ANALYSIS OF LOSSES IN HIGH-EFFICIENCY CdTe CELLS

X. X. Liu. I. L. Eisgruber, and J. R. Sites

Department of Physics, Colorado State University
Fort Collins. CO 80523

ABSTRACT

High-efficiency (215%) CdTe solar cells, fabricated at the (-15%) USF CdTe cells were measured at room temperature in
University of South Florida, show favorable features in their the dark and under 100 mW/cmz illumination. Fig. 1 shows the
diode junction characteristics. At any selected voltage, forward light current-voltage characteristic for the 15% cell which
current is smaller than that reported for other CdTe cells. showed the best junction characteristics. A USF CdTe cell from
Variable-intensity measurements show the diode quality factor A one year earlier with 14.6% efficiency [ 2 ] , and the highest
increases gradually between 0 and 100 mW/cm*, and is less at efficiency (15.8%) USF cell are included for comparison. Also
operating intensities than seen in other cells to date. Series and shown in this figure is a hypothetical 18% target cell (JL=26
shunt resistances decrease continuously with intensity, but most mA/cm2, V,=875 mV, A=2.0, R,=O, RSH=m, and resulting
of the decrease occurs below 10 mW/cm2. Temperature- FF=79%).
dependent measurements show a 1.8 m V K decrease in the open-
circuit voltage and an approximate 1.4 V zero-temperature
extrapolation. The difference between the translated light curve 0
and dark curve in the operating range is 50 mV at higher
temperatures and 70 mV at lower ones. Examination of several
cells over a 3-month period shows the elimination of an increase
in series resistance seen in the previous highest-efficiency cell.
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INTRODUCTION z -15
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In the last few years, the energy-conversion efficiency of
polycrystalline thin-film CdS/CdTe solar cells has shown a
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steady increase. The maximum reported efficiency to date is 3

15.8% by the University of South Florida (USF) [I]. The
production of these efficient and potentially inexpensive solar
cells requires an understnnding of efficiency-limiting
mechanisms. To have a high efficiency solar cell, the diode
forward current must be as small as possible. photocurrent losses
minimized, and resistive effects near-ideal. Temperature-
dependent measurement is used to explore tlie transport
mechanisms controlling diode current of a heterojunction.
Illumination can change the occupancy of trapping centers at or
near the junction and hence the junction barrier and diode quality
factor. The objectives of this paper are (1) to explain what has
been improved in the high efficiency CdTe cells fabricated at
USF, (2) to examine the variations of key parameters with
temperature and light intensity, and (3) to track any possible
dcgradation over time.
FORWARD CURRENT
Currcnt-voltage characteristics of several high-efficiency
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VOLTAGE M
Fig. 1 Linear current-voltage plot of USF 11-4-8A
(14.6%). 5-1A-12B (15%). 6-1B-6B (15.8%) CdTe
cells and a hypothetical 18% target CdTe cell.
Fig. 2 shows the forward diode current extracted from the cell
data of Fig. 1. Solid points were taken in the dark, and open
ones in the light. The dashed lines are fits with series and shunt
resistance effects removed (Rs+O, RsH+m). The solid line is
the fit for the hypothetical 18% target cell. The fit for the 15%
efficient cell, which has a high open-circuit voltage (860 mV),
but relatively modest photocurrent (23 mA/cniZ), is approaching
the target curve. At any selected voltage, its forward current
under illumination is smaller than the other two CdTe cells. Its

405
0-7803-1220-1193 $3.00 0 1993 IEEE
dark forward current (also shown) is in fact less than our target
value. Thus the junction behavior is significantly improved in
this cell compared to the best cell from the previous year, and
even to the highest efficiency cell.

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18.0% (Target)

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Fig. 3 Comparison of photocurrent losses in the USF CdTe cells
with efficiencies of 14.6%, 15%. 15.8% and the highest-current
0.6 0.7 0.8 o.9 Photon Energy CdTe cell (12.4%).
VOLTAGE p]

Fig. 2 Comparison of forward diode currents
for cells shown in Fig. 1.
PHOTOCURRENT
Quantum efficiency measurements can be used to
quantitatively separate the individual photocurrent loss
mechanisms [3]. Fig. 3 shows the lost photon fraction, one
minus the measured quantum efficiency. as a function of
wavelength for the three USF cells discussed in Fig. 1, as well
as the highest-current Photon Energy CdTe cell [4]. The
individual losses are calculated by attributing a loss mechanism
to each lost-photon area, multiplying by the solar spectrum in
photon current units (51, and integrating over wavelength.
Window absorption (the loss at short wavelengths due to
absorption in the window layer of the cell) for the lS% cell is
high (4 mA/cm2) compared to the highest efficiency USF cell
(2% mA/cm2) and the earlier USF cell (lmA/cm2). In the 1992
cells all photon losses are accounted for by the window
absorption. reflection (nearly wavelength independent), and deep
penetration (at long wavelengths). The 1991 cell, however, had
an unexplained mid-wavelength loss of 2% mA/cm2. If the
photocurrent losses of the best-junction USF cell were equal to
those of the highest efficiency cell, its efficiency would be
16.3%. If they equalled the highest-current Photon Energy cell,
the efficiency would be 17%.
INTENSITY DEPENDENCE
The current-voltage characteristics of the best-junction cell
were measured at twelve different light intensities from dark to
100 mW/cm2 using ELH illumination. Open-circuit voltage and
efficiency increase nearly logarithmically with increasing light
intensity. Fig. 4 shows the effects of intensity variations on
other key cell parameters. Short-circuit current is quite linear
with light intensity. The series and shunt resistances decrease
continuously with intensity, but most of their decrease is in the
first 10 mW/cmz. The A-factor increases gradually with
intensity between 0 and 100 mW/cmz. These variations are
qualitatively silnilar to those seen in other CdTe and CuInSe,
cells.
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
The current-voltage characteristics of the same cell were also
measured as a funclion of temperature between 250K to 3SOK.
The short-circuit current i s flat within experimental error. The
open-circuit voltage decreases with temperature at about 1.8
mV/K and has zero-temperature extrapolation of approximately
1.4 V. The fill factor decreases at high temperatures because
,V is dropping. It also decreases at low temperatures, primarily
because series resistance shows a marked increase. The voltage
difference between the translaled light curve and the dark curve
in the operating range, after both are corrected for resistive
effects, is about SO mV at higher temperatures and 70 mV at

406
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LIGHT INTENSITY [mW/cm2] TEMPERATURE [1<1

Fig. 4 Effects of light intensity variations Fig. 5 Effects of te~npcrat~re

variations on the cell's parameters.
011 the cell's parameters.

lower ones. This value is larger than that seen in the higli-
quality CulnSe, cells [ 61, but considerably lower than displayed
by CdTe cells until recently [3]. It should be viewed as another
indication of improvement in junction quality.
Fig. 5 shows effects of temperature on the cell's parameters.
The dark hole density, extracted from capacitance measurements,
is quite IOW at all temperatures (<2x10'4 cm '), as normally seen
with CdTe cells. The series resistance is large at low
temperatures, especially for the dark data. The diode quality
factor A decreases with increasing temperature, as seen in other
polycrystalline cells. The product AT is essentially constant in
the dark, and increases slightly at low temperatures in tlie light.
The fact that A is greater than 2 at low temperatures and AT is
constant in the dark suggests that tlie current transport is not
doniinated by simple SRH recombination in the space-charge
region with a single mid-gap trap level 171.
CELL STABI1,I'TY
Cell performance over time was measured for several 1992
cells and compared to the 1991 cell used above for reference
(see Fig. 6). No changes in photocurrent or open-circuit voltage
were observed in either case. Also the A-factors and shunt
resistances were flat over time within experimental error in both
years. The series resistance of the 1991 cell, however, showed
a gradual increase from 0.4 to 2.6 SZ-cm' over a three month
period. This increase, possibly associated with contact
degradation, resulted in a 40 tnV decrease in V,, and a
corresponding fill-factor decrease from 0.725 to 0.68. In 1992,
six cells were tracked, three kept in desiccant and three not.
None of the parameters measured changed with time outside of
experimental uncertainties. Thus, the series-resistance
degradation has been effectively eliminated.

407
 3

c
I I l I I I I I ,
a [l] C. Ferekides. I. Britt. and Yixian Ma, "High Efficiency
2 -
CdTe Solar Cells by Close Spaced Sublimation," Proc. 23rd
9,
a 1 - 0 o o IEEE Photovoltaic Specialisls Conf., Louisville, 1993.
0
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1 ,
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[2] T.L. Chu. S.S. Chu, J. Britt, G. Chen. C. Ferekides. N.

2i 3
2..
: 0
9 . . 0 0 Q 1 '
I
Schultz, C. W a g . and C.Q. Wu. "High Efficiency Thin Film
Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells," AIP Cog. Proc. 268, 1992.
88.

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0
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[3] H. Tavakolian, and J.R. Sites, "Individual Losses in Thin-
Film CdTe Solar Cells," Proc.2f st IEEE Pholovollaic Specialist
Conf.. Florida, 1990, 556.
[4] R.A. Sasala, X.X. Liu, and J.R. Sites, "Comparative
6 0 Analysis of recent High-Efficiency CdTe Solar Cells," Inr. J .
U
0 Solar Energy a, 1992, 17.

Fig. 6 Cell's parameters tracking in 1991

and 1991 USF CdTe cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficiency improvements in recent USF-fabricated CdTe

cells are primarily a result of success in keeping the forward
recombination current well below that achieved by other groups.
Not only is the dark forward current quite low. but the light-dark
differential is relatively modest. The bcst-junction cells are in
fact somewhat low in photociirrcnt, implying that efficiencies up
to 17% should be fairly readily achievable. Furthermore, an
earlier USF problcm of series resistance degradation seems to
have heen solved and the cells arc now quite stable over a[ least
a threc-month interval.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the University of South

Florida program for the fabrication of cells used in this program,
Keith Emery for the SERIMREL data incorporated in the long-
term studies. and Chis Ferekides of USF for helpful discussions.
Support was provided by SERImREL Subcontract XC-0- 10046-
1.

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