) docu-
ing the vibration data are: depending upon the objective, menting, archiving and analyzing
determine whether an individual the results. Each of these steps is
1) Simplify and reduce the vibra- component of the vibration is vital to analysis, and viewing the
tion data into a more compact abnormal. The total energy in any process in this manner promotes
easily interpreted form. single component is generally a systematic approach that
2) Associate characteristics of small and the ability of a DSA to increases the probability of
the vibration to specific features individually segregate this compo- success. The contents of each
of the machine vibrating. nent make it a very sensitive mea- chapter, and their relation to
sure of the machine. Often a very the steps in Figure 1.2-1 are
3) Provide a consistent, repeat- large change in an individual com- discussed below.
able measurement by which to ponent will cause an extremely
characterize the vibration of a small change in the overall Two subjects beyond the scope of
machine. vibration level. this note are rotor dynamics and
4) Identify characteristics that the vibration characteristics of
change with time and operating 1.2 Using this Application specific types of machinery.
conditions, or both. Note Rotor dynamics is required for
complete analysis of the rotors
Figure 1-2 illustrates the princi- This application note is organized used in most turbomachinery (i.e.
ples presented; the vibration data around four key steps in the flexible rotors) although most of
is broken down into its individual analysis process shown in Figure the information in this note still
frequency components by the 1.2-1: (1) converting the vibration applies (we will note circum-
DSA; the analysis can associate to an electrical signal, (2) reduc- stances when it does not).
these components to particular ing it to its components, (3) corre-
lating those components with
Figure 1.2-1
The process of machin-
ery vibration analysis
consists of four steps,
each critical for success.
5
Understanding the vibration char- Chapter Overview
acteristics of specific types of ma-
chinery is important for effective Chapter 22: Converting Vibration to an Electrical Signal
analysis. This information can be Vibration is converted to an electrical signal with transducers, and effective analysis
obtained from machinery requires a signal that accurately represents the vibration. This chapter gives you the
manufacturers, independent information needed to select and mount transducers.
training centers, and from well Chapter 3: Reducing Vibration to its Components - The Frequency Domain
documented experience with The key to successful analysis is reduction of the complex signal to simple components.
similar machines. As shown in Figure 1-2, this is best done with a display of vibration amplitude vs.
frequency – a perspective known as the frequency domain. The objective of this
The analysis of machinery vibra- chapter is to provide a good working knowledge of the frequency domain.
tion is not an easy task, and you Chapter 4: Characteristic Vibration of Common Machinery Faults
will not fully understand each and Each type of machine fault has distinctive characteristics that can be used for
every measurement, nor will you identification. This chapter describes the characteristics of some of the most common
easily predict the effects of machinery faults.
changes or an impending failure. Chapter 5: Advanced Analysis and Documentation
What vibration analysis does This chapter focuses on solving some of the practical problems encountered in machinery
provide is a valuable tool to give vibration analysis, such as identifying spectral relationships, order analysis, orbits, limit
you additional insight into the testing, automation and other advanced techniques.
dynamics of a rotating machine, Chapter 6: Dynamic Signal Analyzers
the ability to predict most failures DSAs feature measurement capabilities that make them the ideal instrument for
and diagnose the cause of machinery vibration analysis. This chapter explains why these capabilities are important,
excessive vibration. describes key aspects of each and helps discriminate between the different analyzers
ranging from single-channel up through large multi-channel systems.
6
Chapter 2
Converting Vibration to an
Electrical Signal
7
Vibrations Parameters Figure 2.1-1
We will start our discussion of A heavy spot on a
vibration parameters by examin- machine rotor
results in a
ing the vibration produced by rotating force
simple imbalance. Referring to vector that
appears sinusoidal
the machine rotor in Figure 2.1-1, from a fixed
note that the heavy spot produces reference.
arotating force that appears
sinusoidal from any fixed refer-
ence position. At points A and C,
the force in the direction of the
reference is zero. At points B and
D it is at positive and negative
maximums, respectively.
The amplitude of the vibration with machine speed, and trans-
The response of the rotor to such
parameters also vary with rotation ducer limitations, often mean that
a force is a displacement which
speed (rpm) — an important con- only one of the parameters will
moves the center of rotation away
sideration in transducer selection. supply the information necessary
from the geometric center (Figure
Velocity increases in direct pro- for analysis.
2.1-2).1 A displacement measure-
portion to frequency (f), while ac-
ment performed on the rotor re-
celeration increases with the The impact of variations in
sults in approximately the same
square of frequency. This varia- amplitude with rotation speed is
waveform as the force, with a
tion with frequency, and the phase illustrated in Figure 2.1-4. In this
signal amplitude approximately
relationships shown in Figure example, potentially dangerous
proportional to the magnitude of
2.1-3 , are illustrated in the equa- vibration levels are present in a
the force. It is not exactly the
tions below. In these equations, low-speed fan and a high-speed
same because the dynamics of the
which apply only to sinusoidal gearbox. The two items to note
rotor affect the response. This is
vibration, A is the vibration dis- are: (1) displacement and acceler-
an important point in vibration
placement amplitude and f is the ation levels differ widely, and
analysis, and is discussed in more
rotor frequency of rotation (cps or (2) velocity is relatively constant.
detail in the next section.
Hz).
From the first, we can conclude
The velocity and acceleration
Displacement = A sin (2p f t) that frequency considerations are
parameters of the vibration are
Velocity = 2p f A COS (2p f t) important in selecting a vibration
offset in phase relative to dis-
Acceleration = - (2p f)2 A sin (2p f t) parameter. Acceleration is not as
placement — an important consid-
good a choice for very low fre-
eration when using phase for
The three vibration parameters quency analysis, while displace-
analysis. Phase relationships are
are thus closely related and, in ment does not work well for high
shown in Figure 2.1-3. Velocity,
fact, can be derived from each frequencies. Note that these are
for example, is offset from dis-
other by a Dynamic Signal Analyz- limitations of the vibration param-
placement by 90°. At point B,
er (see Section 6.6). However, the eter, not the transducer.
when the displacement is maxi-
variation in vibration amplitude
mum, the velocity is zero. At
point C, when displacement is
zero, velocity is maximum.
Following the same reasoning, ac-
celeration can be shown to be off-
set 90° from velocity, and thus
180° from displacement.
1
Note: This applies to shafts that do not
bend in operation (i.e. rigid shafts).
Flexible shafts respond somewhat
differently to imbalance forces.
8
Frequency range limitations of Figure 2.1-2
transducers are also an important The imbalance
consideration in parameter selec- force produces a
vibration whose
tion, and are discussed in displacement
Section 2.2. has approximately
the same wave-
form as the
The fact that velocity is a good in- force itself.
dicator of damage, independent of
machine speed, implies that it is a
good parameter for general
machine monitoring. That is, a
vibration limit can be set indepen-
dent of frequency. (Velocity re-
mains constant with damage level
because it is proportional to the
energy content of vibration.) Ve- Figure 2.1-3
Velocity and
locity is also a good parameter for acceleration of
analysis, but the upper frequency the vibration are
offset 90º and 180º
limitation of velocity transducers in phase from
can be a problem for gear and displacement.
high-speed bladeanalysis.
Mechanical Impedance
A key point illustrated by Figure
2.1-5 is that we are measuring the
response of the machine to vibra-
tion forces, not the forces them-
selves. Thus the response
characteristics of the machine —
its mechanical impedance — have
a direct impact on the measured
vibration. The two key results of
this are: (1) if the response is Figure 2.1-4
small, the vibration will be diffi- Two cases which
illustrate the
cult to analyze, and (2) if response variation of
changes drastically with frequen- vibration
parameters
cy, changes in running speed can with machine
produce misleading changes in speed.
measured vibration level. These
are important considerations
in selecting and installing
transducers.
9
Figure 2.1-5
The most common example of Vibration
low-level response involves ma- measured
on a machine is
chines with relatively light rotors the response to
and fluid-film bearings, mounted defect force, not
the force itself.
in heavy casings. Very little shaft
vibration is transmitted to the cas-
ing, and shaft vibration must be
measured directly (see Figure
2.1-6). Rolling element bearings
are much stiffer than most fluid-
film bearings, and transmit shaft
(and their own) vibration to the
machine case well.
Natural Frequencies
In the plot of Figure 2.1-7, the
Figure 2.1-7
response peaks occur at natural A plot of vibration
frequencies. These are the fre- response versus
frequency for a
quencies at which a structure will machine housing
vibrate “naturally” when hit with shows how
measured
an impact. A good illustration of vibration
natural frequency vibration is a level can change
with rpm. A defect
tuning fork, which is designed to force at frequency
vibrate at a specific frequency B produces a much
larger vibration
when impacted (see Figure 2.1-8). response than the
When a vibration force occurs at a same force level at
frequency A.
natural frequency, the structure
will resonate (i.e. respond with a
large amplitude vibration).1
10
Natural frequencies relate to ma- Figure 2.1-8
chinery vibration analysis in three When excited by
important areas: (1) resonances of an impact, a
tuning fork
the structure can cause changes in vibrates at its
vibration level with rpm, (2) the natural frequency.
dynamics of rotating shafts
change significantly near natural
frequencies (or critical speeds),
and (3) resonances of transducers
limit the operating frequency
range of velocity transducers and
accelerometers. Changes in vibra-
tion response with frequency are
shown in Figure 2.1-7. Shafts
which operate above or near a
natural frequency of the shaft are
classified as flexible, and are dis-
cussed briefly in Section 3.4. Nat-
ural frequency limits on the useful
frequency range of transducers
Figure 2.1-9
are described in the next section The natural
(2.2). frequency of a
simple mechanical
system varies with
A relationship worth noting at this mass and stiffness.
point is the variation in natural
frequency with mass and stiffness.
The equation for the natural fre-
quency of the simple mechanical
system in Figure 2.1-9 is given be-
low, where k is stiffness and m is
mass. Note that natural frequency
goes up with increasing stiffness
and decreasing mass.
1
Note: The subject of resonances and
structural vibration is dealt with in
more detail in Hewlett-Packard
Application Note AN243-3. Though
extremely important to analyzing and
understanding machine vibration; the
focus of this note is more on analyzing
operating machines than on structural
analysis.
11
2.2 Transducers Key characteristics of displacement transducers
In this section, each of the trans-
(a) Displacement transducers measure relative motion between the shaft and the
ducers shown in Figure 2.1 will be mount, which is usually the machine housing. Thus, vibration of a stiff shaft/bearing
described. We will discuss how combination that moves the entire machine is difficult to measure with displacement
each one works, its important transducers alone.
characteristics, and the most com-
(b) Signal conditioning is included in the electronics. Typical outputs are 200 mV/mil or
mon applications. We will also
8mV/micron (1 mil is 0.001 inches; 1 micron is 0.001 millimeters). Technically, the fre-
discuss some common tachometer
quency response of displacement probes is up to 10,000 Hz (or 600,000 rpm), but as a
type transducers used to obtain practical matter the displacement levels at these frequencies is so low that the actual
rotation speed information on the useful frequency range of proximity probes is about 500 Hz (30,000 rpm).
machine.
(c) Shaft surface scratches, out-of-roundness, and variation in electrical properties
due to hardness variations, all produce a signal error. Surface treatment and run-out
Displacement Transducers
subtraction can be used to solve these problems [11,12].
Noncontacting displacement
transducers (also known as (d) Installation is sometimes difficult, often requiring that a hole be drilled in the
proximity probes1), like the one in machine housing.
Figure 2.2-1, are used to measure (e) The output voltage contains a dc offset of 6 – 12 volts, requiring the use of ac
relative shaft motion directly. A coupling for sensitive measurements. AC coupling is a feature of all DSAs, and simply
high frequency oscillation is used means that an input capacitor is used to block the dc. The practical disadvantage of ac
to set up eddy currents in the coupling is reduced instrument response below 1Hz (60 rpm).
shaft without actually touching it.
As the shaft moves relative to the
sensor, the eddy current energy
changes, modulating the oscillator Figure 2.2-1
Noncontacting
voltage. This signal is demodulat- displacement
ed, providing an output voltage transducers
include a probe
proportional to displacement. This and an oscilla-
is illustrated in Figure 2.2-2. tor module.
1
Note: We will limit our discussion to
eddy current probes as they are by far
the most commonly used type.
12
Velocity Transducers Figure 2.2-3
Velocity transducers were the first A typical velocity
vibration transducer, and virtually transducer with
extension probe
all early work in vibration severity installed.
was done using velocity criteria.
Velocity transducer construction
is shown in Figure 2.2-4. The
vibrating coil moving through the
field of the magnet produces a rel-
atively large output voltage that
does not require signal condition-
ing. The amplitude of the voltage
is directly proportional to the ve-
locity of the vibration. As shown
in Figure 2.2-5, the spring-mass-
damper system is designed for a
natural frequency of 8 to 10 Hz,
which allows the magnet to stay Figure 2.2-4
essentially fixed in space. This Velocity
transducer output
establishes a lower frequency is a current
limit of approximately 10 Hz generated in the
coil as it moves
(600 rpm). The upper frequency through the field
limit of 1000 to 2000 Hz is deter- of the stationary
magnet.
mined by the inertia of the spring-
mass-damper system.
13
Accelerometers Key characteristics of accelerometers
Accelerometers are the most
(a) Accelerometers offer the broadest frequency coverage of the three transducer types.
popular general purpose vibration Their weakness is at low frequency, where low levels of acceleration result in small
transducer. They are constructed output voltages. Their large output at high frequencies also tends to obscure lower
using a number of different tech- frequency content when the transducer is used for measuring overall level. This can be
nologies, but for general purpose overcome by models with built-in integrators giving velocity output, or by added signal
measurements and machinery vi- processing.
bration, the most common design (b) The low frequency response of piezoelectric accelerometers is limited to
is the piezoelectric quartz acceler- approximately 5 Hz. This can be improved with special low frequency versions of the
ometer. Our discussion will be accelerometer. An inherent problem still exists in measuring acceleration at low
limited to this type and its deriva- frequency since its level tends to decrease dramatically at low frequencies.
tives. Construction of a simple (c) Accelerometers are very sensitive to mounting. Handheld models are available but
accelerometer is shown in Figure repeatability is very dependent upon the individual. This is increasingly true for high
2.2-7. The vibrating mass applies frequencies. When possible, accelerometers should be securely mounted using a
a force on the piezoelectric crystal threaded stud, high strength magnet, or industrial adhesive. The mounting surface
that produces a charge propor- should be flat and smooth — preferably — machined. Frequently, special mounting
tional to the force (and thus to studs are bonded or welded in place where repeated measurements are to be made.
acceleration).
14
Accelerometer output is a low- Figure 2.2-8
level, high-impedance signal that Accelerometer
requires special signal condition- high frequency
response is
ing. The traditional method is to limited by the
use a separate charge amplifier, natural frequency
of the spring-mass
as shown in Figure 2.2-9(a). system.
How-ever, accelerometers are
available with built-in signal con-
ditioning electronics that require
only a simple current-source sup-
ply. The accelerometer can be
directly connected to most DSAs
(Figure 2.2-9(b)). Another advan-
tage of this type of accelerometer
is that expensive low-noise cable Figure 2.2-9a
required of normal piezoelectric Traditional
accelerometers
accelerometers is not required. require an
This can be especially important external charge
amplifier for
when long or multiple cables signal con-
are required. ditioning.
Tachometers
Tachometers are devices used to
measure the rotation speed of a
machine shaft. They are useful in
determining accurate operating
speed and identifying speed relat- Figure 2.2-9b
ed components of the velocity. Integrated Circuit
Piezoelectric
The transducer itself normally accelerometers,
provides a pulse of some fixed with built-in
signal condi-
amplitude at a rate related to rota- tioning, can be
tion speed (typically, once per connected directly
to a compatible
revolution). We will discuss two DSA.
common types, the proximity
probe and the optical tachometer.
15
The proximity probe is the same Figure 2.2-10a
as previously discussed, however, Proximity probe
it is not used to get accurate used as
tachometer to
displacement information in this provide signal
mode. It is commonly used to with repetion rate
proportional to
detect the presence of something shaft velocity
such as a keyway slot (often re- (rpm).
ferred to as a keyphaser) or gear
tooth. Figure 2.2-10(a) illustrates
a proximity probe detecting a
keyway to provide a once per rev-
olution signal. This transducer
has many of the limitations previ-
ously described.
Figure 2.2-10b
The other common tachometer Optical
transducer is the optical tachome- tachometer
which measures
ter. It generally consists of either reflection of light
an optical or infrared light source from a rotating
object to provide
and a detector (Figure 2.2-10(b)). signal propor-
Optionally, a lens for focusing the tional to rotation
speed.
beam can be provided. The beam
is trained on the rotating shaft and
detects the presence of a reflec-
tive indicator (usually, a piece of
tape or reflective paint).
16
2.3 Selecting the Right Figure 2.3
Transducer A vibration nomo-
graph shows how
Selecting the right transducer for the levels of
displacement and
an application is a straight for- acceleration
ward process that is described be- change with
frequency,
low. Table 2.4 in the next section relative to the
is a guide for the application of level of velocity.
Note that the
transducers to several general acceleration
types of machinery. response is very
low at 1 Hz (less
than 100 µ V with
Step 1: Determine the Parameter a 10 m V / g accel-
erometer).
of Interest.
If you are interested in monitoring
a critical clearance or relative dis-
placement, the only choice is a
displacement transducer. Al-
though acceleration and velocity
can be converted to displacement, appropriate to use both absolute accelerometer. Choose one de-
it will be an absolute measure- and relative motion transducers. signed for the frequency range and
ment, rather than the relative vibration level anticipated. The
If Steps 1 and 2 indicate a dis-
measurement given by a displace- vibration nomograph of Figure 2.3
placement transducer, it is the one
ment probe. If the parameter is a can be used to help determine the
that will provide the best
quantity other than a clearance or required performance. In many
results. If a housing-mounted ac-
relative displacement, go on to cases for low frequency (<20 Hz)
celeration or velocity transducer
next step. applications or applications where
is indicated, go on to Step 3.
Step 2: Mechanical Impedance the overall level is important for
Step 3: Frequency Considerations. accessing machinery health a
Considerations.
If the frequency of the expected velocity output is required. This
If the vibration is not well trans-
vibration is greater than 1000 Hz, will dictate using either a velocity
mitted to the machine case, you
you must use an accelerometer. transducer or more commonly an
must use a displacement trans-
(You will have a much better idea accelerometer with integrated
ducer to measure the shaft runout
of frequencies to expect after output proportional to velocity.
directly. This will be the case
reading Chapter 4). If the vibra-
with a flexible rotor-bearing sys-
tion will be in the 10 to 1000 Hz
tem working in a heavy casing. If
range, either velocity or accelera-
the shaft is not accessible (as an
tion transducers can be used. Gen-
internal shaft in a gearbox), or if
erally, an accelerometer will be
the rotor-bearing system is stiff,
the choice in these cases. The
you should use a casing mounted
important thing to consider is the
velocity or acceleration transduc-
individual specifications of the
er. In borderline cases, it may be
17
Table 2.4 Machine Description Transducer Location
Transducer Variable
Application
Summary. Steam turbine/large pump or compressor Displacement Radial horizontal at
A,B,C,D. with fluid-film bearings. Redundant axial at A and D.
Gas turbine or medium size pump Displacement Radial horizontal and vertical at
A and B.
When troubleshooting a vibration goal is often to find a “representa- can be critical. One particular
problem it is critical to get infor- tive” measurement which can caution: the transducer should
mation on vibration of key compo- characterize the general condition never be mounted to a sheet metal
nents in the principle directions. of the machine with the minimum cover, since resonances may easi-
The inclusion of phase informa- number of measurements. When ly be in the operating speed range
tion is critical to diagnosing many selecting measurement points and and can easily mask the real
machine dynamics problems. On transducers the ultimate goal objective of the measurement.
the other hand, characterizing a should be kept in mind. Careful
non-critical machine for machin- transducer selection; bearing in
ery health monitoring purpose; the mind manufacturers specification;
proper mounting of the transducer
18
Chapter 3
Reducing Vibration to its
Components: The Frequency
Domain
The signal obtained from a 3.1 The Time Domain difficult. This situation is illustrat-
machinery vibration transducer is One way to examine vibration ed in Figure 3.1-2, where two sine
a complex combination of re- more closely is to observe how its wave frequencies are present. The
sponses to multiple internal and amplitude varies with time. The result of this combination is a
external forces. The key to effec- time domain display in Figure time domain display in which the
tive analysis is to reduce this 3.1-1 clearly shows how vibration individual components are diffi-
complex signal to individual com- due to an imbalanced rotor varies cult to derive. The time domain is
ponents, each of which can then with time (we are using a dis- a perspective that feels natural,
be correlated with its source. placement transducer to simplify and provides physical insight into
Techniques for reducing vibration the phase relationship). The am- the vibration. It is especially use-
to its components are the subject plitude of the signal is proportion- ful in analyzing impulsive signals
of this chapter, while the process al to the amount of imbalance, from bearing and gear defects,
of correlating these components and the speed of rotation. This and truncated signals from loose-
with machinery vibration is signal is easy to analyze because ness. The time domain is also use-
discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. we are using an idealized example ful for analyzing vibration phase
with a single source of vibration – relationships. However, the indi-
Two analysis perspectives are real world vibration signals are vidual components of complex
available for determining the much more complex. signals are difficult to determine.
components of vibration: (1) the A perceptive that is much better
time domain view of vibration When more than one vibration suited to analyzing these compo-
amplitude versus time and (2) the component is present, analysis in nents is the frequency domain.
frequency domain view of vibra- the time domain becomes more
tion amplitude versus frequency.
While the time domain provides
insight into the physical nature of Figure 3.1-1 A
the vibration, we will see that the time domain
frequency domain is ideally suited representa-
tion of vibration
to identifying its components. due to rotor
The advantage of Dynamic Signal imbalance.
Analyzers for machinery analysis
is their ability to work in both
domains.
A Machinery Example
Figure 3.2-2 should give you better
insight into frequency domain
20
bearing defect force with the im- Figure 3.2-3
balance force. These signals are Small signals that
called sidebands, and occur often are hidden in the
time domain are
in machinery vibration. They are readily apparent
spaced at increments of plus and in the frequency
domain. By using
minus the running speed from the a logarithmic
defect frequency. These compo- amplitude scale,
signals which
nents are often referred to as sum vary in level by
and difference frequencies, and a factor of over
1000 can be
are discussed in Section 5.3. The displayed.
gear mesh frequency appears at
running speed multiplied by the
number of teeth on the main shaft
gear, which here we assumed to
be ten. The running speed side-
bands around the gear meshing
frequency usually indicate eccen-
tricity in the gear. While this is a
greatly simplified view of machin-
ery vibration, it demonstrates the
clarity with which vibration com-
ponents can be seen in the fre-
quency domain.
21
While most people prefer the Figure 3.2-6
more natural feel of a linear dis- Examples of
play, logarithmic displays are an frequency
spectra common
aid to displaying the wide dynam- in machinery
ic range of data present in a DSA. vibration.
(Dynamic range is discussed in
section 6.4). We will present
examples using both linear and
logrithmic scales in this appli-
cation note.
Spectrum Examples
3.3 Spectral setup used to produce it with a
Figure 3.2-6 shows the time and
Maps/Waterfalls Hewlett-Packard DSA with this
frequency domain of four signals
The vibration characteristics of a built-in capability (Figure 3.3-2).
that are common in machinery
vibration. machine depend on its dynamics
and the nature of the forces acting In addition to showing how vibra-
(a) The frequency spectrum of a tion changes with speed, spectral
upon it. The change of these char-
pure sine wave is a single spectral maps/waterfalls quickly indicate
acteristics with machine speed
line. For a sine wave of period T which components are related to
has two important implications
seconds, this line occurs at 1/THz. rotational speed. The components
for analysis: (1) the vibration re-
(b) A distorted sine wave, produc- sulting from a defect may not ap- will move across the map as the
ed by “clipping” the signal at some pear in all speed ranges, and speed changes, while fixed fre-
prescribed amount on both the (2) insight into the nature of the quency components move straight
positive and negative directions. machine may be obtained from up the map. This feature is espe-
This is much like the truncated observing the change in vibration cially useful in recognizing
signal produced by mounting or with speed. Spectral maps1, such machine resonances (critical
bearing cap looseness and is made as the one in Figure 3.3-1 are speeds), which occur at fixed
up of a large number of odd har- three dimensional displays that ef- frequencies.
monics. Harmonics are compo- fectively show variation in the vi-
nents which occur at frequency bration spectrum with time. These 3.4 The Phase Spectrum
multiples of a fundamental fre- are also called cascade plots. The complete frequency domain
quency. In machinery analysis, representation of a signal consists
we often refer to harmonics as Rpm spectral maps usually con- of an amplitude spectrum and a
“orders” of the fundamental sist of a series of vibration spectra phase spectrum. While the ampli-
running speed. measured at different speeds. A tude spectrum indicates signal
(c) Bearings and gears often pro- variety of other parameters, in- level as a function of frequency,
duce impulsive signals that are cluding time, load, and tempera- the phase spectrum shows the
typified by harmonics in the fre- ture are also used as the third phase relation between spectral
quency domain. These harmonics dimension for maps and water- components. In machinery vibra-
are spaced at the repetition rate falls. A common method for map- tion analysis, phase is required
of the impulse. ping the variations in the vibration for most balancing techniques.
with rpm is to measure successive It is also useful in differentiating
(d) Modulation can result when
spectra while the machine is between faults which produce
some higher characteristic fre-
coasting down or running up in
quency interacts with a lower
speed. If the machine is instru-
frequency, often the residual im-
mented with a tachometer, the 1
Note: The distinction between maps and
balance. The frequency spectrum
speed can be monitored and used waterfalls is often disputed. For the pur-
of a modulated signal consists of poses of this note a waterfall is a “live”
to trigger the measurement thus continuously updating display that con-
the signal being modulated (the
obtaining vibration spectra at uni- stantly updates itself with the latest spec-
carrier), surrounded by sidebands trum while discarding the oldest. A map is
formly spaced rpm. Figure 3.3-1 a display of multiple spectrums taken at
spaced at the modulating
illustrates such a map and the different times/conditions; often requiring
frequency. complete regeneration to add additional
spectra.
22
similar amplitude spectra. DSAs Figure 3.3-1
are unique among commonly used Spectral maps
frequency domain analyzers in show variation in
the vibration
providing both amplitude and spectrum with
phase spectra. time or rpm.
23
Balancing We have also assumed that the ro- as it approaches and passes
The most common application for tor is rigid. There are two areas of through a critical speed. The
phase spectrum is in trim balanc- caution. First is that a magnetic amplitude of the vibration
ing. Recall from Figure 3.4-1 that phase detector (i.e. keyphasor) response peaks, and the phase
we need a reference for absolute can cause phase shifting errors. response shifts by 180°.
phase to be meaningful. In ma- This is due to the changing wave-
chinery analysis, this reference is form shape with speed causing This phase shift is shown in the
most often provided by a keypha- the trigger point to move. The plot of Figure 3.4-5 (commonly
sor – a displacement or optical other area is in balancing speed. referred to as a Bode plot). When
transducer which detects the pas- It is advisable that balancing not phase is measured at a speed well
sage of a keyway, set screw, or be done close to resonance fre- above the critical, the high spot
reflecting surface. Figure 3.4-4 quencies as the phase changes measured by the displacement
shows a keyphasor added to our very rapidly with speed near transducer is at a point opposite
example machine. With the trans- resonances and this can lead to the imbalance – a phase shift of
ducer 90° behind the keyphasor considerable measurement error. 180°. When operating speed is
(in the direction of rotation), and near the critical speed, the phase
the keyphasor and heavy spot Other Applications of Phase response will be shifted between
lined up, the resulting time The phase spectrum is also useful 0° and 180°, depending on the
domain waveforms are offset in for differentiating between de- dynamics of the rotor.
phase by 90°. The corresponding fects that produce similar ampli-
phase spectrum of the vibration tude spectra. In Section 4.4, we Accurate interpretation of phase
signal is as shown in Figure 3.4-3. will describe how axial phase spectra measured on flexible ro-
In this case, the keyphasor is used measurements can be used to tors requires an understanding of
to trigger the measurement. differentiate between imbalance rotor dynamics that is beyond the
and misalignment. Section 5.2 cope of this application note.
Figures 3.4-3 and 3.4-4 indicate explains how the relative stability Unless otherwise noted, all state-
the location of the heavy spot rel- of phase can be used to gain ments about the use of phase in
ative to the keyway. This informa- insight into the nature of defects. analysis refer only to rigid rotors
tion can be used in balancing to (those which operate well below
locate a compensation weight op- Rigid and Flexible Rotors the first critical speed).
posite the heavy spot. This will We mentioned in the introduction
readily give information about the that flexible rotors required an un-
location of the imbalance, but lit- derstanding of the shaft dynamics
tle information about the magni- for complete analysis. As the
tude of the imbalance weight. name implies, a flexible rotor is
Unless the system has been cali- one which bends during opera-
brated previously on the same or tion. This bending occurs at a nat-
similar machines a two-measure- ural frequency of the rotor, often
ment scheme which uses trial referred to as a critical speed. A
weights is required to get accurate flexible rotor has several critical
data on the magnitude of the im- speeds, each with a specific bend-
balance. For balancing, it’s impor- ing shape (or direction). These
tant to note, that the previous shapes are called modes, and can
discussion assumed a displace- be predicted through structural
ment transducer; velocity trans- modeling and measured using
ducers and accelerometers have orbit analysis. The distinction
additional 90° and 180° phase between rigid and flexible rotors
shifts that must be accounted for. is important because the dynam-
ics of a rotor change significantly
24
3.5 Frequency Domain Figure 3.4-3
Analyzers DSA frequency
domain display
Instruments which display the of a 90º phase
relationship.
frequency spectrum are generally Referring to
referred to as spectrum analyzers, Figure 3.4-2, this
is the phase of
although DSAs are also commonly trace B when
referred to as real-time or FFT trace A is used to
trigger the
analyzers. There are three basic measurement.
types of spectrum analyzers:
(1) parallel filter, (2) swept filter,
and (3) DSA. This section will give
a short description of each, along
with advantages and disadvantag-
es. For a more detailed discus-
sion, refer to Hewlett-Packard Figure 3.4-4
Since the heavy
application note AN 243. spot on the rotor
passes the trans-
ducer 90º after
A simple block diagram of a paral- the keyway passes
lel-filter analyzer is shown in the keyphasor,
the imbalance
Figure 3.5-1. These analyzers have signal lags the
several built-in filters that are keyphasor pulse
by 90º. The
usually spaced at 1/3- or 1-octave correspond-
intervals. This spacing results in ing frequency
domain phase
resolution that is proportional to spectrum is
frequency. For a 1/3-octave ana- shown in
Figure 3.4-3.
lyzer, resolution varies from
around 5 Hz at low frequencies to
several thousand Hertz (kHz) at
high frequency. A variation of the
parallel-filter analyzer that is Figure 3.4-5
The vibration
sometimes used in machinery response of a
work has a bank of filters that can flexible rotor
shifts 180º in
be individually selected. phase as rpm
passes through a
critical speed.
Parallel-filter analyzers offer a
good compromise between resolu-
tion and frequency span when
very large spans are required such
as in acoustics. They tend to be
expensive and do not have the
resolution required for many
machinery analysis applications.
Figure 3.5-1
Parallel filter
analyzers have
insufficient
frequency
resolution for
machinery
analysis.
25
Swept-filter analyzers use a Figure 3.5-2
tuneable filter, much like a radio Swept filter
analyzers provide
receiver. The block diagram for better frequency
this type of analyzer is shown in resolution than
parallel filter
Figure 3.5-2. The frequency reso- analyzers, but
lution of these instruments is on are too slow for
machinery
the order of 1 to 5 Hz – better analysis.
than parallel-filter analyzers but
not good enough for many vibra-
tion analysis applications. They
are much slower than the parallel-
filter analyzers as they must ana-
lyze each individual frequency one
at a time. The slowness of the
operation not only increases the
measurement time; it makes the
technique unacceptable for situa-
tions where non-steady data is
Figure 3.5-3
present. DSAs digitally
simulate hun-
dreds of parallel
DSAs use digital techniques to filters, providing
effectively synthesize a large both high speed
and excellent
number of parallel-filters. The frequency resolu-
large number of filters (typically tion. DSAs also
provide time and
400 or more) provides excellent phase displays not
resolution, and the fact that they available on the
other frequency
are parallel means that measure- domain analyzers.
ments can be made quickly.
DSAs also provide time- and
phase-spectrum displays, and
can be connected directly to com-
puters for automated measure-
ment. The DSA essentially uses
up FFT to create filters of con-
stant-bandwidth resolution; unlike
the parallel filters that tend to be
proportional bandwidth. Being
digital in implementation, some
DSAs have the ability to analyze
the data in much the same way as
the parallel analyzers in addition
to its normal FFT mode; thus al-
lowing addition flexibility. This
is referred to as digital real-time
octave analysis.
26
Chapter 4
Vibration Characteristics of
Common Machinery Faults
In the last chapter, we saw how a Converting a vibration spectrum imbalance occurs when the center
complicated time domain vibra- to a detailed report on machine vi- of mass of a rotating system does
tion signal can be reduced to sim- bration is another challenging as- not coincide with the center of ro-
ple spectral components using the pect of vibration analysis. Chapter tation. It can be caused by a num-
frequency domain. In Chapters 4 4 and 5 are a starting point, pro- ber of things, including incorrect
and 5, we will take the next step viding a basis for building your assembly, material build-up/loss,
in analysis – correlating these skills through experience. and rotor sag. As shown in Figure
components with specific ma- 4.1-1, the imbalance can be in a
chine characteristics or faults. 4.1 Imbalance single plane (static imbalance) or
This chapter provides the basic Rotor imbalance exists to some multiple planes (coupled imbal-
theory, while Chapter 5 addresses degree in all machines, and is ance). The combination is refer-
some of the common analysis characterized by sinusoidal vibra- red to as dynamic imbalance. In
problems and techniques. tion at a frequency of once per either case, the result is a vector
revolution. In the absence of high that rotates with the shaft, pro-
Each machine defect produces a resolution analysis equipment, im- ducing the classic once per revo-
unique set of vibration compo- balance is usually first to get the lution vibration characteristic.
nents that can be used for identifi- blame for excessive once per rev-
cation. This chapter describes olution vibration – vibration that Distinguishing Characteristics
these vibration patterns or “signa- can be caused by several different of Imbalance
tures” for the most common faults. In this section, we will dis- The key characteristics of vibra-
machinery defects. Where appro- cuss spectral characteristics that tion caused by imbalance are:
priate, frequency calculation for- can be used to differentiate these (1) it is sinusoidal at a frequency
mulas and details of spectrum faults from imbalance, eliminating of once per revolution (1x)
generation are also included. The unnecessary balancing jobs.
,
descriptions will give you the ba- (2) it is a rotating vector, and
sic information needed to corre- Phase plays a key role in detecting (3) amplitude increases with
late vibration components with and analyzing imbalance, and it is speed (i.e. F=mw2). These charac-
defects; the details provide in- important to remember the phase teristics are very useful in differ-
sights that will improve your abili- shifts associated with flexible ro- entiating imbalance from faults
ty to analyze unusual situations. tors (see Figure 3.4-5). A state of that produce similar vibration.
27
The driving force in imbalance is 4.2 Rolling-Element same model-number bearing can
the centrifugal forces caused by a Bearings change with manufacturer.
mass rotating about a center Rolling-element (anti-friction)
point; as such, the vibration bearings are the most common The major problem in detecting
caused by pure imbalance is a cause of small machinery failure, the early stages of failure in roll-
once-per-revolution sine wave, and overall vibration level chang- ing-element bearings is that the
sometimes accompanied by low- es are virtually undetectable in resulting vibration is very low in
level harmonics. The faults com- the early stages of deterioration. level and often masked by higher
monly mistaken for imbalance However, the unique vibration level vibration. If monitoring is
usually produce high-level har- characteristics of rolling element performed with a simple vibration
monics, or occur at a higher fre- bearing defects make vibration meter (or in the time domain),
quency. In general, if the signal analysis an effective tool for both these low levels will not be de-
has high harmonics above once early detection and analysis of tected and unpredicted failures
per revolution, the fault is not a faults. are inevitable (see Figure 3.2-3).
simple imbalance. However, high- The advantage of a DSA is that
level harmonics can occur with The specific frequencies that re- with the high resolution and dy-
large imbalance forces, or when sult from bearing defects depend namic range available, vibration
horizontal and vertical support on the defect, the bearing geome- components as small as 1/1000th
stiffnesses differ by a large try, and the speed of rotation. The the amplitude of higher level
amount (see Section 4.4). required bearing dimensions are vibrations can be measured and
shown in Figure 4.2-1, and are detected.
Because the imbalance force is a usually available from the bearing
rotating vector, the phase of vibra- manufacturer. Included in this Interestingly, some early indica-
tion relative to a keyphasor fol- section is an HP Instrument Basic2 tions of a bearing failure can later
lows transducer location, while program that computes the ex- be obliterated in the later stages
the amplitude changes are gener- pected frequencies given bearing as the failure develops. For exam-
ally small. As shown in Figure parameters and rotation speed. ple, often in the early stages of
4.1-2, moving the transducer 90° One caution: parameters of the failure a very succinct vibration
results in a 90° change in phase
reading with approximately the
same amplitude1. It is also com- Figure 4.1-2
The rotating nature
mon for the stiffness to vary of the imbalance force
to some extent from vertical results in a phase
reading (relative to
to horizontal; this can under a key phasor) that
some circumstances cause wide follows transducer
location. This is use-
variations in phase readings with ful in differentiating
flexible rotors. imbalance from faults
which produce direc-
tional vibration.
1
The amplitudes obtained from these two
readings can vary with support stiffness
and running speed. With flexible rotors,
small speed variations between the two
measurements will result in a phase rela-
tion very different from the one pictured.
2
Instrument Basic is an HP implementation
of the Basic programming language that
runs resident in many DSA analyzers.
28
component will be present. As the Figure 4.2-1
failure develops, the overall ener- Using the parameters
gy of the fault will increase, but shown, the basic
frequencies resulting
often become more broad band in from rolling element
nature and difficult to detect in bearing defects can
be completed.
the presence of the other vibration
components of the machine (Fig
4.2-3). This appearance of “heal-
ing” can be misleading. The
example also illustrates a charac-
teristic of frequency-spectrum
analysis: it’s usually easier to de-
tect a distinct low-level narrow-
band tone than a wide-band signal
of high levels in the presence of Table 4.2
Bearing
other signals or noise. Characteristic
Frequencies.
Frequencies Generated by
Rolling-Element Bearing
Defects
Formulas for calculating the fre-
quencies resulting from bearing
defects are given in Table 4.2. The
formulas assume a single defect,
rolling contact, and a rotating in-
ner race with fixed outer race.
The results can be expressed in
orders of rotation by leaving out Figure 4.2-2
the (RPM/60) term. The I-Basic The I-BASIC program
to compute bearing
program listing in Figure 4.2-2 will characteristic frequen-
compute the bearing frequencies cies. The specific unit
used in lines 230 and
automatically. 240 is not critical, as
long as it is the same
for both.
If bearing dimensions are not
available, inner- and outer-race
defect frequencies can be approxi-
mated as 60% and 40% of the num-
ber of balls multiplied by the
running speed, respectively. This
approximation is possible because
the ratio of ball diameter to pitch
diameter is relatively constant for
rolling-element bearings.
29
the shaft speed. This is the reason Example Spectra resulting spectra. The characteris-
for the factor of 1/2 in the formu- The example spectrum of Figure tics we will focus on are:
las. (2) The term in parentheses is 4.2-4 is the result of a defect in (1) the impulsive nature of bear-
an adjustment for the diameter of the outer race. A printout of the ing vibration (which produces
the component in question. For bearing data and characteristic high frequency components),
example, a ball passes over de- frequencies, computed with the
fects on the inner race more often program given in Figure 4.2-2, ap- (2) the effect of multiple defects,
that those on the outer race, be- pears below the spectrum. Note and
cause the linear distance is short- the sidebands at running speed (3) modulation of the bearing
er. Vibration components at the which are characteristic of most characteristic frequencies by
fundamental-train frequency, beginning spectra. running speed.
which occurs at a frequency lower
that running speed, is usually The spectrum in Figure 4.2-5 is In contrast to the sinusoidal vibra-
caused by a severely worn cage. also the result of a defect in the tion produced by imbalance,
outer race. In this case, the char- vibration produced by bearing
Rolling-element bearing frequen- acteristic ball-pass frequency has defects is impulsive, with much
cies are transmitted well to the disappeared, but its harmonics sharper edges. The effect of these
machine case (because the bear- remain. The component around sharp edges is a large number of
ings are stiff), and are best mea- 200 Hz is the gearmesh vibration. higher frequency harmonics.
sured with accelerometers. For In Figure 4.2-6, the lower trace is
bearings which provide axial sup- Some Details of a time display of a simulated
port, axial measurements often Spectrum Generation defect and the upper trace is the
provide the best sensitivity to de- To give you better insight into corresponding frequency spec-
fect vibration (because machines how bearing spectra are generat- trum. The defects are spaced at
are usually more flexible in this ed, we’ll take a look at some sim- 10 ms intervals, resulting in a har-
direction). ulated bearing signals and their monic spacing of 100 Hz (1/10 ms)
in the frequency spectrum.
Factors That Modify Frequency A. Bearing frequencies are usually C. Some of these frequencies will appear
Characteristics modulated by residual imbalance, which in the vibration spectrum of a good
will produce sidebands at running bearing. This is usually due to production
While the computation of characteristic frequency (see Figure 4.2-9). Other tolerances, and does not imply incipient
bearing frequencies is straightforward, vibration can also modulate (or be failure.
several factors can modify the vibration modulated by) bearing frequencies, and
spectrum that results from bearing bearing spectra often contain components D. To modify the formulas for a stationary
defects. that are sums or differences of these shaft and rotating outer race, change the
frequencies (see Section 5.3). signs in equations (1) and (2) of table 4.2.
B. As bearing wear continues and defects E. Contact angle can change with axial
appear around the entire surface of the load, causing small deviations from
race, the vibration will become much more calculated frequencies.
like random noise, and discrete spectral
peaks will be reduced, or disappear. This F. Small defects in stationary races which
will also be the case with roughness are out of the load zone will often only
caused by abrasive wear or lack of produce noticeable vibration when loaded
lubrication. Another variation that occurs by imbalance forces (ie. once per
in advanced stages is concentration of the revolution).
defect energy in higher harmonics of the
bearing characteristic frequency (see
Figure 4.2-6).
30
Figure 4.2-3
As bearing defects
progress, the vib-
ration becomes
more like random
noise, and spec-
tral peaks tend
Two important consequences of the high to disappear.
frequency content are:
Figure 4.2-5
In this example
of an outer race
defect, the com-
ponent at the ball
pass (outer race)
frequency has
disappeared, but
its harmonics
remain. This is
characteristic of
advanced stages
of a defect.
Figure 4.2-6
The impulsive
nature of bear-
ing defects pro-
duces a large
number of
harmonics
spaced at the
characteristic
frequency.
31
Multiple Defects and Running Figure 4.2-7
Speed Sidebands Two simulated
examples of
The characteristic spectrum of multiple defects.
multiple bearing defects is diffi- Note that the
harmonic spacing
cult to predict, depending heavily remains at the
on the nature of the defects, characteristic
frequency.
Figures 4.2-7(a) and (b) show two
simulated multiple defects and
their resulting spectra. Note that
as long as the sequence repeats
itself at the appropriate character-
istic frequency, the spacing of the
harmonics will be at that frequen-
cy. in this case, only the harmonic
amplitudes will change.
32
A basic difference exists between Changes in oil viscosity or pres- twice critical speed. At this speed,
vibration due to instability, and sure, and external preloads are the whirl (which is approximately
vibration due to other faults such among the conditions that can 1/2 running speed) will be at the
as imbalance. Consider the case lead to a reduction in the ability critical speed, resulting in a large
of a shaft imbalance. Vibration of of the fluid to support the shaft. vibration response that the fluid
the shaft is a forced response to In some cases, the speed of the film may no longer be able to sup-
the imbalance force, occurs at the machine can be reduced to elimi- port. The spectral map display
same frequency, and is propor- nate instability until a permanent of Figure 4.3-2 illustrates how oil
tional to the size of the force. remedy can be found. Stability whirl becomes unstable oil whip
Instability, on the other hand, is a sometimes involves a delicate bal- when shaft speed reaches twice
self-excited vibration that draws ance of conditions, and changes critical and the oil whirl coincides
energy into vibratory motion that in the operating environment may with a rotor-natural frequency.
is relatively independent of the require a bearing redesign (e.g. Whirl must be suppressed if the
rotational frequency. The differ- with tilting pad or pressure dam machine is to be run at greater
ence is subtle, but has a profound designs). Whirl may also cause than twice the critical speed.
effect on measures taken to instability when the shaft reaches
address the problem.
33
4.4 Misalignment Vibration due to misalignment Several notes of caution relative to phase
Vibration due to misalignment is often also contains a large number measurements are appropriate at this
of harmonics, much like the point:
usually characterized by a 2x
running speed component and characteristic spectra of loose- A. Machine dynamics will affect phase
high axial vibration levels. When ness and excessive clearance. The read-ings, so that the axial phase
key distinguishing feature is a relationship may be 150° or 200° rather
a misaligned shaft is supported by than precisely 180°.
rolling-element bearing, these high 2x component, especially in
characteristic frequencies may the axial direction. B. Transducer orientation is important.
stages of gear defects are often difficult
also appear. Phase, both end to to analyze. Transducers mounted axially to
end on the machine and across Using Phase to Detect the outside of the machine will most often
the coupling, is a useful tool for Misalignment be oriented in opposite directions. If this is
As shown in Figure 4.4-2, the the case, a 180° phase relationship will be
differentiating misalignment from measured as 0°.
imbalance. axial vibration at each end of the
machine (or across the coupling) C. Great care must be exercised when
is 180º out of phase. This relation- meas-uring relative phase with a single-
Misalignment takes two basic channel DSA. Two measurements are
forms: (1) preload from a bent ship can be used to differentiate required, each referenced to the shaft
shaft or improperly seated bear- misalignment from imbalance, with a keyphasor (or similar reference).
which produces in-phase axial These measurements should be made at
ing, (2) offset of the shaft center the same speed. In gen-eral, you should
lines of machines in the same vibration. This test cannot be used make more than one meas-urement at
train and (3) angular misalign- in the radial direction, since each point to insure that phase readings
imbalance phase varies with the are repeatable.
ment. Flexible couplings increase
the ability of the train to tolerate type of imbalance. Relative phase
misalignment; however, they are can be measured with a single-
not a cure for serious alignment channel DSA using a keyphaser
problems. The axial component of reference, or directly with a dual-
the force due to misalignment channel DSA (see Section 6.8).
is shown in Figure 4.4-2. Machines
are often more flexible in the axial
direction, with the result that high
Figure 4.4-1
levels of axial vibration usually Alignment
accompany misalignment. The problems are
usually char-
high axial levels are a key indica- acterized by
tor of misalignment. a large 2 x
running speed
component, and
High second harmonic vibration a high level of
axial vibration.
levels are also a common result
of misalignment. The ratio of 1x
to 2x component levels can be
used as an indicator of severity.
Second harmonics are caused by
stiffness asymmetry in the ma-
chine and its supports, or in the
coupling. This asymmetry causes
a sinusiodal variation in response Figure 4.4-2
level – a form of rotating imped- A bent or mis-
aligned shaft
ance vector. The vibration that results in a
results from the rotating force high level of
axial vibration.
and impedance vectors contains
a component at twice the
rotating frequency, as shown
in Figure 4.4-1.
34
4.5 Mechancial Looseness up. While these waveforms are belt and the resulting vibration is
Mechanical looseness usually idealized, the mechanism for largely once per revolution. The
involves mounts or bearing caps, producing harmonics should be directionality that usually accom-
and almost always results in a clear. The general term for panies looseness results in vibra-
large number of harmonics in the deviation from expected behavior, tion levels that vary significantly
vibration spectrum. Components as when the sinusoidal vibration with transducer direction. In other
at integer fractions of running is interrupted by a mechanical words, while imbalance response
speed may also occur. Looseness limit, is non-linearity. is usually about the same in hori-
tends to produce vibration that zontal and vertical directions,
is directional, a characteristic that Belt drives present one situation looseness in a mount that produc-
is useful in differentiating loose- where looseness does not result in es a large vertical component may
ness from rotational defects such a large number of harmonics. In produce a much smaller horizon-
as imbalance. A technique that this case, the impacts and sharp tal component.
works well for detecting and truncations are damped by the
analyzing looseness, is to make
vibration measurements at several
points on the machine. Measured Figure 4.5
vibration level will be highest in Looseness usually
results in a trun-
the direction and vicinity of the cated waveform
looseness. Also measuring vibra- that produces a
spectrum with a
tion level on a bolt and comparing large number of
the level measured on the housing both odd and even
harmonics.
can pinpoint where to shim and
torque.
35
4.6 Gears Characteristic Gear B. Natural Frequencies: The im-
Gear problems are characterized Frequencies pulse that results from large gear
by vibration spectra that are A. Gear Mesh: This is the frequen- defects usually excites the natural
typically easy to recognize, but cy most commonly associated frequencies of one or more gears
difficult to interpret. The difficulty with gears, and is equal to the in a set. Often this is the key indi-
is due to two factors: (1) it is number of teeth multiplied by the cation of a fault, since the ampli-
often difficult to mount the rotational frequency. Figure 4.6-2 tude of the gearmesh frequency
transducer close to the problem, is a simulated vibration spectrum does not always change. In the
and (2), the number of vibration of a gearbox with a 15-tooth simulated vibration spectrum
sources in a muilti-gear drive gear running at 3000 rpm (50 Hz). of Figure 4.6-2, the gearmesh
result in a complex assortment The gear-mesh frequency is 15 x frequency is 1272 Hz. The broad-
of gear mesh, modulation, and 15 = 750 Hz. This component will band response around 600 Hz is
running frequencies. Because of appear in the vibration spectrum centered on a gear-natural fre-
the complex array of components whether the gear is bad or not. quency, with sidebands at the
that must be identified, the high Low-level-running-speed side- running speed of the bad gear.
resolution provided by a DSA is a bands around the gearmesh The high-resolution-zoomed spec-
virtual necessity. It is helpful to frequency are also common. trum of 4.6-2(b) shows this detail.
detect problems early through These are usually caused by
regular monitoring, since the small amounts of eccentricity or C. Sidebands: Frequencies gener-
advanced stages of gear defects backlash. ated in a gearbox can be modulat-
are often difficult to analyze. ed by backlash, eccentricity,
Baseline vibration spectra are The amplitude of the gearmesh loading, bottoming, and pulses
helpful in analysis because high- component can change signifi- produced by defects. The side-
level components are common cantly with operating conditions, bands produced are often valuable
even in new gear boxes. Baseline implying that gearmesh level is in determining which gear is bad.
spectra taken when the gearbox not a reliable indication of condi- In the spectrum of Figure 4.6-2(b),
is in good condition make it easier tion. On the other hand, high-level for example, the sidebands
to identify new components, sidebands or large amounts of around the natural frequency
or components that change energy under the gearmesh or indicate that the bad gear has a
significantly in level. gear-natural-frequency compo- running speed of 12.5 Hz. In the
nents (Figure 4.6-2), are a good case of eccentricity, the gearmesh
indication that a problem exits. frequency will usually have
sidebands at running speed.
Hints On Gear Analysis
A. Select And Mount Transducers
Carefully. If gearmesh or natural
frequencies above 2000 Hz are expected,
use an accelerometer. Mounting should be
in the radial direction for spur gears, axial
for gears that take a thrust load, and as
close to the bearings as possible. Figure 4.6-1
B. Determine Natural Frequencies. Since The character-
recognition of natural frequencies is so istic spectrum
important for analysis, take every oppor- of a gearset in
good condition
tunity to determine what they are. This contains com-
can be done by impacting the shaft of the ponents due to
as-sembled gearbox, and measuring the running speed
vibration response of the housing. This of both shafts,
measurement should be done with a two- and gear-mesh-
channel DSA for best results (Section 6.8), ing frequency.
but a single-channel measurement will
give you an idea of the frequencies to
expect.
C. Identify Frequencies. Take the time to
diagram the gearbox, and identify gear-
mesh and shaft speed frequencies. Even if
you don’t know the natural frequencies,
shaft speed sidebands will often indicate
the bad gear.
36
4.7 Blades and Vanes Figure 4.6-2
Gear natural fre-
Problems with blades and vanes quencies, excited
are usually characterized by high by impulses from
large defects, are
fundamental vibration or a large often the only
number of harmonics near the indication of
problems. The
blade or vane passing frequency. zoom spectrum
Some components of passing in (b) shows the
natural frequency,
frequency (number of blades with sidebands
or vanes x speed) are always that correspond
to running speed
present, and levels can vary mark- of the bad gear.
edly with load. This is especially
true for high speed machinery,
and makes the recording of oper-
ating parameters critical. It is very
helpful in the analysis stage to
have baseline spectra for several
operating levels.
37
4.8 Resonance resonance, the phase will not be Shaft resonance problems in high-
Problems with resonance occur constant. This is a useful tech- speed machinery are sometimes
when natural frequencies of the nique when it is not practical to caused by changes in the stiffness
shaft, machine housing, or attach- vary the speed of the machine. provided by fluid-film bearings,
ed structures are excited by load changes, or by the effects
running speed (or harmonics of Piping is one of the most common of machines added to the train.
running speed). These problems sources of resonance problems. Bearing wear, for example, can
are usually easy to identify When running speed coincides reduce the stiffness of the shaft/
because levels drop appreciably with a natural frequency of the bearing system, and lower the res-
when running speed is raised pipe, the resulting vibration will onant frequency to running speed
or lowered. Spectral maps are be excessive, and strain on both multiples. Coupling changes can
especially useful for detecting the pipe and the machine can lead raise or lower torsional natural
resonance vibration because the to early failure. The most logical frequencies to running speed. The
strong dependence on rotational approach is to change the natural dynamics of these situations can
speed is readily apparent (see frequency of the pipe. It can be be quite complex, and are beyond
Figure 4.8). Phase is also a useful raised by making the pipe shorter the scope of this note. Hewlett-
tool for differentiating resonances or stiffer (e.g. by adding a sup- Packard application note AN 243-3
from rotationally related compo- port), or lowered by making the deals with the topic of measuring
nents. Say, for example, that you pipe longer (see Figure 2.1-9). The the resonance and structural prop-
encounter a high level of vibration same rules apply to any attached erties of machines in some detail.
at 16-times running speed. If the structure. Structural analysis of The key is to understand that
vibration is rotationally related the structure by measuing operat- maintenance and installation re-
(e.g. a blade passing frequency), ing mode shapes is useful in lated factors can alter assump-
the phase relative to a keyphasor determining optimal positioning tions made in the rotor design.
signal or residual imbalance will of supports and braces.
be constant. If the vibration is a
Figure 4.8
Spectral Maps are
especially useful
for analyzing vi-
bration due to
resonances.
38
4.9 Electric Motors 4.10 Summary Tables
Excessive vibration in electric Tables 4.10-1 (below) and 4.10-2
motors can be caused by either (next page) summarize the vibra-
mechanical, or electromagnetic tion characteristics information
defects. The latter can often in this chapter. This information
be isolated by removing power: should be used as a guide only,
vibration caused by electrical or since the vibration resulting from
magnetic defects will disappear. specific defects can be modified
The high frequency resolution by machinery dynamics.
of DSAs is key for analyzing
electrical problems in induction
motors, since running speed and Table 4.10-1
Phase Characteristics of
power-line related components Common Vibration Sources
are often very closely spaced (see
Section 6.3 on resolution). Source Characteristics*
Rolling element Unstable
Vibration caused by electrical bearing defect
problems in induction motors can Electrical Unstable unless synchronous motor
be analyzed to determine the Gear mesh Unstable
Imbalance Stable unless caused by uneven loading or cavitation.
nature of the defect. In general, a
Phase follows transducer location (4.1)
stationary defect such as a short-
Looseness Unstable; may be highly directional
ed stator produces a 2 x powerline
Misalignment Stable; relation between axial phase at shaft
frequency component. A rotating ends should be approximately 180°
defect, such as a broken rotor bar, Oil whirl Unstable
produces 1 x running speed with Resonance Unstable; large phase change with change in
2 x slip frequency sidebands. (Slip speed in rpm.
frequency = line synchronous
frequency – running frequency).
39
Table 4.10-2 Frequency Possible Cause Comments
Vibration Frequencies 1 x rpm Imbalance Steady phase that follows transducer. Can
Related To Machinery
Faults be caused by load variation, material
buildup, or pump cavitation.
Misalignment or Bent Shaft High axial levels, ~180° axial phase
relation at the shaft ends. Usually
characterized by high 2x level.
Strain Caused by casing or foundation distortion,
or from attached structures (e.g. piping).
Looseness Directional – changes with transducer
location. Usually high harmonic content and
random phase.
Resonance Drops off sharply with changes in speed.
From attached structures or changes in
attitude angle or eccentricity ratio.
Electrical Broken rotor bar in induction motor. 2x slip
frequencies sidebands often produced.
2 x rpm Misalignment or Bent Shaft High levels of axial vibration.
Harmonics Looseness Impulsive or truncated time waveform;
large number of harmonics.
Rubs Shaft contacting machine housing.
Sub-rpm Oil whirl Typically 0.43 - 0.48 rpm; unstable phase
Bearing cage See formula in Table 4-2.2
N x rpm Rolling element bearings See formulas in Table 4-2.2 Usually
modulated by running speed.
Gears Gearmesh (teeth x rpm); usually modulated
by running speed of bad gear.
Belts Belt x running speed and x 2 running.
Blades/Vanes Number of blades/vanes x rpm; usually
present in normal machine. Harmonics
usually indicate that a problem exists.
N x powerline Electrical Shorted stator; broken or eccentric rotor.
Resonance Several sources, including shaft, casing,
foundation and attached structrues.
Frequency is proportional to stiffness and
inversly proportional to mass.
40
Chapter 5
Advanced Analysis
and Documentation
The baseline vibration measure- History records include machine give some insight into the rela-
ments made on a machine provide failures, and vibration spectra be- tionship between major machin-
a reference for detecting changes fore and after significant modifi- ery components and the vibration
or differences which indicate cations or repairs. These records spectrum.
problems — and for identifying are often in the form of computer
significant components when digital data and organized in an Engineering data includes bearing
problems do occur. Without this information data base. You and gear parameters used to cal-
information, you can easily waste should, for example, be able to culate characteristic frequencies,
time determining the source of immediately identify the changes and machine dynamic models
a vibration component that is in the vibration spectrum of a ma- used to predict vibration response
perfectly normal and expected. chine that has had a major modifi- characteristics (or as an alterna-
cation. This will immediately tive, the results of a structural
test conducted on the machine).
41
Also useful are manufacturer’s machines. Several baseline spec- severity of the vibration level
data on vibration limits and char- tra taken under different operat- (amplitude) often arises. Ma-
acteristics. This data will not ing conditions are useful for chines will inevitably vibrate and
always be easy to obtain — the documenting the effects of chang- will also undoubtedly produce
key is to collect the available data ing operating parameters. spectral components at character-
before hand so it is available for istic frequencies given the resolu-
correlation with measured vibra- Severity Criteria tion and sensitivity of modern
tion data. Once a vibration spectra is mea- DSAs. The issue then becomes —
sured and its individual compo- what is an acceptable level? It is
Computers have become an nents identified and correlated, difficult to generalize here but a
indispensable tool in organizing the problem of interpreting the number of sources are useful.
records and data. A number of
software suppliers offer products
that organize vibration data, Figure 5.1-1
analyze trends (Fig 5.1-1), and An example of a
"trend analysis"
provide detailed correlation of simplified from
spectra with known characteristic vibration spectrum
data over a period
frequencies. In some cases such of weeks/months
as ball bearings, they even pro- by post-test
machinery
vide a data base of characteristic analysis software.
frequencies by product number.
Machinery Knowledge
The design and operating charac-
teristics of a machine determine
both the type of defects that are
possible, and the vibration re-
sponse to those defects. Vibra-
tion analysis is difficult without a
working knowledge of these char-
acteristics. Another important
consideration is the effect of
Figure 5.1-2 Vibration Severity Support Classification
changes in operating condition Tables of vibra-
on measured vibration. By under- tion severity, In./sec. mm/sec Hard Supports Soft Supports
like this one .017 .045 good good
standing how vibration changes published by the
with such variables as load and ISO, * are most .028 .071
useful as guide-
temperature, you will be better lines rather than .044 1.12
able to determine whether an in- absolute limits. .071 1.8 satisfactory
creased level of vibration is due .11 2.8 satisfactory
to a defect, or to a change in .18 4.5 unsatisfactory
operating conditions. .28 7.1 unsatisfactory
.44 11.2 impermissible
The best sources of information
.71 18.0 impermissible
on these characteristics are the
1.10 28.0
manufacturer of the machine, and
historical records on the same or 2.80 71.0
similar machines. In applications * This material is reproduced with
such as machinery maintenance, permission from International Organiza-
tion for Standardization Standard 3945-
courses from manufacturers can 1977, Mechanical Vibration of Large
provide insight into both the pos- Rotating Machines with Speed Range
from 10 to 200 rev/s - Measurement and
sible defects, and the mechanisms Evalutation of Vibration Severity in Situ,
of vibration response for specific copyrighted by the American National
Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New
York, NY 10018.
42
References for severity include Historic vibration measurements When significant changes are de-
published vibration standards and are an excellent reference for tected, vibration level and other
historic vibration measurements. severity measurements, because key operating parameters should
they are specific to the machine be monitored regularly. The rate
The table in Figure 5.1-2 is an or type of machine in question. In of change of these parameters is
example of a published vibration the case of machine development a good indication of the severity
standard. This particular stan- or modification the historical data of the problem. The existence of
dard is from the International on a machine or class of machines a consistent pattern of change is
Standards Organization (ISO). can provide a valuable “yard stick” indicative of a developing prob-
To make the standard more by which to began the evaluation. lem and/or changing operating
applicable to a wide range of condition.
machines, a distinction is made in While absolute vibration limits
the severity criteria between soft for a machine may not be known, Instrumentation
and hard supports. The essential there is a high probability that A wide variety of features and
problem with such published large changes in vibration level capabilities are available in in-
standards is that they are too indicate something significant strumentation ranging from trans-
general to allow us to make high with respect to the operating con- ducers to DSAs to applications
accuracy judgements with the dition of the machine. The pro- software. Chapter 6 addresses
power and accuracy available cess of monitoring vibration level many of the issues in the selec-
with modern DSAs. They were for changes is referred to as, tion of DSAs but it's important to
originally devised as a tool for in- trend analysis. Since the vibra- put the instrumentation require-
terpreting severity on the basis of tion level in a machine is variable, ments in the context of the indi-
overall level measurements. Mod- it isn’t always obvious how much vidual task being addressed. In
ern analyzers can identify compo- change is tolerable. The best ap- many applications particular per-
nents of the vibration which proach is to analyze the statistics formance issues or features can
contribute negligibly to the over- of variability for each machine, be critical to the measurement,
all spectral energy, but may be and base change limits on that. while others are convenience fea-
indicative of very important local An increase in vibration that ex- tures or totally superfulous.
phenomena. ceeds two standard deviations is
usually a sign of a problem. In For example, in predictive
A number of techniques have the absence of this type of analy- maintenence or troubleshooting
been developed for refining the sis, you can use a factor of 2 in- applications portablility and bat-
method of defining the severity crease as an approximate change tery operation could outweigh
critera for frequency bands in the limit threshold. considerations of dynamic range,
vibration spectrum. Figure 5.1-3
is an example of one technique
that breaks the spectrum into 6- Figure 5.1-3
A specification
frequency bands and specifies the of machine severity
allowable severity level for each criteria by speci-
band based on the predominant fying individual
frequency band
vibration mechanism present in criteria.*
each particular band.
43
real-time bandwidth or program- Table 5.2-1 Source Characteristics
mability. In the case of produc- Phase Character-
tion quality testing of automobile istics of Common Rolling element Unstable
Vibration Sources bearing effect
engines; automation and measure-
ment time will be more important Electrical Unstable unless synchronous motor
than portability. It would be nice Gear mesh Unstable
to have an instrument, that is por- Imbalance Stable, unless caused by uneven loading
table, fast, programmable, etc.. or cavitation. Phase follows transducer
But these attributes are not easily location (4.1)
attainable, often not necessary Looseness Unstable , may be highly directional
and undoubtedly expensive. Misalignment Stable, relation between axial phase at
shaft ends should be approximately 180°
Though expense is frequently the Oil Whirl Unstable
driving factor; it is important to Resonance Unstable, large phase change with
put cost in its proper prospective, change in speed in rpm.
and access the return on invest-
ment. A computer and applicable would be a production assembly In general, the phase of vibration
software that automatically re- person. In this case the need for caused by a defect will either be
trieves vibration data and analyz- training can be aleviated to some stable or unstable relative to a
es trends can quickly pay for extent by built-in automation fixed reference (i.e. keyphasor).
itself. Instrumentation with a capability which can make repeti- The nature of this relationship is
general purpose feature set, high tive measurements and access shown in Table 5.2-1. Figure 5.2-1
performance, a convenient-user the results. is a sequence of vibration spectra
interface, often finds itself being that shows phase for imbalance
used in many applications not ini- Also consider and experienced (1x), and running speed harmon-
tially envisioned. Programmabili- consultant to help setup and es- ics, and unstable phase for power-
ty is another cost factor that will tablish your maintenance pro- line related components. Also,
direcly impact use ability. Instru- gram. The consultant can help the relative phase relationship
ments with built in HP Instrument overcome the extensive expertise between vibration at different
Basic can greatly reduce mea- required early on in the establish- points on a machine can be used
surement automation tasks and ment of a machine vibration mon- to differentiate between faults —
can circumvent the need for an itoring program. With time, more as in the case of misalignment
external computer to control and more of the task can be taken and imbalance (see Section 4.4).
and automate processes. Easy over by local personnel.
programmability will allow Instrumentation required for
less skilled personnel to collect 5.2 Using Phase for phase measurements is shown in
data and do preliminary level Analysis Figure 5.2-2 and 5.2-3. The key-
severity checks. The usefulness of the phase spec- phasor senses shaft rotation and
trum as a means for differentiat- serves as the phase reference.
People ing between defects with similar The phase of vibration that is syn-
The quality and effectiveness of amplitude spectra has already chronous (i.e. an integer multiple)
a vibration analysis program is been discussed. We will present with rotation is constant, while
most often limited by the avail- a more general discussion of the that of nonsynchronous vibration
ability of capable and skilled subject in this section. Time av- varies. Relative phase measure-
personel. Successful programs eraging, a powerful processing ments can be made sequentially,
are characterized by people who technique related to phase, will as long as the same reference (i.e.
are properly trained and given a also be described.
chance to develop analysis exper-
tise. In some applications it is
neither practical nor desirable
to train individual operators as
vibration analysts. An example
44
keyphasor) is used (see Section signal to provide a more stable for example, if both transducers
6.8 on a dual-channel DSA). trigger. face the machine, they are
Running speed should remain mounted 180° out of phase.
constant between measurements When measuring relative phase
to minimize the phase effects of between two ends of a machine, it Thus vibration due to misalign-
mechanical impedance. Relative is important to mount the trans- ment, which you would expect to
phase measurements on flexible ducer with the same orientation. be 180° out of phase, will be mea-
rotors must include consider- When measuring axial vibration, sured as in phase. It is likewise
ations of shaft dynamics.
45
important to remember that phase spaced, the difference frequency This component appears at 24 Hz
response of a system is related to is often audible. These “beat” fre- and as sidebands around the har-
the variable measured; that is, quencies are common in rotating monics of the rotational speed.
displacement and acceleration machinery and are the result of a
measurements are 180° out of process called “modulation”. The exact mechanisms which
phase and if the phase between generate sum and difference fre-
these is being compared, it is nec- In Figure 5.3-1, the difference be- quencies can be quite complex
essary to take into account any tween running speed at 144 Hz and a detailed mathematical anal-
phase difference between differ- and the 2nd harmonic of the line ysis is beyond the scope of this
ent types of motion variables. frequency at 120 Hz is 24 Hz. note. However, you can get a feel
1
Phase and frequency modulation are
also present and produce many of the
same sum and difference frequencies
but their phase relationships differ. A
detailed discussion of this is beyond
the scope of this note.
46
for the interactions involved by The most common faults indicat- Spectral Map and
thinking of them as a form of am- ed by sum and difference frequen- Waterfall Displays
plitude modulation1. In the trigo- cies are associated with rolling Waterfalls and spectral maps are
nometric identity given below, element bearings and gears. a useful technique for detecting
changes with time and identifying
cos(f1) * cos(f2) = A. Rolling element bearings. speed related components in a
1/2[cos(f1+f2) + cos(f1-f2)] Defects in rolling element bear- variable-speed machine. Techni-
ings are almost always modulated cally, a waterfall differs from a
it is apparent that the interaction by residual imbalance. As the map only in the way in which the
of one frequency with another wear progresses, and characteris- map is updated. Waterfalls gener-
results in sum and difference tic frequencies are replaced by ally are a continuously updating
frequencies. If one of the signals noise, these running frequency display with the newest spectrum
contains a large number of har- sidebands may be the only indica- appearing at the top of the display
monics, then multiple sum and tion of trouble (see Section 4.2). and the oldest scrolling off at the
difference frequencies will bottom (hence the name water-
appear. This is illustrated in B. Gears. As pointed out in Sec- fall, from the appearance of the
Figure 5.3-2. Phase can be an aid tion 4.6, gear defects often appear data migrating down the trace
in identifying sum and difference as gear natural frequencies with like a waterfall).
frequencies, since it will be unsta- sidebands at the running speed of
ble unless the phase of both the defective gear. These running Spectral maps on the other hand
sources is stable. speed sidebands may also appear are generally a fixed set of data
around the gearmesh frequency. starting at a defined time or con-
dition (rpm) and ending as some
predetermined time or number
Figure 5.3-3 of spectra later. These are some-
The Z axis in a map times referred to as cascade plots
or waterfall display
can be precisely and appear the same once the
controlled by the measurement has been paused.
DSA trigger arming
function. Many people use the terms inter-
changeably causing some confu-
sion as to what is meant.
47
5.4 Speed Normalization increases, while fixed frequency move to the left (they are relative-
A common problem in machinery components (e.g. structural reso- ly lower in frequency as speed
vibration analysis is running nances and powerline related) increases).
speed variation — both long-term move straight up. In the external
and short-term. Short-term varia- sample-control map of (b), rota- The main advantage of synchro-
tions in speed make real-time tional speed-related components nous sample control is that real-
analysis difficult. Long-term vari- move straight up the map, while time displays of the order related
ations make point-by-point com- fixed frequency components spectral components remain fixed
parisons between current and
baseline spectra virtually impossi-
Figure 5.4-1
ble. Synchronous sample control Two spectral maps
(also known as order tracking) of a machine run-up
illustrate the effect
can be used to compensate for of external sample
both problems while the measure- rate control.
ment is in progress.
48
within the horizontal position Figure 5.4-3
speed. During individual mea- DSA display
surements (or especially with in which the
horizontal
averaging) speed variations do (frequency) axis
not cause a “smearing” of the is calibrated in
multiples (orders)
frequency over a range. Another of running speed.
advantage is the extraction of or-
der tracks is greatly simplified
and the accuracy improved. An
order track is the plot of an indi-
vidual order as the rotation speed
changes. Since the frequency of
these components has been nor-
malized to a fixed value, a simple
marker function can be used to
extract the order track from the
map display (see figure 5.4-2). Figure 5.4-4
Frequency can also be normalized Short-term speed
variation results
to rotational speed after a mea- in a broadening
surement. In the display of Fig- of spectral
components (b).
ure 5.4-3, note that the frequency
axis and the readout are in terms
of orders of rotation (multiples
of running speed), rather than in
frequency. This technique simply
amounts to re-scaling the fre-
quency axis when the running
speed is known or can be de-
a) Constant running speed
duced, it is not normally useful
with map/waterfall displays. This
normalization does not work in
real time, and resolution is not a
constant percentage of running
speed (as with synchronous sam-
ple control). However, it is useful
when no tachometer/keyphasor
signal is readily available.
49
5.5 Baseline Data A. Normalize for Speed.
Collection Normalizing the vibration spectrum for speed is required for direct spectrum comparison.
Baseline vibration spectra are ref- Section 5.4 discussed the alternative methods for accomplishing this. Whichever method
is chosen, some provision should be made when taking baseline data.
erence data that represent normal
machine condition, and are essen- A spectral map/waterfall of a run-up or coast-down is also useful in dealing with
tial to effective analysis. In the changes in speed. A spectral map can quickly show how vibration level changes with
speed, and the resonances and other fixed frequencies that are present in the vibration
event of trouble, they quickly in- spectrum.
dicate the frequency components
that have changed. Baseline data B. Be Complete
You can’t take baseline data after the machine has a problem, so it is important to take
is also the basis for trend moni- all the data you can when it is operating normally. Follow the guidelines in Chapter 2 for
toring; it is a much more specific transducer selection and placement. For machines with rolling-element bearings or
indicator of normal vibration than gears, consider taking high- and low-frequency spectra. The low-frequency spectrum
generalized vibration severity (0-500 Hz) provides good resolution for most analysis, while the high frequency spectrum
charts. To be most useful, the (0-5 kHz) will provide a baseline for the high frequencies that can indicate problems with
bearings and gears.
guidelines below should be fol-
lowed in collecting baseline data. In addition to vibration data, operating parameters such as oil pressure. temperature,
The key objective of the process load, bearing and gear parameters should be collected. Also, any information available
from the machine manufacturer regarding vibration characteristics and failure mecha-
is to understand the characteris- nisms should be included.
tics of the machine.
Thermal gradient in a machine can cause temporary misalignment; so making several
temperature readings along the machine may be useful in diagnosing vibration problems.
C. Check Statistical Accuracy
This just means that one measurement may not be representative of normal operation.
For example, an adjacent machine may be vibrating excessively when baseline signatures
are taken, or an older machine may already have excessive vibration levels.
The best approach is to take several spectra over time and perform a statistical analysis
to yield mean and standard deviation. This results in a representative average level, and
also provides a quantitative basis (e.g. 1 or 2 standard deviations) for determining
whether a change in level is significant. The accuracy of these statistics can be
improved by updating them with data from regular vibration monitoring data.
D. Document the Effect of Load Vibration
This is not strictly required, but can be invaluable when determining whether a change is
due to a fault, or just a change in load.
E. Update Regularly
Baseline data should be updated after major repairs or changes in operating conditions.
Figure 5.5-1
Baseline data
should include
fully documented
vibration spectra
and engineering
data, such as
bearing and gear
parameters, which
can be invaluable
for analysis.
50
Chapter 6
Dynamic Signal Analyzers
51
6.1 Types of DSAs The advantage of this type instru- is desirable. In machinery analy-
There is a wide variety of DSAs mentation in predictive mainte- sis they are used in many
on the market; and generally, they nance is the operator receives of the same general areas as
can be broken down into three immediate vibration spectral benchtops and in continuous ma-
categories: results and preliminary vibration chinery monitoring applications.
1) Handhelds severity analysis.
2) Benchtop Instruments 6.2 Measurement Speed
3) Computer Controlled Systems Benchtop instruments range from Speed is important in machinery
relatively low-cost, low-perfor- analysis because vibration char-
Though there are variations on mance instruments to high-perfor- acteristics can change quickly.
this theme this covers by far the mance instruments. Generally, This is illustrated in the spectral
majority of systems on the mar- the benchtop instruments give ex- map of Figure 6.2-1, where mea-
ket. Obviously, there is a long list ceptional performance in a small surements of a machine run-up
of features and trade-offs to con- easily operated package. The spaced at 0.5 s intervals show sig-
sider; including speed, portability, tight coupling of the hardware nificant variation. Speed is also
number of channels, display reso- and software within the instru- important for reducing the time
lution and price. Figure 6.1-1 is a ment, leads to very high display required to characterize a ma-
photograph of three Hewlett- updates, extremely powerful chine. The time required to make
Packard products representative analysis capability and generally a measurement with a DSA is
of these categories. very high accuracy and dynamic determined by two factors: (1)
range. In machinery analysis measurement resolution, and (2)
The product offerings change rap- these are generally used in trou- transform computation time.
idly as technology advances, it is bleshooting, research and devel- High resolution measurements re-
hard to make generalizations, but opment, and in certification quire a long data sampling time
the following are some key con- testing where portability is less (frequency resolution spaced at
siderations for each DSA type. an issue and a small number of 1 Hz intervals requires a 1 s mea-
channels is necessary. surement time). This is a physi-
Handhelds are light-weight, porta- cal fact, independent of the
ble and battery operated. They DSA systems consist of an instru- design of the DSA. Computation
generally have a LCD display that mentation mainframe connected time, however, varies widely
limits their resolution and display to a computer. The system is ac- among DSAs, and can make a no-
update rate. The power consump- tually a DSA instrument that uses ticeable difference in measure-
tion considerations lead to design the computer as the user inter- ment time. Computation time is
compromises, that make this face and data storage device. usually expressed in terms of
class of DSA the lowest perform- Most often, systems are multi- real-time bandwidth — the fre-
ing as a group in terms of speed, channel in nature having from 2 quency span at which data sam-
dynamic range and accuracy. to 500 channels of data acquired pling and computation times are
They tend to be lower in cost but simultaneously. Systems are also equal (higher real-time bandwidth
have a relatively robust set of ca- capable of being customized by implies faster computation). This
pabilities. In machinery analysis users or software developers to is theoretically the maximum
applications these are well suited perform dedicated or high-perfor- bandwidth that data can be col-
for maintenance and trouble- mance tasks. They are generally lected without gaps while simul-
shooting where portability is very used when multi-channels are re- taneously computing spectra.
important. quired and the computer interface
52
Actual real-time bandwidth and Figure 6.2-1
specified bandwidth can vary con- Machinery
siderably. Its important to note vibration spectra
can change very
that a number of factors influence quickly, as this
the actual real-time bandwidth. spectral map of
a run-up test
Often the processor is required to illustrates.
perform a number of additional Slower swept
spectrum
calculations to display the data; analyzers can
this can have a considerable ef- miss these
changes.
fect on the real-time bandwidth.
Although an increase in the data
block size will increase data sam-
pling time the calculation time in-
creases at a faster rate for larger Figure 6.2-2
Total DSA
blocks; thereby, reducing the real- measurement
time bandwidth for larger block time is the sum of
data sampling time
sizes and increasing it for smaller. and computation
Obviously, the number of simulta- time. While
sampling time is
neous channels will also effect fixed for a given
the rate. For these reasons, the resolution,
computation times
real-time bandwidth is normally vary widely among
specified for a block size of 1024 available DSAs.
time sample points and with the
display update turned off (i.e. fast
averaging). Therefore, if real- Figure 6.2-3
Block diagram of
time performance (i.e. gap free) data flow in a DSA
is necessary, caution should be using time capture.
The data is first
exercised in interpreting the acquired and
specification. stored in RAM;
then analyzed
to product
One way of circumventing the spectra, etc.
problem is to buffer up the raw-
time- domain digital data in either
the analyzer memory (RAM) or on
a high-speed data-storage device
(normally a hard disk drive).
These capabilities are referred to
as time capture and throughput,
respectively. Figure 6.2-3 illus-
trates the concept of time cap-
ture. In this manner the analyzer
can acquire gap free data, store it
in memory, and analyze it later This mode is similar to tape One of the shortcomings of this is
without relying on the processing recording data and then post- that the real-time spectral display
speed of the analyzer being able processing it. The advantage of update is not available, since the
to keep up with the data acquisi- throughput or time capture is the data isn’t analyzed until after the
tion rate. An additional benefit, is integration of the process into the test. DSA systems generally have
the ability to go back and reana- DSA eliminating the extra calibra- the capability to monitor input
lyze the data in a number of dif- tion and setup steps of a separate data and acquire the throughput/
ferent ways after the fact, without recorder. Post-processing is time capture simultaneously. Also,
reacquiring the data. greatly simplified, saving time since, all of the data is held in
and allowing previewing of the memory it requires a considerable
analyzed data immediately.
53
portion of the analyzer memory Figure 6.3-1
resources; especially, if long Frequency
records are required. Many times, resolution in a
DSA is determined
what is required is not real-time primarily by the
data acquisition — the real issue number of filters,
and the ability to
is display update rate. It is possi- zoom. In a zoom
ble to keep track of fast changing measurement, the
component of
spectrums and not have real-time interest is made
performance; the gaps do not the center frequency
of the analysis,
materially effect steady or allowing the use of
pseudo-steady state conditions. an arbitrarily
narrow frequency
Generally, real-time performance span.
is required when transients are
present and non-real-time analy-
sis would risk missing an impor-
tant event.
Figure 6.3-2
6.3 Frequency Resolution An example gear
vibration spec-
High resolution is required for trum that illus-
analysis when vibration signals trates the need for
zoom. The side-
are closely spaced, or when the bands around
frequency of a component must gearmesh often
indicate the bad
be read with high precision. A gear, but are too
common example of closely closely spaced to
to resolve in (a).
spaced signals are the 1 x and The zoom
powerline components of induc- measurement in (b)
centers a nar-
tion motor vibration, which can rower frequency
be separated by a few Hz. The span on the gear-
mesh, increasing
sidebands around rolling- element resolution.
bearing and gear frequencies are
often closely spaced. High preci-
sion is required when the charac-
teristic vibration frequencies of
two possible sources are close to-
gether, as in the case of a bearing
frequency and a running speed
harmonic.
54
is so important. In the low-reso- Figure 6.3-3
lution spectrum of (a), the side- A comparison of
bands around the gearmesh 3 common window
types: a) flat top,
frequency indicate a problem, but b) Hanning and
the exact spacing (which will in- c) uniform.
dicate which gear has the defect)
is difficult to determine. Since
the gearmesh is at a relatively
high frequency, a span narrow
enough to resolve the sidebands
cannot cover the entire frequency
range starting at 0 Hz. Thus we
must zoom on the gearmesh fre-
quency to complete the analysis.
(See Section 4.6 for more infor-
mation on gear analysis.)
Figure 6.3-4
Window Functions Synthesising
1/3 octave data
Frequency resolution is also af- from FFT requires
fected by the shape of the filters multilple FFT bands
of analyses. The
— determined in a DSA by the lower fre-quencies
window function selected. The of the 1/3 octave
have resolution
window function shapes the input requirements of
data to compensate for disconti- ∆ f 5Hz while the
high frequencies
nuities in the sampling process require ∆ f 5kHz.
(see application note AN 243).
Figure 6.3-3 shows the same vi-
bration spectrum measured with
the three windows commonly
available on DSAs.
55
multiple passes of FFT data Figure 6.3-5
(1/3-octave refers to a doubling of A comparision of
the frequency for every third data measurements of
the same spec-
point). Figure 6.3-5 is a compari- trum made with
son of comparable 1/3- and 1/12- narrowband
(FFT), 1/3 octave
octave analysis and narrow-band and 1/12 octave.
FFT analysis of the same data.
Since the analysis requires mul-
tiple “passes” and differing data
acquisition times, the process
of synthesis is NOT real-time.
Therefore, it is only useful for
steady state analysis.
56
6.5 Digital Averaging Figure 6.5-1
Machinery vibration spectra often When RMS
contain large levels of back- averaging is
performed,
ground noise, vibration from components
adjacent machines, or compo- which vary in
amplitude
nents that vary in amplitude. converge to
Three types of digital averaging their mean value,
providing a
are available to reduce the prob- better statistical
lems that these conditions imply estimate of
amplitude.
for analysis. a) random noise
average over
10 records.
A. RMS. The result of a RMS av- b) un-averaged
erage of successive spectra is an random noise.
improved estimate of the mean
level of vibration components.
RMS averaging should be used
when component levels vary sig-
nificantly.
57
Time averaging can be imple- Figure 6.5-2
mented in either the time or fre- The time averaged
quency domains, but the time displays in (b) show
a reduction in the
domain is traditional (thus the level of components
name). In this form, the blocks that are nonsynch-
ronous with the
of time data that are transformed trigger.
by the analyzer to the frequency
domain are averaged before the
transformation. Signals that are
fixed in the time record (i.e. syn-
chronous with the trigger) will
remain, while nonsynchronous
signals eventually average to
zero. This is shown in Figures
6.5-2(a) and (b), where time aver-
aging a noisy square wave has
reduced the noise level, while
keeping the square wave intact.
An example with machinery spec-
trum can be found in Section 5.2.
Peak Hold
Peak hold is a function usually
grouped with averaging in DSAs.
By displaying the maximum level
at each frequency over a number
of samples, this feature provides
a history of peak levels. Two ap-
plications are shown in Figure Figure 6.5-3
6.5-3. In (a), peak hold has been Peak hold used
(a) to track peak
used during a machine coast level during a coast-
down, providing a simple track of down, and (b) to
indicate variation
the maximum level (which is usu- in speed over time.
ally 1 x rpm)*. The display in (b)
is a peak hold over a relatively
long period that shows the range
of speed variation of a nominally
constant speed motor. This could
be used, for example, as an indi-
cation of load variation. Peak
hold is also useful for recording
momentary vibration peaks (e.g.
from start-ups or load changes).
58
6.6 HP-IB and Figure 6.6-1
HP Instrument BASIC Use of a Standard
The Hewlett-Packard Interface Data format (SDF)
allows data to be
Bus (HP-IB) is a standardized easily interfaced
interface that can be used to and simplifies the
conversion of
connect a number of instruments, non-SDF DSAs
plotters, printers and computers data to a standard
format.
together. Most DSAs come stan-
dard with a HP-IB interface and
a set of commands that allows
virtually unlimited possibilities
for automatic data storage, pre-
sentation, and analysis. Most
commonly the interface is used
to provide for hardcopy output of
DSA results using a digital printer
or plotter that can be connected Figure 6.6-2
HP-IB system for
and controlled directly. scanning a number
of transducers. Such
a system can be
Computer Data Storage configured to take
and Analysis appropriate action
(e.g. sound an alarm
A common problem encountered or remove power)
in machinery vibration monitoring when current
vibration level
is the need to organize, store, plot exceeds pre-
and archive large amounts of defined limits.
data. Often extensive post-test
data processing is required de-
pending on the specific applica-
tion. It is often convenient to put illustrates the concept of the stan- the user customize measure-
the data in a data base type appli- dardized format and the use of ments. It is most commonly used
cations program so that trends the utilities. The utilities consist for automatic and repetitive tests.
can be analyzed and specific data of a set of MS-DOS® programs for Not only can I-Basic address the
easily retrieved. viewing, converting, and transfer- host DSA, it can communicate
ring data. over the HP-IB to other instru-
Though most DSAs have exten- ments or peripherals that are at-
sive data storage capabilities, it Instrument Systems tached. Figure 6.6-2 illustrates
is often desirable to transfer the and I-Basic the advantage of this in a particu-
data to a computer, most com- Hewlett-Packard has implement- lar application.
monly, using HP-IB. It is also de- ed a proprietary version of the
sirable to place data collected on BASIC programming language Whether through the use of I-Ba-
different DSAs on a common plat- that allows for many of the capa- sic or some other programming
form for comparison and analysis. bilities of the computer/DSA sys- language the HP-IB capability on
Hewlett-Packard has standardized tem without needing an external test equipment allows for tying
on a common data storage struc- computer. HP Instrument Basic together a number of instruments
ture for its DSA analyzers allow- (I-Basic) is a version of the HP over the HP-IB and controlling
ing for easy transfer of data Basic language which is designed them in concert with each other
between instrument types and ap- to run inside many HP instru- to make automated and complex
plication programs using a set of ments. I-Basic is also available to measurements using an Instru-
utility programs and a Standard run in DOS and MS Windows®. ment System concept. The HP
Data Format (SDF). Figure 6.6-1 DSA Systems are a specific exam-
I-Basic is optimized for instru- ple of this approach, but the same
* MS-DOS and MS Windows are U.S. registered ment control applications, letting concept can be applied to tradi-
trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. tional DSAs.
59
6.7 User Units Figure 6.7-1
and Waveform Math A comparison
between an integ-
rated acceleration
Vibration displays are easier to spectrum and an
interpret if they are presented in actual velocity
spectrum (dashed
units that are relevant to machin- line).
ery. DSAs provide the capability
for user calibration of amplitude
units, and a selection of units for
the frequency axis. DSAs can also
convert spectra from one vibra-
tion parameter to another through
integration and differentiation.
60
6.8 Synchronous Figure 6.8-1
Sample Control and The order track
Order Tracking is the locus of
points of a particular
order as a function
One of the complications encoun- of machine speed.
Illustrated is the
tered in analyzing rotating ma- plot of this data
chinery is variation in speed. For super-imposed on
a waterfall plot.
machines that will operate over a
wide range of speeds, it is desir-
able to measure vibration over
the entire range. With a fixed-fre-
quency axis, spectral components
are constantly moving with the
changes in speed. For machines Figure 6.8-2
that run at a nominally constant Instrumentation
setup for con-
speed, even small changes can trolling sample
make point-for-point comparisons rate externally.
difficult.
61
and it has some inherent time lag Figure 6.8-3
and phase error problems. In or- Instrumentation
der tracking very small errors in for synchronous
sample control for
frequency can cause significant DSA with digital
amplitude and phase errors. Sec- synchronous
resampling.
ond, the tracking filter can be one
of a number of types, the most
popular is switched capacitance
due to its low cost and ease of
implementation. Though it is low
cost, it typically has a limited
dynamic range because of the
switching "spurs" (noise spikes
that appear as signals) making it Figure 6.8-4(a)
Bode plot of a
unsuitable. (See appendix A). machine runup for
a simple flexible
rotor system
To avoid these problems HP showing the
developed DIGITAL SYNCHRO- critical speed.
The plot represents
NOUS SAMPLE CONTROL magnitude as linear
schemes, they use the digital magnitude and the
"X" axis is linear to
signal processing power available conform to normal
inside the DSA to perform the ra- convention, though
the DSA's can also
tio synthesizer functions and to scale the data in
digitally resample the data to a Logrithmic format.
produce conceptually the same
effect as the external sample
control without the addition of
analog hardware. Additionally,
the flexibility and power of digital
processing allowed for the elimi- Figure 6.8-4(b)
Polar plot of runup
nation of many problems inherent depicting the
in the older technology. Figure magnitude and
phase plotted in a
6.8-3 shows a block diagram of polar fashion.
this digital implementation of Note the rotation
intended to compen-
synchronous- sample control. sate for positioning
Appendix A of this note contains of the phase
reference and the
a more detailed discussion of the displacement
implementation of this scheme. transducer.
When the data is synchronously
sampled, producing the order
track data is very easy, because
it's simply the locus of points at
a fixed frequency (in the order
domain) as a function of
rotation speed. speeds, at structural resonances, different frequencies as it runs up
etc.) is during a runup or run- to operating speed and measures
Machine Runup Measurements down. This measurement is an the response (magnitude and
An important measurement made important indication of machinery phase) as a function of speed.
using the order tacking capability health and is commonly used to This utilizes the basic order track-
of DSA's is the machine runup/ qualify new and overhauled high ing capability of the analyzer cou-
down. In many machines the speed machinery. The measure- pled with special display features
only time they operate at certain ment uses the residual imbalance required of this measurement.
important speeds (ie. critical in the machine to excite it at
62
Two common display formats are Figure 6.8-5
used with this measurement; one Runup depiction of
is the Bode diagram* and the oth- the 2nd and 3rd
orders as well as
er is the polar display. The bode the overall level
plot depicts the magnitude and and the RPM profile.
the phase response of the system
to the runup as a function of
speed (RPM). A benefit of the
DSA in this measurement is its
ability to simultaneously track
multiple orders and display them
in addition to the fundamental ro-
tation speed (1st order); as well
as the overall level and the RPM
profile Figure 6.8-5.
63
Another important place where a Figure 6.9-2
dual- or multi-channel DSA is use- Coherence measured
ful is in two- or multi-plane bal- between a pump
and motor clearly
ancing. The vibration level at indicates which
multiple planes can be monitored components are
unrelated.
simultaneously, while at the same
time utilizing the external trigger
to provide for phase information
for all channels. This can effect
large reductions in the number of
measurement runs required to
balance a machine.
64
Natural Frequency Figure 6.9-4
Measurements Measurement
The natural frequencies of a ma- setup for orbit
measurements
chine housing or foundation can using orthogonal
be easily determined through proximity probe
and a 2 channel
what is sometimes referred to as DSA.
a “bump” test. A single impulsive
signal produces a broad spectrum
of energy. If the housing is im-
pacted with sufficient force (typi-
cally with a block of wood), all
the natural frequencies will be ex-
cited. The response can be mea-
sured with a single-channel DSA,
but an imperfect impact may
result in a misleading spectrum.
Orbits
HP dual-channel DSAs have the
ability to display orbit diagrams,
Figure 6.9-4 shows how an orbit
diagram is generated utilizing two
proximity probes mounted at 90°
to each other. Figure 6.9-5 shows
diagramatically a typical orbit di-
agram. They are useful for gain-
ing insight into rotor motion in
65
turbo-machinery. The subject of Figure 6.9-6
orbit interpretation is covered Orbit diagram
well in Reference 30. If a multi- using synchron-
ous sampling
channel system (≥4 channels) is will accurately
used it is possible and often desir- represent the
angular position
able to make multiple simulta- (note the marker
neous orbit measurements at read out).
different shaft locations.
66
Filtered Orbits Figure 6.9-8(a)
Normal orbit diagrams represent Complex orbit
diagram of a
the contribution of all frequencies rotating shaft at
within the bandwidth of analysis. low speed with
significant noise
These include contributions from and distortion
surface defects and anomolies, present. All
frequency
higher (or lower) order compo- components are
nents, powerline harmonics, ma- represented.
chine noise and the like. Filtered
orbits is a technique for focusing
the orbit analysis on a select fre-
quency range (or ranges) of inter-
est. This was traditionally done
by placing a tracking narrow
bandpass filter in the analysis
stream (Fig 6.9-7). This allows
the analysis to focus on contribu-
tions to the orbit associated with
that particular frequency or or- Figure 6.9-8(b)
der. The traditional technique Filtered orbit
of frequency
requires special purpose analog component
hardware and has many of the corresponding
to first order.
limitations associated with the Only the single
use of similar techniques dis- frequency
component is
cussed elsewhere in this note. displayed for
same measurement
as Figure 6.9-8(a).
In an FFT analyzer the filtered This data was
orbit information is contained extracted from
linear spectra
within the linear spectrum or or- frequency domain
der ratio spectrum measurements data measured at
a single rotation
(Note: phase information is re- speed.
quired, ie. power spectrum mea-
surements are not sufficient).
The individual frequency compo-
nents of the spectrum represent
precisely the same sine wave that Figure 6.9-9
would be extracted by narrow Filtered orbit of
band filtering. The advantages the first order
frequency
are the presence of all frequen- component taken
cies simultaneously, the precision at the peak
response of the
and accuracy of the digital order track for the
impementation and in the conve- first order (note
position of the
nient user interface. marker in the
upper trace). This
data was extracted
Figure 6.9-8 is an example of a from measurement
traditional orbit diagram and a fil- of a run-up using
order tracking
tered orbit (of the fundemental mode.
rotation frequency) for the same
67
signal. The higher order informa- Figure 6.9-10(a)
tion has been effectively “filtered Filtered orbit
out”. Both measurements were consisting of the
contributions of
actually made simultaneously 4 individual orders
using the frequency domain mea- to the orbit shape.
The marker
surement mode. The measure- positions of the
ment could also be made in the upper trace specify
the components to
order domain using either include in the
order tracks or order ratio spec- representation.
tra. Figure 6.9-9 is a filtered orbit
taken from a run up measurement
using order tracking; in this mea-
surement an entire range of fil-
tered orbits as a function of RPM
become part of the measurement
set allowing any orbit shape to be
review for any time/rpm in the
run-up. A capability of the digital
Figure 6.9-10(b)
implementation is the ability to The filtered orbit
add together related components diagram for same
data containing
to obtain a composite filtered or- only the contribu-
bit containing only those frequen- tion of the first
order.
cy (or order) components desire.
(Figure 6.9-10).
68
Appendix A
Computed Synchronous
Resampling and Order Tracking
69
External Sampling Figure A-3
Techniques Sample plots of
analysis done in
The ideal technique for measuring the frequency
(a) and the order
an order spectrum has long been (b) domains.
considered the use of an encoder
physically attached to a shaft to
generate sampling pulses at uni-
form angular intervals around
some reference shaft. This di-
rectly determines the sampling
times as a function of shaft posi-
tion. Then, if various transducers
are sampled at these times, the
resulting frequency spectrum will
show components that depend
upon multiples of the shaft-rota-
tion rate as stationary lines, inde-
pendent of shaft rpm. This sort of
spectral display is plotted versus
order (multiples of the shaft rota-
tion rate), instead of frequency.
Thus, if the shaft rotation rate is
changed, any frequency compo-
nents that are locked to this rota-
Figure A-4
tion rate will appear stationary Deviation of an
in the order spectrum, while the “ideal” PLL’s
estimate of shaft
spectra of any fixed frequency angular position
components will appear to move from actual shaft
with constantly
(Figure A-3). increasing RPM.
70
pulses per shaft revolution, no Figure A-6
matter what the shaft rotation Processing of
rate might be (Figure A-1). This tachometer
signals to obtain
would yield an analysis typically estimates of
up to 100 orders on an FFT ana- resample times
of uniform shaft
lyzer utilizing external sampling. angle.
71
Since the data is buffered in mem- Figure A-8
ory, it is possible to “look ahead,” Example of errors
and to use data points that occur inherent in a
simple two point
before the desired tachometer linear interpola-
pulse times occur. This allows tion scheme.
the design of a tracking algorithm
that has no inherent time delay,
and thus never gets behind, as
long as the shaft is constantly
accelerating (or running at a con-
stant velocity). In addition, the
shaft velocity can be correctly
calculated at each instant in time.
There is no significant internal
phase noise introduced by this Figure A-9
procedure, although it is impor- Illustration of the
implementation of
tant to measure the arrival time a multi-point FIR
of each tachometer pulse very interpolation
scheme.
accurately to reduce the effects
of time jitter.
72
The computed order tracking ap- In the case of digital order track- This approach would lead to am-
proach requires considerably less ing, the situation is not as plitude errors and a severe limita-
in the way of special hardware, straightforward since the data has tion on the system’s dynamic
compared to the classical tech- already been anti-alias filtered range. In the case of simple linear
nique. For example, in addition and digitized at some fixed rate. interpolation, an amplitude error
to the need for a tracking ratio The digital resampling process ac- of 10% and an effective dynamic
synthesizer, the classical order tually accomplishes two func- range of only 26 dB would be real-
tracking method requires tracking tions; first it provides the variable izable. To reduce this error and
anti-aliasing filters on each data sample rates. Second, it provides increase the dynamic range, it’s
channel and often a frequency the variable frequency low pass necessary to use more data in
counter to determine shaft veloc- filtering (in conjunction with the evaluating our resampled ampli-
ity. With the new approach, a fixed filtering of the DSA’s digital tude. The current implementation
fixed analog anti-aliasing filter is and analog anti-alias filters) utilizes ten neighboring data
used, and the remaining filtering required for adequate alias pro- points (five before and five after
operations are done digitally (this tection. External sampling imple- the resample time) to calculate
is the same hardware used in mentations must handle the the resample data point, formulat-
the normal FFT analysis mode). anti-alias filtering as a separate ed as a finite impulse response
There is no need for an analog step; normally adding a separate (FIR) filter (Figure A-9).
tracking ratio synthesizer, since analog tracking filter to the input.
the shaft position is continually Theoretically, this formulation
calculated from the tachometer As described in the previous sec- would lead to amplitude accuracy
pulse arrival times. tion, the desired sampling times of .08% and a dynamic range of
were calculated based on the approximately 104 dB. To im-
Resampling Amplitude tachometer pulses and a linear prove speed, the actual filter is
With traditional ratio synthesizer/ acceleration model. In general, implemented as a look-up table
shaft encoder techniques, once these times will lay between two in memory, which leads to some
the resampling signals have been fixed rate samples and an esti- round-off errors yielding the de-
created, the remainder of the or- mate must be made of the ampli- sired 80 dB dynamic range.
der analysis can use standard tude at the desired time based on
FFT technology with variable A/D existing data. The fixed sample
converter sampling rates to ac- data is buffered in computer
complish the remainder of the memory so, again, we can look
processing. This assumes that both ahead and back in time at
adequate alias protection is pro- the data to estimate the new
vided by some variable low pass resampled value. The simplest
filtering technique. scheme would be to use linear
interpolation between the two
neighboring points. Though this
would work to some extent, it’s
apparent from Figure A-8 that sig-
nificant errors can be introduced.
73
Figure A-10
Order ratio map
of an automobile
run-up with a
Example Measurements four-cylinder,
four-cycle engine
To demonstrate the digital utilizing comput-
ed resampling.
implementation under realistic
conditions, run-up tests were per-
formed on an automobile utilizing
moderate run-up rates. The data
was actually digitally recorded
and analyzed using traditional ex-
ternal sampling/ratio synthesis
techniques as well as the digital
resampling technique. The follow-
ing plots illustrate the differences
between the two techniques.
The differences can be attributed wave swept at known rates. used in the digital implementation
to phase lock loop delay. Refer- Figure A-12a and b illustrate the has essentially no phase shift or
ence [36] further illustrates this order tracking capability of the time delay allowing accurate
by examining the ability of a ratio digital technique which includes phase measurements.
synthesizer to track a square phase information. The FIR filter
74
Glossary
Acceleration. The time rate of Amplitude. The magnitude of Auto Spectrum (Power Spec-
change of velocity. Typical units dynamic motion or vibration. Am- trum). DSA spectrum display
are ft/s/s, meters/s/s, and G’s plitude is expressed in terms of whose magnitude represents the
(1G = 32.17 ft/s/s = 9.81 m/s/s). peak-to- peak, zero-to-peak, or power at each frequency, and
Acceleration measurements are rms. For pure sine waves only, which has no phase. Rms averag-
usually made with accelerom- these are related as follows: rms ing produces an auto spectrum.
eters. = 0.707 times zero-to-peak; peak-
to-peak = 2 times zero-to-peak. Averaging. In a DSA, digitally
Accelerometer. Transducer DSAs generally display rms for averaging several measurements
whose output is directly propor- spectral components, and peak to improve accuracy or to reduce
tional to acceleration. Most com- for time domain components. the level of asynchronous compo-
monly use piezoelectric crystals nents. Refer to definitions of rms,
to produce output. Anti-Aliasing Filter. A low- time, and peak-hold averaging.
pass filter designed to filter out
Aliasing. A phenomenon which frequenices higher than 40% the Axial. In the same direction as
can occur whenever a signal is sample rate in order to prevent the shaft centerline.
not sampled at greater than twice aliasing.
the maximum frequency compo- Axial Position. The average po-
nent. Causes high frequency sig- Anti-Friction Bearing. See Roll- sition, or change in position, of a
nals to appear at low frequencies. ing Element Bearing. rotor in the axial direction with
Aliasing is avoided by filtering respect to some fixed reference
out signals greater than 1/2 the Asymetrical Support. Rotor position. Ideally the reference is a
sample rate. support system that does not pro- known position within the thrust
vide uniform restraint in all radial bearing axial clearance or float
Alignment. A condition whereby directions. This is typical for zone, and the measurement is
the axes of machine components most heavy industrial machinery made with a displacement trans-
are either coincident, parallel or where stiffness in one plane may ducer observing the thrust collar.
perpendicular, according to de- be substantially different than
sign requirements. stiffness in the perpendicular Balancing Resonance
plane. Occurs in bearings by de- Speed(s). A rotative speed that
Amplification Factor (Syn- sign, or from preloads such as corresponds to a natural reso-
chronous). A measure of the gravity or misalignment nance frequency.
susceptibility of a rotor to vibra-
tion amplitude when rotational Asynchronous. Vibration com- Balanced Condition. For rotat-
speed is equal to the rotor natural ponents that are not related to ro- ing machinery, a condition where
frequency (implies a flexible ro- tating speed (also referred to as the shaft geometric centerline co-
tor). For imbalance type excita- nonsynchronous). incides with the mass centerline.
tion, synchronous amplification
factor is calculated by dividing Attitude Angle (Steady-State). Balancing. A procedure for ad-
the amplitude value at the reso- The angle between the direction justing the radial mass distribu-
nant peak by the amplitude value of steady-state preload through tion of a rotor so that the mass
at a speed well above resonance the bearing centerline, and a line centerline approaches the rotor
(as determined from a plot of syn- drawn between the shaft center- geometric centerline.
chronous response vs. rpm). line and the bearing centerline.
(Applies to fluid-film bearings.)
75
Band-Pass Filter. A filter with a Bow. A shaft condition such that Coherence. The ratio of coher-
single transmission band extend- the geometric centerline of the ent output power between chan-
ing from lower to upper cutoff shaft is not straight. Also called nels in a dual-channel DSA. An
frequencies. The width of the shaft sag. effective means of determining
band is determined by the separa- the similarity of vibration at two
tion of frequencies at which Brinneling (False). Impres- locations, giving insight into the
amplitude is attenuated by sions made by bearing rolling possibility of cause and effect re-
3 dB (0.707). elements on the bearing race; lationships.
typically caused by external
Bandwidth. The spacing be- vibration when the shaft is Constant Bandwidth Filter. A
tween frequencies at which a stationary. band-pass filter whose bandwidth
band-pass filter attenuates the is independent of center fre-
signal by 3 dB. In a DSA, mea- Calibration. A test during which quency. The filters simulated
surement bandwidth is equal to known values of the measured digitally in a DSA are constant
[(frequency span)/(number of fil- variable are applied to the trans- bandwidth.
ters) x (window factor)]. Window ducer or readout instrument, and
factors are: 1 for uniform, 1.5 for output readings varied or ad- Constant Percentage Band-
Hanning, and 3.63 for flat top. justed. width. A band-pass filter whose
bandwidth is a constant percent-
Baseline Spectrum. A vibration Campbell Diagram. A mathe- age of center frequency. 1/3
spectrum taken when a machine matically constructed diagram octave filters, including those
is in good operating condition; used to check for coincidence of synthesized in DSAs, are constant
used as a reference for monitor- vibration sources (i.e. 1 x imbal- percentage bandwidth.
ing and analysis. ance, 2 x misalignment) with ro-
tor natural resonances. The form Critical Machinery. Machines
Blade Passing Frequency. A of the diagram is a rectangular which are critical to a major part
potential vibration frequency on plot of resonant frequency of the plant process. These ma-
any bladed machine (turbine, (y-axis) vs excitation frequency chines are usually unspared.
axial compressor, fan, etc.). (x-axis). Also known as an inter-
It is represented by the number ference diagram. Critical Speeds. In general, any
of blades times shaft-rotating rotating speed which is associ-
frequency. Cascade Plot. See Spectral Map. ated with high vibration ampli-
tude. Often, the rotor speeds
Block Size. The number of sam- Cavitation. A condition which which correspond to natural
ples used in a DSA to compute can occur in liquid-handling ma- frequencies of the shaft or the
the Fast Fourier Transform. chinery (e.g. centrifugal pumps) system.
Also the number of samples in where a system pressure de-
a DSA time display. Most DSAs crease in the suction line and Critical Speed Map. A rectan-
use a block size of from 250 to pump inlet lowers fluid pressure gular plot of system natural fre-
8192. Smaller block size reduces and vaporization occurs. The re- quency (y-axis) versus bearing or
resolution. sult is mixed flow which may support stiffness (x-axis).
produce vibration.
Bode Plot. Rectangular coordi- Cross Axis Sensitivity. A mea-
nate plot of 1x component ampli- Center Frequency. For a sure of off-axis response of veloc-
tude and phase (relative to a bandpass filter, the center of the ity and acceleration transducers.
keyphasor) vs. running speed. transmission band.
Cycle. One complete sequence of
BPFO, BPFI. Common abbrevia- Charge Amplifier. Amplifier values of a periodic quantity.
tions for ball pass frequency of used to convert accelerometer
defects on outer and inner bear- output impedance from high to
ing races, respectively. low, making calibration much
less dependent on cable capaci-
tance.
76
Damping. The quality of a me- Discrete Fourier Transform. A Dynamic Signal Analyzer
chanical system that restrains the procedure for calculating discrete (DSA). Vibration analyzer that
amplitude of motion with each frequency components (filters or uses digital signal processing and
successive cycle. Damping of lines) from sampled time data. the Fast Fourier Transform to dis-
shaft motion is provided by oil in Since the frequency domain result play vibration frequency compo-
bearings, seals, etc. The damping is complex (i.e., real and imagi- nents. DSAs also display the time
process converts mechanical en- nary components), the number of domain and phase spectrum, and
ergy to other forms, usually heat. points is equal to half the number can usually be interfaced to a
of samples. computer.
Damping, Critical. The smallest
amount of damping required to re- Displacement. The change in Eccentricity, Mechanical. The
turn the system to its equilibrium distance or position of an object variation of the outer diameter of
position without oscillation. relative to a reference. a shaft surface when referenced
to the true geometric centerline
Decibels (dB). A logarithmic Displacement Transducer. A of the shaft. Out-of-roundness.
representation of amplitude ratio, transducer whose output is pro-
defined as 20 times the base ten portional to the distance between Eccentricity Ratio. The vector
logarithm of the ratio of the mea- it and the measured object (usu- difference between the bearing
sured amplitude to a reference. ally the shaft). centerline and the average steady-
dB readings, for example, are ref- state journal centerline.
erenced to 1 volt rms. dB or Log DSA. See Dynamic Signal Ana-
amplitude scales are required to lyzer. Eddy Current. Electrical cur-
display the full dynamic range of rent which is generated (and dis-
a DSA. Dual Probe. A transducer set sipated) in a conductive material
consisting of displacement and in the presence of an electromag-
Degrees Of Freedom. A phrase velocity transducers. Combines netic field.
used in mechanical vibration to measurement of shaft motion
describe the complexity of the relative to the displacement trans- Electrical Runout. An error sig-
system. The number of degrees ducer with velocity of the dis- nal that occurs in eddy current
of freedom is the number of inde- placement transducer to produce displacement measurements
pendent variables describing the absolute motion of the shaft. when shaft surface conductivity
state of a vibrating system. varies.
Dual Voting. Concept where
Digital Filter. A filter which two independent inputs are re- Engineering Units. In a DSA,
acts on data after it has been quired before action (usually ma- refers to units that are calibrated
sampled and digitized. Often used chine shutdown) is taken. Most by the user (e.g., in/s, g’s).
in DSAs to provide anti-aliasing often used with axial position
protection after internal re-sam- measurements, where failure of a External Sampling. In a DSA,
pling. single transducer might lead to an refers to control of data sampling
unnecessary shutdown. by a multiplied tachometer signal.
Differentiation. Representation Provides a stationary display of
in terms of time rate of change. Dynamic Motion. Vibratory mo- vibration with changing speed.
For example, differentiating ve- tion of a rotor system caused by
locity yields acceleration. In a mechanisms that are active only Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
DSA, differentiation is performed when the rotor is turning at A computer (or microprocessor)
by multiplication by jw, where speeds above slow roll speed. procedure for calculating discrete
w is frequency multiplied by 2p. frequency components from sam-
(Differentiation can also be used pled time data. A special case of
to convert displacement to veloc- the discrete Fourier transform
ity.) where the number of samples is
constrained to a power of 2.
77
Filter. Electronic circuitry de- rotational speed, 2x for twice Hysteresis. Non-uniqueness in
signed to pass or reject a specific rotational speed, etc. the relationship between two
frequency band. variables as a parameter in-
Frequency Response. The creases or decreases. Also called
Filtered Orbit. An orbit dia- amplitude and phase response deadband, or that portion of a
gram in which the vertical and characteristics of a system. system’s response where a
horizontal displacement signals change in input does not produce
have been filtered. This is nor- G. The value of acceleration pro- a change in output.
mally a bandpass filter centered duced by the force of gravity.
at a running speed, however, digi- Imbalance. Unequal radial
tal systems are capable of mul- Gear Mesh Frequency. A poten- weight distribution on a rotor sys-
tiple bandpass regions. tial vibration frequency on any tem; a shaft condition such that
machine that contains gears; the mass and shaft geometric
Finite Element Modeling. A equal to the number of teeth mul- centerlines do not coincide.
computer aided design technique tiplied by the rotational frequency
for predicting the dynamic behav- of the gear. Impact Test. Response test
ior of a mechanical system prior where the broad frequency range
to construction. Modeling can be Hanning Window. DSA window produced by an impact is used as
used, for example, to predict the function that provides better fre- the stimulus. Sometimes referred
natural frequencies of a flexible quency resolution than the flat to as a bump test.
rotor. top window, but with reduced
amplitude accuracy. Impedance, Mechanical. The
Flat Top Filter. DSA window mechanical properties of a ma-
function which provides the best Harmonic. Frequency compo- chine system (mass, stiffness,
amplitude accuracy for measuring nent at a frequency that is an inte- damping) that determine the re-
discrete frequency components. ger multiple of the fundamental sponse to periodic forcing func-
frequency. tions.
Fluid-Film Bearing. A bearing
which supports the shaft on a thin Heavy Spot. The angular loca- Influence Coefficients. Mathe-
film of oil. The fluid-film layer tion of the imbalance vector at a matical coefficients that describe
may be generated by journal rota- specific lateral location on a the influence of system loading
tion (hydrodynamic bearing), or shaft. The heavy spot typically on system deflection.
by externally applied pressure does not change with rotational
(hydrostatic bearing). speed. Integration. A process produc-
ing a result that, when differenti-
Forced Vibration. The oscilla- Hertz (Hz). The unit of fre- ated, yields the original quantity.
tion of a system under the action quency represented by cycles per Integration of acceleration, for
of a forcing function. Typically second. example, yields velocity. Integra-
forced vibration occurs at the fre- tion is performed in a DSA by di-
quency of the exciting force. High Spot. The angular location viding by jw, where w is
on the shaft directly under the vi- frequency multiplied by 2p. (Inte-
Free Vibration. Vibration of a bration transducer at the point of gration is also used to convert ve-
mechanical system following an closest proximity. The high spot locity to displacement).
initial force — typically at one or can move with changes in shaft
more natural frequencies. dynamics (e.g., from changes in Journal. Specific portions of the
speed). shaft surface from which rotor ap-
Frequency. The repetition rate plied loads are transmitted to
of a periodic event, usually ex- High-Pass Filter. A filter with a bearing supports.
pressed in cycles per second transmission band starting at a
(Hz), revolutions per minute lower cutoff frequency and ex- Keyphasor. A signal used in ro-
(rpm), or multiples of a rotational tending to (theoretically) infinite tating machinery measurements,
speed (orders). Orders are frequency. generated by a transducer observ-
commonly referred to as 1x for ing a once-per-revolution event.
78
The keyphasor signal is used in Micrometer (MICRON). One Nodal Point. A point of mini-
phase measurements for analysis millionth (.000001) of a meter. mum shaft deflection in a specific
and balancing. (1 micron = 1 x E-6 meters @ mode shape. May readily change
0.04 mils.) location along the shaft axis due
Lateral Location. The definition to changes in residual imbalance
of various points along the shaft MIL. One thousandth (0.001) of or other forcing function, or
axis of rotation. an inch. (1 mil = 25.4 microns.) change in restraint such as
increased bearing clearance.
Lateral Vibration. See Radial Modal Analysis. The process of
Vibration. breaking complex vibration into Noise. Any component of a
its component modes of vibration, transducer output signal that does
Leakage. In DSAs, a result of fi- very much like frequency domain not represent the variable in-
nite time record length that re- analysis breaks vibration down to tended to be measured.
sults in smearing of frequency component frequencies.
components. Its effects are Nyquist Criterion. Requirement
greatly reduced by the use of Mode Shape. The resultant de- that a sampled system sample at
weighted window functions such flected shape of a rotor at a spe- a frequency greater than twice
as flat top and Hanning. cific rotational speed to an thehighest frequency to be
applied forcing function. A three- measured.
Linearity. The response charac- dimensional presentation of rotor
teristics of a linear system remain lateral deflection along the shaft Nyquist Plot. A plot of real ver-
constant with input level. That is, axis. sus imaginary spectral compo-
if the response to input a is A, and nents that is often used in servo
the response to input b is B, then Modulation, Amplitude (AM). analysis. Should not be confused
the response of a linear system to The process where the amplitude with a polar plot of amplitude and
input (a + b) will be (A + B). An of a signal is varied as a function phase of 1x vibration.
example of a non-linear system is of the instantaneous value of an-
one whose response is limited by other signal. The first signal is Octave. The interval between
mechanical stop, such as occurs called the carrier, and the second two frequencies with a ratio of
when a bearing mount is loose. signal is called the modulating 2 to 1.
signal. Amplitude modulation pro-
Lines. Common term used to duces a component at the carrier Oil Whirl/Whip. An unstable
describe the filters of a DSA (e.g., frequency, with adjacent compo- free vibration whereby a fluid-
400 line analyzer). nents (sidebands) at the fre- film bearing has insufficient unit
quency of the modulating signal. loading. Under this condition, the
Linear Averaging. See Time shaft centerline dynamic motion
Averaging. Modulation, Frequency (FM). is usually circular in the direction
The process where the frequency of rotation. Oil whirl occurs at the
Low-Pass Filter. A filter whose of the carrier is determined by the oil flow velocity within the bear-
transmission band extends from amplitude of the modulating sig- ing, usually 40 to 49% of shaft
dc to an upper cutoff frequency. nal. Frequency modulation pro- speed. Oil whip occurs when the
duces a component at the carrier whirl frequency coincide with
Mechanical Runout. An error in frequency, with adjacent compo- (and becomes locked to) a shaft
measuring the position of the nents (sidebands) at the fre- resonant frequency. (Oil whirl
shaft centerline with a displace- quency of the modulating signal. and whip can occur in any case
ment probe that is caused by where fluid is between two
out-of-roundness and surface Natural Frequency. The fre- cylindrical surfaces.)
imperfections. quency of free vibration of a sys-
tem. The frequency at which an
undamped system with a single
degree of freedom will oscillate
upon momentary displacement
from its rest position.
79
Orbit. The path of the shaft Power Spectrum. See Auto Relative Motion. Vibration mea-
centerline motion during rotation. Spectrum. sured relative to a chosen refer-
The orbit is observed with an os- ence. Displacement transducers
cilloscope connected to x and y- Preload, Bearing. The dimen- generally measure shaft motion
axis displacement transducers. sionless quantity that is typically relative to the transducer mount-
Some dual-channel DSAs also expressed as a number from zero ing.
have the ability to display orbits. to one where a preload of zero in-
dicates no bearing load upon the Repeatability. The ability of a
Oscillator-Demodulator. A sig- shaft, and one indicates the maxi- transducer or readout instrument
nal conditioning device that sends mum preload (i.e., line contact to reproduce readings when the
a radio frequency signal to an between shaft and bearing). same input is applied repeatedly.
eddy-current displacement probe,
demodulates the probe output, Preload, External. Any of sev- Resolution. The smallest change
and provides output signals pro- eral mechanisms that can exter- in stimulus that will produce a de-
portional to both the average and nally load a bearing. This includes tectable change in the instrument
dynamic gap distances. (Also re- “soft” preloads such as process output.
ferred to as Proximitor, a Bently fluids or gravitational forces as
Nevada trade name.) well as “hard” preloads from gear Resonance. The condition of
contact forces, misalignment, vibration amplitude and phase
Peak Hold. In a DSA, a type rubs, etc. change response caused by a
of averaging that holds the peak corresponding system sensitivity
signal level for each frequency Proximitor. See Oscillator/ to a particular forcing frequency.
component. Demodulator. A resonance is typically identified
by a substantial amplitude in-
Period. The time required for Radial. Direction perpendicular crease, and related phase shift.
a complete oscillation or for a to the shaft centerline.
single cycle of events. The recip- Rolling Element Bearing. Bear-
rocal of frequency. Radial Position. The average ing whose low friction qualities
location, relative to the radial derive from rolling elements
Phase. A measurement of the bearing centerline, of the shaft (balls or rollers), with little
timing relationship between two dynamic motion. lubrication.
signals, or between a specific vi-
bration event and a keyphasor Radial Vibration. Shaft dynamic Root Mean Square (rms).
pulse. motion or casing vibration which Square root of the arithmetical av-
is in a direction perpendicular to erage of a set of squared instanta-
Piezoelectric. Any material the shaft centerline. neous values. DSAs perform rms
which provides a conversion be- averaging digitally on successive
tween mechanical and electrical Real-Time Analyzer. See vibration spectra.
energy. For a piezoelectric crys- Dynamic Signal Analyzer.
tal, if mechanical stresses are Rotor, Flexible. A rotor which
applied on two opposite faces, Real-Time Rate. For a DSA, the operates close enough to, or be-
electrical charges appear on some broadest frequency span at which yond its first bending critical
other pair of faces. data is sampled continuously. speed for dynamic effects to influ-
Real-time rate is mostly depen- ence rotor deformations. Rotors
Polar Plot. Polar coordinate rep- dent on FFT processing speed. which cannot be classified as
resentation of the locus of the 1x rigid rotors are considered to
vector at a specific lateral shaft Rectangular Window. See Uni- be flexible rotors.
location with the shaft rotational form Window.
speed as a parameter.
80
Rotor, Rigid. A rotor which op- Spectral Map. A three-dimen- Torsional Vibration. Amplitude
erates substantially below its first sional plot of the vibration ampli- modulation of torque measured in
bending critical speed. A rigid ro- tude spectrum versus another degrees peak-to-peak referenced
tor can be brought into, and will variable, usually time or rpm. to the axis of shaft rotation.
remain in, a state of satisfactory
balance at all operating speeds Spectrum Analyzer. An instru- Tracking Filter. A low-pass or
when balanced on any two arbi- ment which displays the fre- band-pass filter which automati-
trarily selected correction planes. quency spectrum of an input cally tracks the input signal. A
signal. tracking filter is usually required
RPM Spectral Map. A spectral for aliasing protection when data
map of vibration spectra versus Stiffness. The spring-like quality sampling is controlled externally.
rpm. of mechanical and hydraulic ele-
ments to elasticity deform under Transducer. A device for trans-
Runout Compensation. Elec- load. lating the magnitude of one quan-
tronic correction of a transducer tity into another quantity.
output signal for the error result- Strain. The physical deforma-
ing from slow roll runout. tion, deflection, or change in Transient Vibration. Tempo-
length resulting from stress rarily sustained vibration of a me-
Seismic. Refers to an inertially (force per unit area). chanical system. It may consist of
referenced measurement or a forced or free vibration or both.
measurement relative to free Subharmonic. Sinusoidal quanti- Typically this is associated with
space. ty of a frequency that is an inte- changes in machine operating
gral submultiple of a fundamental condition such as speed, load,
Seismic Transducer. A trans- frequency. etc.
ducer that is mounted on the case
or housing of a machine and mea- Subsynchronous. Transverse Sensitivity. See
sures casing vibration relative to Component(s) of a vibration sig- Cross-Axis Sensitivity.
free space. Accelerometers and nal which has a frequency less
velocity transducers are seismic. than shaft rotative frequency. Trigger. Any event which can be
used as a timing reference. In a
Signal Conditioner. A device Synchronous Sampling. In a DSA, a trigger can be used to ini-
placed between a signal source DSA, it refers to the control of tiate a measurement.
and a readout instrument to the effective sampling rate of
change the signal. Examples: at- data; which includes the pro- Unbalance. See Imbalance.
tenuators, preamplifiers, charge cesses of external sampling and
amplifiers. computed resampling used in Uniform Window. In a DSA, a
order tracking. window function with uniform
Signature. Term usually applied weighting across the time record.
to the vibration frequency spec- Time Averaging. In a DSA, aver- This window does not protect
trum which is distinctive and spe- aging of time records that results against leakage, and should be
cial to a machine or component, in reduction of asynchronous used only with transient signals
system or subsystem at a specific components. contained completely within the
point in time, under specific ma- time record.
chine operating conditions, etc. Time Record. In a DSA, the sam-
Used for historical comparison of pled time data converted to the Vector. A quantity which has
mechanical condition over the op- frequency domain by the FFT. both magnitude and direction
erating life of the machine. Most DSAs use a time record of (phase).
1024 samples.
Slow Roll Speed. Low rotative Waterfall Plot. See Spectral
speed at which dynamic motion Map.
effects from forces such as imbal-
ance are negligible.
81
References:
82
Vibration Analysis: Fluid Film Bearings and Vibration Control:
17) Ehrich, F.F., Sum and Differ- Rotor Dynamics: 31) Beranek, L.L., Noise and
ence Frequencies in Vibration of 24) Rieger, N.F. and Crofoot, J.F., Vibration Control, McGraw-Hill
High Speed Rotating Machinery, Vibrations of Rotating Machin- Book Co., New York, NY, 1971.
Journal of Engineering for Indus- ery, Vibration Institute, 1977.
try, February 1972. 32) Fundamentals of Balancing,
25) Bently, Donald E., Oil Whirl Schenck Trebel Corporation, Deer
18) Eshleman, Ronald L., The Resonance, Bently Nevada Park, NY, 1983.
Role of Sum and Difference Fre- Publication L0324-01, July, 1981.
quencies in Rotating Machinery 33) Dodd, V.R., Total Alignment,
Fault Analysis, Vibrations in 26) Ehrich, E.F., Indentification Penn Well Books, Tulsa, OK,
Rotating Machinery, Mechanical and Avoidance of Instabilities 1975.
Engineering Publications Limited, and Self-Excited Vibrations in
Inc., London, 1980. Rotating Machinery, ASME 34) Gunter, E.J., Ed., Field
Paper 72-DE-21. Balancing of Rotating Equip-
19) Jackson, Charles, The Practi- ment, Vibration Institute, 1983.
cal Vibration Primer, Gulf Pub- 27) Gunter, E.J., Rotor Bearing
lishing Company, Houston, Texas, Stability, Vibration Institute, 35) Hagler, R., Schwerdin, H., and
1979. 1983. Eshleman, R., Effects of Shaft
Misalignment on Machinery
20) Steward, R.M., Vibration 28) Loewy, R.G. and Piarulli, V.J., Vibration, Design News,
Analysis As an Aid to the Detec- Dynamics of Rotating Shafts, January, 1979.
tion and Diagnosis of Faults in The Shock and Vibration
Rotating Machinery, I Mech E, Information Center, 1969. Digital Order Tracking:
C192/76, 1976. 36) Potter, Ron and Gibler, Mike,
29) McHugh, J.D., Principles Computer Order Tracking
21) Maxwell, J. Howard, of Turbomachinery Bearings, Obsoletes Older Methods, "SAE
Introduction Motor Magnetic Proceedings of the 8th Noise and Vibration Conference,
Vibration, Proceedings of the Turbomachinery Symposium, May 16-18, 1989, pp 63-67.
Vibration Institute Machinery Vi- Texas A&M University.
bration Monitoring and Analysis 37)Potter, Ron, A New Order
Meeting, Houston, Texas, April 30) Orbits, Bently Nevada Tracking Method for Rotating
1983, Vibration Institute, Applications Notes. Machinery, Sound & Vibration
Clarendon Hills, IL. Sept 1990, pp30-34.
22) Taylor, James I., An Update
of Determination of Antifriction
Bearing Condition by Spectral
Analysis, Vibration Institute,
1981.
83
Index
84
85
H
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