ThePARI Journal

A quarterly publication of the Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute

Volume X, No. 3, Winter 2010

Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals

In This Issue:
SUSAN MILBRATH
Religious Imagery in CARLOS PERAZA LOPE
Mayapan’s Murals MIGUEL DELGADO KÚ
by
Susan Milbrath Murals at Mayapan in Yucatan provide Sala de los Símbolos Solares
Carlos Peraza Lope a rich picture of the changing nature of
The latest murals at Mayapan are paint-
and religious imagery in the Postclassic period.
Miguel Delgado Kú
Mixteca-Puebla traders from Central ed on the Sala de los Símbolos Solares
PAGES 1-10 Mexico or Oaxaca may have introduced (Structure Q.161), an addition to the
foreign religious cults at the Postclassic Castillo that dates to the last decades of
• Mayapan’s occupation (Milbrath and
Maya capital as early as 1325 or 1350.
Glyph F of the Relationships with the Mixteca-Puebla Peraza 2003:19, Table 1; Peraza et al. 2001)
Supplementary style are evident in Mayapan murals that (Figure 1). The solar disks on Mayapan’s
Series: TI’ HU’N, date between 1350 and 1400. Later, Aztec Structure Q.161 can be compared to
Mouth of the Book stylistic elements were introduced in archi- Late Postclassic Aztec sculptures and to
by tectural sculpture and murals, dating circa Mixteca-Puebla codices and murals at sites
Scott A. J. Johnson 1400-1450, probably through itinerant such as Mitla and Santa Rita (Figures 2–3).
PAGES 11-19 artists accompanying traders from the The Mayapan solar disks with only four
Valley of Mexico. These stylistic changes rays seem simplified when compared to the
• also relate to modifications in religious more complex Aztec and Mixteca-Puebla
imagery, the main focus of discussion forms, but this is not a significant stylistic
Morley’s Diary:
here. Dates for the murals are based on difference because there is considerable
April 26–27, 1932
Mayapan’s archaeological chronology and variety in Mixteca-Puebla and Aztec
PAGE 20
comparisons with murals from other sites solar disks (Miller 1982:Figure 109; Nuttal
in Mesoamerica (Milbrath and Peraza 1975:9, 10, 19, 21; Pasztory 1983:Plates 36,
Joel Skidmore 2003). 85, 90, 234; Taube 1992:Figure 77).1 More
Editor
joel@mesoweb.com

Marc Zender
Associate Editor
marc@mesoweb.com

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Figure 1. Structure Q.161, one of eight similar scenes with solar disks (photo by Joel Skidmore).

The PARI Journal 10(3):1-10. 1


Figure 2. Solar disk from Structure Q.161 (photo by Joel Skidmore).
significant in terms of style is the fact that the Mayapan
forms are rendered with broad color areas, lacking the
black lines that form detailed cell partitions in murals
and codices painted in the Mixteca-Puebla style or its
East Coast variant known from sites like Tulum and
Santa Rita (Robertson 1970).
The Mayapan murals from Q.161 share some stylistic
elements with Aztec art. The striding profile figures
facing each other across a sun disk in the murals re-
semble the central relief on the Aztec Teocalli (Pasztory
1983:Plate 127).2 The costuming, proportions, and pose
of the profile figures in Mayapan’s Q.161 mural are like
those seen in early Aztec art, especially murals from
Phase II of the Templo Mayor, ca. 1375-1427 (López
Luján 2006:122; Milbrath and Peraza 2003:29).
Mayapan’s Sala de los Símbolos Solares is painted
with broad areas of color more closely resembling the
Templo Mayor murals, but the paintings lack the thin
black outlines seen in the Phase II Aztec murals (de la
Fuente et al. 1999:Colorplates 69 and 145) (Figures 1–2).
The panels in the Q.161 mural include a green border,
a color not seen in the Templo Mayor murals, and the
lavish use of Maya Blue in the background is also a
distinguishing feature. Apart from these differences,
2
Milbrath
both murals share a color palate featuring red, blue,
yellow (ochre), and white (Lopez Luján 2005:17, Figure
8). The use of Maya Blue in the Templo Mayor murals
may provide a key to possible connections between the
Aztec area and the Mayapan area, one of the principal
sources of Maya Blue. The Aztecs or their Canul trading
partners may have obtained the blue pigment from the
area of Mayapan as early as 1375 (Milbrath and Peraza
2003:30).3
Sun disks with solar deities are represented in
1
Like Aztec examples of sun disks, the Church Group murals
from Mitla represent a solar disk with eight rays, four terminating in
scroll ends, and a multitude of jade and feather symbols (Milbrath
1999:Figure 5.6h). The Santa Rita sun disk has primary solar rays
with scroll ends and bands with beads at the ends in between these
rays (Figure 3). This format resembles the solar disks on Codex
Nuttall 9 and 21 (Nuttal 1975:9, 21), but the codex also represents
solar disks with rays lacking scroll ends (Nuttall 1975:10, 19, 21).
2
Compositions with two figures facing each other across a
central object are typical of early Aztec sculptures dating prior to
1427, according to Emily Umberger (1981:225-226). Nonetheless,
Leonardo López Luján (2006:104, 114) points out that this conclusion
is based on a faulty chronology that places the benches of the Casa
de las Aguilas with its “Toltec” figures as among the earliest Aztec
reliefs when in fact they are purposefully rendered in an archaic
style to allude to a Toltec heritage.
Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals

Aztec and Mixteca-Puebla art, including the mural

at Santa Rita painted in the East Coast International
style (Robertson 1970; Taube 1992:140-142, Figures 77–
78) (Figure 3). The diving figures in the center of the
Mayapan sun disks have their arms and legs forming
a design resembling a swastika (a “pinwheel pose”),
comparable to the representation of the Sun God on
Codex Nuttall 9 (Nuttall 1975:9), although the codex
figure is not represented in a diving pose. A figure in a
pinwheel pose on an Aztec sun disk could represent a
sacrificed warrior rather than the Sun God (see catalog
number 11/8220 in the National Museum of the
American Indian; Saville 1924:Figure 41). Because the
figure has a dart in his mouth and his heart has been
extracted, he could represent a warrior sacrificed to the
sun, in keeping with the concept of a deceased warrior
serving as a companion to the sun from sunrise to
noon in Aztec accounts (Sahagún 1950-82:Book 6:162).
On the other hand, Leonardo López Luján (personal
communication 2009) interprets this warrior as an
image of the deceased Sun God, Tonatiuh.
In the Mayapan murals, there were originally eight
different figures on the sun disks, each represented in
a descending pose (Figure 4).4 The diving figures could
be deceased warriors comparable to Aztec images,
but the grouping of eight solar disks suggests an Figure 3. Sun Disk from Mural at Santa Rita (Gann 1900:Plate 31).
alternate interpretation. The eight sun disks in Q.161
may symbolize eight solar years in the Venus almanac, Milbrath 1999:58-59; Milbrath and Peraza 2003:28). In
equivalent to five Venus cycles (5 x 584 = 8 x 365 days; this case, the descending figures would be different
avatars of the sun representing different years in the
Venus almanac. At least one of these seems to be dead,
3
The Templo Mayor includes Maya Blue made from indigo,
a plant grown in tropical regions. Through a heating process, his body pale and covered with what appear to be death
indigo was combined at a molecular level with palygorskite clay spots (Figure 2).
from northern Yucatán, or alternatively the combination included A connection between the murals and the Venus
mixed palygorskite and sepiolite clay from the area of Campeche cycle has been proposed in studies of the alignment of
(Lopez Luján et al. 2005). It is not clear whether the Aztecs made Structure Q.161 (Sala de Símbolos Solares). Observing
the pigment from imported raw materials or whether they or their
trading partners imported Maya Blue as a prepared pigment. There
times when the light of the rising sun illuminated the
is some evidence of changes in the sources of Maya Blue over time. murals resulted in dates that divide the year into a 2/3
One sculpture tested from the Templo Mayor was originally painted ratio in relation to the summer solstice, and these dates
with Maya Blue made with clays comparable to the Campeche have been used to derive numerical coefficients that
sources, but was later painted over in a repair that used a Maya link the solar year with the synodic cycle of Venus by
Blue made from the type of clay characteristic of northern Yucatán
marking the dates that Venus could be seen behind the
(Lopez Luján et al. 2005:26, n. 62). A third unknown source of clay
used for Maya Blue may be from Oaxaca (Lopez Luján et al. 2005). tower of the Templo Redondo (Q.152) when viewed from
It seems likely that the Aztecs began to exploit clay sources near Q.161 (Ruiz Gallut et al. 2001). The Q.161 structure itself
Mayapán through trade or some other form of contact because there does not have an orientation to a significant horizon
are Mayapán sculptures that seem to be inspired by those from position for Venus, but its north and northwest walls are
Central Mexico, and Landa recounts that there was an influx of illuminated by the rising sun on the summer solstice,
“Mexicans” shortly before an internal revolt led the city to collapse
around 1450 (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:25-26, 30-31).
and its south wall is illuminated by the winter solstice
4
Only eight scenes are preserved, and six of these preserve solar sunrise. Observations made from the Templo Redondo,
disks, four of which have descending figures that are still visible which clearly functioned as an observatory, indicate that
(Figure 4). Although the eight panels are not completely preserved, alignments toward the Castillo and the adjacent Q.161
it is possible that the design represents eight solar deities. There mark important solar dates (Aveni et al. 2004). Venus
are also fragmentary murals in the area where the corner of Q.161
alignments were not evident along the same trajectory,
meets the eastern staircase of the Castillo. Given the loss of stucco in
other parts of the walls, it is likely that there were other subsidiary but an interest in the solar cycle in relation to Venus may
scenes, but these areas do not seem large enough to fit in another be evident in the grouping of eight sun disks, one for
complete sun disk panel. each year of the Venus almanac.

3

Figure 4. Reproduction of murals in Structure Q.161 showing remains of the original eight panels on the the north,
northwest, and south walls (Barerra and Peraza 2001:Plates 16–17).
Venus Imagery in the Templo de los Nichos Pintados
The Venus almanac seems to be important in the Templo
de los Nichos Pintados (Temple of the Painted Niches or
Structure Q.80) excavated by the Carnegie archaeological
project in the 1950s (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:26-27)
(Figure 5). Mural paintings in Q.80 depict reptiles and
temples that reflect Mayapan’s participation in Mixteca-
Puebla traditions (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:26-27;
Barrera and Peraza 2001:443, Plates 5-11). The dentition
of the two preserved reptile faces clearly indicates that
the figures are serpents, most probably symbolizing
Quetzalcoatl. The serpents resemble examples known
from Coba (Lombardo 1987:Figure 46; Milbrath and
Peraza 2003:27) and those on Mixteca-Puebla pottery
from Cholula, dated circa 1350 to 1550 (McCafferty
1996:Figure 16f).
The murals depict small areas of blue, black, red,
white, and yellow outlined in black to form color cells
like those seen in Mixteca-Puebla codices (Milbrath
and Peraza 2003:29). This format is also seen on Mural
10 of Tulum’s Structure 16, one of the few polychrome
murals at the site (Miller 1982:Plate 33). Arthur Miller
(1982:70-73, Plates 25-40) notes that Mixteca-Puebla
stylistic elements in the Tulum paintings in Structures
5 and 16 indicate a date after 1400, but Leticia Staines
Cicero (1995:61) suggests these murals date between
1300 and 1450. The Q.80 murals represent the Mixteca-
Puebla style in an East Coast manifestation known as
the International Style (Robertson 1970). They date to the
last construction phase of the structure (Phase IV), but
the site chronology suggests that they are not the latest
murals at Mayapan (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:Table 1).
Although murals in Structure Q.80 have been known for
more than 50 years, their relationship to Mixteca-Puebla
4
Milbrath
Venus imagery has only recently been recognized
(Milbrath and Peraza 2003:19, 26). The five temples
represented in the murals may relate to the Venus cycle,
for there is one temple for each of the five synodic cycles
in the Venus almanac of eight solar years (Milbrath
1999:158-159). The five niches forming the entryway
to the temples were clearly intended for offerings, and
these offerings were probably made in accord with the
five divisions of the Venus almanac.
The five temples represented in the Mayapan mural
may relate to five serpent temples known from the central
area of Mayapan (Pugh 2001; Delgado 2004:123-129).
These buildings are the Castillo (Q.162), the Crematory
(Q.58), and Structures Q.143, Q.159, and Q.218. Timothy
Pugh (2001:255) notes that the Castillo, the largest of
these serpent temples, is positioned in the center of a
cosmic diagram marking five world directions. The
Castillo as the center point may have been the site of
calendar festivals related to the five Venus cycles in the
eight-year Venus almanac.
Mayapan’s Castillo is a copy of the Castillo of
Chichen Itza, an earlier structure known to have a
number of astronomical alignments (Aveni et al. 2004;
Milbrath 1999:66-68, Figure 3.1b; Milbrath and Peraza
2003:22, 38). Friar Diego de Landa clearly links Chichen
Itza’s Castillo to the Maya god of the feathered serpent,
known as Kukulcan, and he notes that the cult of
Kukulcan was brought from Chichen Itza to Mayapan
(Tozzer 1941:20-25). Kukulcan is the Maya counterpart of
Quetzalcoatl, a culture hero who was transformed into
the Morning Star according to the Anales de Cuauhtitlán
(Milbrath 1999:177). The religious cult of Quetzalcoatl
was introduced in Yucatan in conjunction with trade
from Central Mexico (Miller 1983:8-9; Ringle et al. 1998).
In the case of Mayapan, the cult seems to make its first
Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals

Figure 5. Structure Q.80 with five serpent temples (Barerra and Peraza 2001:Plate 5).

appearance in serpent temples that range in date from 1325/1350 to 1400,

according to our study of the sequence of architecture at the site (Milbrath
and Peraza 2003:Table 1). The four serpents in between the five temples
in the Q.80 murals may be intended to represent serpent balustrades like
those on the Castillo, and they certainly symbolize a link with the cult of
Quetzalcoatl.
Although the serpent temples in the Q.80 mural are all similar in
form, they are slightly different in detail, suggesting their iconographic
variations may be significant (Figure 5). The one on the left has death
spots on a white ground comparable to one of the diving figures on Q.161
(Figure 2), possibly also related to an underworld band seen beneath a
temple on Codex Nuttall 15 (Figure 6). Another has a step fret like that
seen at the base of this temple. These may be symbolic components linked
in some way Venus imagery.
The five niches in Q.80 have vertical columns of dots, varying in
number from six to eight, painted either solid red or blue. This intriguing
detail may be a Central Mexican or Mixtec calendar inscription.
The variation in numbers could represent the number of days in the
disappearance interval for Venus in inferior conjunction (Aveni, personal
communication 2007). The Maya bar-dot combination is lacking, but the
alternation of red and blue color for the dots in the interior of the niches
is similar to the alternation of red and black numbers in Maya codices
(Delgado 2009:158).
All five temples apparently had symbols for jade or “precious stone”
(chalchihuitl) painted on the upper walls (Figure 5). According to Tatiana
Proskouriakoff’s 1962 reconstruction of the mural, these symbols were
also found on the roof (see Milbrath and Peraza 2003:Figure 23). The
Mixteca-Puebla symbol for jade on the five temples can be compared to
a similar symbol on a skyband in Structure 16 at Tulum (Mural 3), where
an astronomical context is clearly evident (Barrera and Peraza 2001;
Milbrath and Peraza 2003:27; Miller 1982:Plate 39). A chalchihuitl symbol
is also prominent on the roof of Quetzalcoatl’s temple on Codex Nuttall
15 (Figure 6). A Mixteca-Puebla image of the feathered serpent wraps
around the temple in the Codex Nuttall image. Alfonso Caso (1979, I:56) Figure 6. Detail of Codex Nuttall 15
had designated the Codex Nuttall temple as Quetzalcoatl’s Temple of (Nuttall 1975:15).

5
 Milbrath

Figure 7. Mural from Structure Q.95 showing Quetzalcoatl, the Chicchan Serpent, and a bound crocodile. (The image is oriented to
represent the viewpoint from the entry to the chamber, as seen in Figure 9.) Drawing by Barbara Escamilla Ojeda.

Figure 8. Chicchan serpents in Madrid Codex 11-14 (Milbrath 1999:Cover).

6
Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals
Figure 9. Mural in Structure Q.95 (photo by Susan Milbrath).
Turquoise in Acatlan, Puebla, but more recently it has
been identified as the round “wind temple” of the Place
of the Red and White Bundle, located in the Mixteca
Alta of Oaxaca (Byland and Pohl 1994:76-80, Figure 30).
In any case, the Codex Nuttall temple houses the sacred
bundle of the culture hero Nine Wind, indicating a link
with the Venus cult associated with Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl.
Quetzalcoatl is a paramount deity in the Venus complex
(Milbrath 1999:177-186).
Astronomical Symbolism in the Templo del Pescador
A Mixteca-Puebla style mural discovered by the INAH
project in Structure Q.95 is known as the Templo del
Pescador (Peraza et al. 2001:286-287; Peraza et al.
2003:47-55) (Figures 7, 9). The scene shows a marine
setting with waves, three triggerfish, and a crocodilian
that is probably Morelet’s crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii),
well known in mangroves along the coast of Yucatan.
The mural also depicts an elaborately dressed male who
apparently has speared two of the fish and the crocodile
(Barrera and Peraza 2001:Figure 31, Pl. 32).
The Templo del Pescador mural is rendered with the
small color cells outlined in black, like Mixteca-Puebla
style murals and Mayapan’s Templo de los Nichos
Pintados (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:29) (Figure 5). The
Templo del Pescador also has ties to early murals from
Tulum, especially the substructure of Tulum’s Castillo
(Structure 1), a relatively early mural that depicts a
“ring-tailed fish” and a crocodile amid undulating
waves similar to those in the Mayapan mural (Barrera
and Peraza 2001:443, Figure 33; Miller 1982:Pls. 13, 14).
Although this iconographic comparison could suggest
that the Mayapan mural is as early as the substructure
of Tulum’s Castillo, the dense polychrome cells more
closely resemble the style of Mural 10 in Structure 16,
tentatively dated between 1300 and 1450 (Milbrath and
Peraza 2003:27-28; Staines 1995:61).
A number of scholars link the anthropomorphic
deity in the Structure Q.95 mural with Quetzalcoatl
(Masson and Peraza 2007:82; Stuart 2005:179). Careful
study of the costume on the Mayapan figure suggests
that chalchihuitl symbols are painted on the loincloth
(Delgado 2009:197). This symbol is also found in the
context of Venus imagery in Structure Q.80 and in the
Codex Nuttall (Nuttall 1975:15, 17). The shell worn by
the male figure in Q.95 seems to be an Oliva, suggested
by the markings at the ends and the crenellations along
the lateral opening. In the Dresden Codex 4a, the same
shell is used in a necklace worn by God H, considered to
be a manifestation of Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan (Milbrath
1999:Figure 5.4a; Taube 1992:59-60, Figure 27a). A
similar shell is devoured by a fish in the lower mural of
Tulum Structure 5 (Miller 1982:Pl. 28). This type of shell
also appears with chalchihuitl symbols in the skyband
of Mural 3 in Structure 16 at Tulum, suggesting it is a
celestial symbol in some contexts (Miller 1982:Pl. 39).
Equally intriguing in terms of celestial counterparts
is the fish-snake in Q.95, which is closely related to the
Chicchan serpent in the Madrid Codex (Milbrath and
Peraza 2003:28) (Figures 7–8). Both display body stripes
with paired parallel lines and serpent spots like the
day sign Chicchan (“celestial snake”). These symbols
have also been compared to the Mexican symbol for
chalchihuitl seen in the Templo de los Nichos Pintados
(Q.80; Barrera and Peraza 2001:430). The Madrid Codex
imagery suggests a link between rain, serpents, and
Venus imagery (Milbrath 1999:261). Chicchan serpents
are rain serpents associated with the cardinal directions
among the Chorti, and they may also be linked with
Venus (Milbrath 1999:36).5
The crocodile in the Templo del Pescador has its
front feet bound by ropes like the crocodiles on the
5
The Mayapán mural may show the serpent with a fish tail, or
perhaps a flower, if Karl Taube (2007) is correct in relating it to a
pattern linking the feathered serpent and flowers.
7

Figure 10. Paris Codex 6 Katun pages (Villacorta and Villacorta 1976).
Paris Codex katun pages (Milbrath and Peraza 2003:28)
(Figure 10). A bound crocodile serves as a throne on all
of the surviving katun pages of the Paris Codex (Love
1994:18). The bound crocodile in the Q.95 mural relates
to both Postclassic katun ceremonies in the codices and
possibly also to cosmological events described in the
books of Chilam Balam. Maya accounts of the flood say
that a cosmic crocodile (Itzam Cab Ain) was decapitated
or dismembered. The Pérez Codex notes that Bolon ti
Ku cut the throat of the crocodile just after the flood
(Velásquez 2006:6-8). The Chilam Balam of Tizimin
says that Itzam Cab Ain (the earth monster) ended
8
Milbrath
the Katun 13 Ahau with a flood, after which his throat
was cut when the “word of the katun” came to an end
(Edmonson 1982:41). This account and a similar one in
the Chilam Balam of Mani both place the flood event in
Katun 13 Ahau, the last in the katun cycle, linking the
decapitated crocodile to the concept of completion and
renewal, when the world was restored and the katun
cycle reestablished (Taube 1989:9).
Following up on an interpretation of the Mayapan
mural published by David Stuart (2005), Gabrielle Vail
(2006) suggests that the mural refers to the epic flood
associated with a cosmic crocodile. She notes that
instead of the Maya image of the great flood alluding
to the decapitation of the crocodile, the Mayapan image
evokes Central Mexican imagery, with the crocodile
speared by Quetzalcoatl. Vail relates the destruction of
the earth in the form of a crocodile or caiman to a Venus
heliacal rise event, with the Venus god hurling his dart
into the water, as seen in the Venus almanac on Codex
Borgia 53.
Concluding Remarks
Studying the imagery in Mayapan’s murals seems to
indicate changes in cosmological themes over time. Of
the three murals discussed here, the earliest may be the
“flood” scene preserved in the Templo del Pescador
mural (Q.95). Here Maya imagery predominates, but
the mural also incorporates the paramount Central
Mexican Venus god, Quetzalcoatl. The imagery alludes
to creation cosmology in relation to the Maya katun
cycle, for ceremonies of world renewal are implicit in the
cycle of katuns. The intrusive element seems to be Venus
symbolism linked with Quetzalcoatl. A similar fusion
is seen in the context of Venus imagery in the Maya
Dresden Codex (46-50), which depicts three Central
Mexican deities among the five Venus gods in the Venus
almanac (Milbrath 1999:173-174; Taube 1992). Glyphic
texts on page 60 of the Dresden Codex refer to Katun
11 Ahau, the first katun in a cycle of 13 katuns that ends
on Katun 13 Ahau (Thompson 1972:78-79). The scene
on page 60 represents a Maya Venus god (God L), the
same god associated with the heliacal rise of Venus on
Dresden 46 in the Venus almanac (Milbrath 1999:173).
Painted around the end of the tenth baktun in 1224, the
Dresden Codex provides a bridge between the Classic-
period calendar with its emphasis on Ahau dates as
katun endings and the Postclassic Venus calendar with
its focus on Ahau dates as heliacal rise events (Milbrath
2008). The Q.95 mural represents a similar fusion of
katun imagery associated with katun endings and the
Postclassic Venus almanac, suggesting a calendar reform
was in progress at Mayapan by around 1350-1400.
Around this time or shortly thereafter, a fully
developed Mixteca-Puebla Venus cult appears in the
Temple of the Niches (Q.80), which shows a number of
features that are comparable to the Codex Nuttall and
Religious Imagery in Mayapan’s Murals
the East Coast International Style. Feathered serpents
are flanked by five Venus temples that may represent
the five Venus cycles of the eight-year Venus almanac.
Still later, solar imagery seems increasingly important in
relation to the eight-year Venus almanac, as seen in the
eight solar disks represented in the Sala de los Símbolos
Solares (Q.161). These murals were inspired by contact
with the area of Central Mexico and reflect an increasing
emphasis on solar imagery that may be part of religious
reforms introduced around 1400 to 1450 at Mayapan.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Gabrielle Vail and Leonardo
López Luján for reading and commenting on earlier
drafts of this paper. Thanks also to the entire INAH team
at Mayapan, whose work have made this publication
possible.
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Glyph F of the Supplementary Series:
Ti’ Hu’n, Mouth of the Book
SCOTT A. J. JOHNSON
Tulane University
TI’
HUN
na
Fx F1 F2
Figure 1. Common Glyph F variants (redrawn from Calvin 2004).
Glyph F appears as a regular part of the Supplementary
Series that has long been known to define the role of
the Lord of the Night. Although it has been discussed
by a number of scholars, there has been no agreed-upon
reading or interpretation of this glyph block. Many
interpretations are based on inferred semantic meanings,
totally divorced from phonetic readings. Others utilize
the phonetic values of the signs but the readings do not
make semantic sense. This article will briefly describe
Glyph F and its variants. A database of dates with Glyph
F variants is statistically examined for variation over
time and space. The previous interpretations which are
most often used today are examined critically before
a new interpretation based on phonetic readings and
logical context is given.
Glyph F Background
Glyph F is a regular, yet unexplained, part of the
Supplementary Series. Although sometimes omitted, it
is usually present either directly following or conflated
with Glyph G. The superfix and subfix are constant,
while the main sign can vary or even be left out when
conflated with Glyph G. The superfix (T128) consists of
three elements in a line, illustrated in Figure 1. The left-
most segment is “leaf-like,” often with three diagonal
dots (Thompson 1960:212). The center element is either
two or three dots in a vertical line or a wavy, pointed
element, much like the ya (T126) central element. The
right part also looks like the curved loop of the ya
syllabic sign. These elements together are read TI’
(and appear to be a representation of a rare full-figured
head variant), known through a substitution with ti-
’i on the La Esperanza ball court marker, meaning
“mouth,” “lips,” “opening,” or “edge” (Stuart 1998,
personal communication 2009; Stuart et al. 1999:II-38;
Zender 2004:212-213). The subfix is a syllabic na (T23)
and almost always present. When Glyph F is combined
into a single block with Glyph G, the main signs are
The PARI Journal 10(3):11-19.
TI’ TI’ TI’ TI’
HUN hu HUN HUN
na na
na na
F3 F4 F5
frequently conflated (Figure 2a–b), or Glyph F’s main
sign can be entirely suppressed leaving only the TI’ and
na (Figure 2c).
The variable main sign can take at least five forms,
all illustrated in Figure 1. The most common is the HUN
logogram (T60) shaped like a knotted cord or cloth. This
is called the “normal form of Glyph F of Lunar Series”
by Thompson (1962:46) and will be referred to as F1. The
next-most-common element is a head-variant with a
barbel emanating from its mouth, a squarish drop-pupil,
fish- or foliage-like protuberances, and a “shiny” sign
on top; the reading of this must also be HUN from its
context. This will be called F2. A third main-sign variant,
F3, is the upended frog head lacking dots across the top
(T740), giving the syllable hu; long known to be a Glyph
F variant (Thompson 1962:320). The fourth version, F4,
is a jaguar-pelt-bound codex (T609b; compare to the
codex of the rabbit scribe on the Princeton Pot), which
must read HUN. This is not to be confused with the
similar jaguar-pelt-covered diadem or cushion (T609a)
differentiated with the po/TZ’AM dimple. A final
variant is a square sign with dots falling from a small
“T”-shaped element and two spikes coming in from
either side (T522), also given as HUN, here referred to
as F5. Thompson (1962:126) notes that this sign “occurs
only in [the] Chiapas area, at Tikal, and [in the] Codex
Paris.” From the HUN-(na) and hu-n(a) transliterations
above, a reading of hun can be suggested, discussed at
A B C
Figure 2. Common Glyph G and F conflations, Lord of the Night
components shaded (redrawn from Calvin 2004).
11
 Johnson

Glyph F Data Row Proportions

by Site F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

COB 3 0 0 0 0 3 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%

CPN 2 0 0 1 0 3 67% 0% 0% 33% 0% 100%
ITB 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
NAR 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
PAL 4 1 3 0 0 8 50% 13% 38% 0% 0% 100%
PNG 9 6 0 0 1 16 56% 38% 0% 0% 6% 100%
PUS 3 0 0 0 0 3 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
QRG 0 2 0 0 0 2 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100%
TIK 4 0 0 0 0 4 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
TNA 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
UAX 2 0 1 0 0 3 67% 0% 33% 0% 0% 100%
YAX 3 1 4 0 0 8 38% 13% 50% 0% 0% 100%

Total 36 10 8 1 1 56 64% 18% 14% 2% 2% 100%

Period F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

EC 12 0 1 0 0 13 92% 0% 8% 0% 0% 100%
LC 21 4 7 1 1 34 62% 12% 21% 3% 3% 100%

Total 33 4 8 1 1 46 72% 9% 9% 2% 2% 100%

Glyph G F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

G1 2 3 0 0 0 5 40% 60% 0% 0% 0% 100%
G2 0 0 4 0 0 4 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 100%
G3 1 0 0 0 0 1 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
G4 4 1 0 0 0 5 80% 20% 0% 0% 0% 100%
G5 2 0 0 0 0 2 100% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100%
G6 0 1 0 0 0 1 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100%
G7 3 1 1 0 1 6 50% 17% 17% 0% 17% 100%
G8 6 1 0 0 0 7 86% 14% 0% 0% 0% 100%
G9 24 4 2 1 0 31 77% 13% 6% 3% 0% 100%

Total 42 11 7 1 1 62 68% 18% 11% 2% 2% 100%

Conflation F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total

Conflated 12 2 2 1 0 17 71% 12% 12% 6% 0% 100%

Not Confl. 29 9 5 0 1 44 66% 20% 11% 0% 2% 100%
Total 41 11 7 1 1 61 67% 18% 11% 2% 2% 100%

Table 1. Frequency and row proportions of Glyph F variants and various comparisons (site codes per Graham and Mathews 1999).

length below (possibly huun or hu’n, as per Houston et
al. 2004 or Lacadena and Wichmann 2004 respectively).
Collected Data
The data collected for this study were primarily drawn
from the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions
(Graham 1975-present) and Morley’s (1937) Inscriptions
of Peten, supplemented by various readers and informal
collections of inscriptions. Each inscription was recorded,
noting the Long Count, Tzolk’in, Haab, Glyph G, Glyph
F (labeled according to the divisions in Figure 1), Glyph
G and F conflation, and the presence or absence of a
syllabic u- Glyph F prefix. Impossible long count and
calendar round combinations were noted. Complete
dates were not needed for all of the analyses, as long
as Glyphs G and F were legible. In total, 64 inscriptions
were compiled into a small database, shown in Table 1.
Correspondences between Glyph F variants and site,
chronological period, Glyph G, or likelihood of conflation
were examined. A further correspondence between sites
and Glyphs G and F conflation was explored.

12
 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series Canter and Pentecost
Glyph
GlyphFGlyph
FofGlyph
Glyph of
Glyph the FSupplementary
FGlyph
of
the
F the
ofSupplementary
GlyphofSupplementary
Glyph
Fthe
FtheFof
of
Glyph Fthe
ofthe
the Fof the Series
SupplementarySeries
Series
Supplementary
Supplementary
Supplementary
Supplementary
Supplementary
Glyph Fofofthe
the Series Series
Series
Series
Series
Supplementary
Series
Supplementary Series
Series

Site
Site
Site Site
Site Inscription
Inscription
Site
Site Inscription
SiteSite Inscription
Inscription
Inscription
Inscription
Site Day
Day
Inscription
Inscription No.
Day
InscriptionNo.
DayDayBa.
No. Ba.
Day
No. Ba.
No.
Day
Day Day Ka.
No.
Ba.
No.
No.
Ba.
Day Ka.
Ba. Ka.
No.
Ba.
Ba.
No. Ba. Tu.
Ka.
Ka.
Ba. Tu.
Ka. Tu.
Ka.
Ka. Ka. Wi.
Tu.
Tu.
Ka. Wi.
Tu. Wi.
Tu.
Tu. Tu. Ki.
Wi.
Wi. Ki.
Wi.
Tu. Ki. Ki.
Wi.
Wi. Wi. Tzolkin
Ki.
Wi. Tzolkin
Ki. Tzolkin
Ki.
Ki. Ki. Haab
Haab
Tzolkin Haab
Tzolkin
Tzolkin
Tzolkin
Tzolkin
Ki. Haab Haab
Tzolkin
Haab Haab
Tzolkin Haab
Haab G
G
G G
Haab
Haab G
G F F
G G F G F G
G Confl
F Confl
Confl
F F F F +u
+u
Confl +u+uConfl
Confl
Confl
Confl +u +u+u+u +u+u
Site Site
Inscription InscriptionDay NumberDay No. Ba.
Baktun Ka.
K’atun Tuun Tu. Winal Wi.
K’in Ki.
Tzolkin Tzolkin
Haab F F G Confl Confl
F +u Confl
Confl +u
CNC
CNC
CNC CNC
CNC STL
STL
CNC
CNC
CNC 18
STL
CNC 18
STLCNC18STL
STL
CNC STL
18 18
STL
1818STL 1368000
18
STL1368000
STL 1368000
1818 91368000
136800091368000
1368000
1368000
18 910
9 1368000
10
9 910
91368000
1368000 9 109109910010
0100 10
010 0 0000 0 00 000000 0 00 01010Ajaw
10 0Ajaw
10Ajaw 80181Kayab
010Ajaw
1 Ajaw Kayab
18Ajaw
Ajaw Kayab
81Kayab
Ajaw 18Ajaw
Kayab
8Ajaw
1Ajaw 8Kayab 9Kayab
8 8Kayab
Kayab
8Kayab 9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
8Kayab
COB
COB
COB COB
COB STL
COBSTL
COB
COB 1STL
STL
COB 1COB1 STL
STL
COB 1STL 1 1STL
1STL 1275480
STL275480
STL 275480
1 11275480 1275480
275480 1275480
275480 118
1 27548018
1 118
1275480
275480 1 181181118518
5185 18
518 5 4545 54 45 5450404 40 04 401410Ajaw
18 0Ajaw
10Ajaw 13
1 Ajaw 0113
010Ajaw 1Mak
13
1AjawMak
Mak
Ajaw
Ajaw
131 113 13
Ajaw
1Mak Mak
Ajaw Mak
1313
Ajaw 1313
Mak
Mak 8
8
Mak
13 8 8 8 1
Mak
Mak 8 1
8 8 1 8 Confl
1 1 8 8 1 Confl
Confl
1 1 1 1
Confl
Confl Confl
1 Confl Confl
Confl
Confl
Confl
COB
COB
COB COB
COB STL
STL
COB
COB
COB 20
STL
COB 20
STLCOB20STL
STL
COB STL
20 20
STL
2020STL 1422000
20
STL1422000
STL 1422000
2020 91422000
142200091422000
1422000
1422000
20 917
9 1422000
17
9 917
91422000
1422000 9 17917910 10
917 10 10
1717 1717
10
1710010
0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 012
10 0 0Ajaw
012 12
Ajaw
0 12 08012
Ajaw
012
Ajaw Pax
812Pax
Ajaw8 Ajaw
12 Pax
Ajaw 12
8Ajaw812
Pax
12 Ajaw
Pax
8Ajaw8Pax
8Ajaw
Pax Pax8 8Pax9Pax
9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
8Pax
COB
COB
COB COB
COB STL
STL
COB
COB
COB 6STL
STL
COB 6COB6 STL
STL
COB 6STL 6 6STL
6STL 61364400
STL1364400
STL 1364400
6 661364400 91364400
136440091364400
1364400 9 9999 9 99 910
9 1364400
91364400
1364400 910
9 910
9 10910 010
9910 0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 02020Ajaw
10 0Ajaw
20Ajaw 13
2 Ajaw 0213
020Ajaw 2Pohp
13
2AjawPohp
Pohp
Ajaw
Ajaw
132 213
Ajaw13
2Pohp
AjawPohp
1313
Ajaw Pohp1313
Pohp
Pohp 99Pohp
Pohp
13 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
Pohp
CPN
CPN
CPN CPN
CPN STL
CPNSTL
CPN
CPN 6STL
STL
CPN 6CPN6 STL
STL
CPN 6STL 6 6STL
6STL 6STL
STL 6 66 88 8 X 8 81212
8 812
8 12812810 10
812 10 10
1212 1212
10
1210010
0100 10
0100 0 0 0 0 08*
10 08*8* 8*8*18 18
8* Sotz’*
18
8*8* Sotz’*
Sotz’*
188*8*
18 18 Sotz’*
1818
Sotz’*
8* 1818
Sotz’*
Sotz’*
Sotz’* 99Sotz’*
Sotz’*
18 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
Sotz’*
CPN
CPN
CPN CPN
CPN STL
CPNSTL
CPN
CPN 63
STL
CPN 63
STLCPN63STL
STL
CPN STL
63 63
STL
6363STL 1296000
63
STL1296000
STL 1296000
636363 91296000
129600091296000
1296000
1296000 9 0909 90 09 9090000 0 00 000000 0 00 000000 0 00 08080Ajaw
9 1296000
91296000
1296000 0Ajaw
80Ajaw 13
8 Ajaw 0813
080Ajaw 8Keh
13
8AjawKeh
Keh
Ajaw
Ajaw
138 813 13
Ajaw
8Keh Keh
Ajaw Keh
1313
Ajaw 1313
Keh
Keh 9
9
Keh
13 9 9 9 1
Keh
Keh 9 1
9 9 1 9 Confl
1 1 9 9 1 Confl
Confl
1 1 1 1
Confl Confl
Confl
Confl
1 Confl
Confl Confl
Confl
CPN
CPN
CPN CPN
CPN STL
CPNSTL
CPN
CPN DSTL
STL
CPN DCPND STL
STL
CPN DSTL DSTL
DD STLD1405800
STL1405800
STL 1405800
DDD 91405800
140580091405800
1405800
1405800 915
9 1405800
15
9 915
91405800
1405800 9 159159915515
5155 15
515 5 0505 50 05 5050000 0 00 010
15 0 0Ajaw
010 10
Ajaw
0 10 08010
Ajaw
010
Ajaw Ch’en
810Ch’en
Ajaw8 Ajaw
10 Ch’en
Ajaw 10
8Ajaw810 8Ajaw
Ajaw
Ch’en
10 8Ajaw
Ch’en 8 Ch’en 9 9 9 9 4
9
8 8 Ch’en
Ch’en
Ch’en Ch’en
8Ch’en 9 4
9 9 4 9 Confl
4 4 9 9 4 Confl
Confl
4 4 4 4
Confl
Confl Confl
4 Confl Confl
Confl
Confl
Confl
DPL
DPL
DPL DPL
DPL STL
STL
DPL
DPL
DPL 8STL
STL
DPL 8DPL8 STL
STL
DPL 8STL 8 8STL
8STL 81384871
STL1384871
STL 1384871
8 881384871 91384871
138487191384871
1384871 912
9 1384871
12
9 912
91384871
1384871 9 129129912612
6126 12
612 615
12 15
6 615 611
6 15615 11
615 11 11
1515 1515
11
1513*
13*
11 13*13*
1111 1111*13*
13*
11 *13** *13*
13* *13*
13* * * * * **44 4 4 4 1414 41 14 4141 1 1 1 11
CAY
CAY
CAY CAY
CAY CAY
CAY
CAY CAY CAY
CAY X 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 44 4 4 4 2424 42 24 4242 2 2 2 22
Houston
Houston
Houston PNL
PNL
Houston
Houston PNL
Houston
Houston
Houston
Houston PNL PNL
Houston
HoustonPNL
PNL PNLPNL 1319004
PNL1319004
PNL 1319004 91319004
131900491319004
1319004
1319004 9 3939 93 39 9393333 3 33 316
9 1319004
91319004
1319004 316
3 316
3 16316
3316416
4164 16
4164334K’an
16 4K’an
34K’an 24323Mak
434K’an
3 K’an Mak
32K’an
K’an Mak
23Mak
K’an 32K’an
Mak
2K’an
3K’an 2Mak
2Mak Mak2 2Mak9Mak
9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
2Mak
ITB
ITB
ITB ITB
ITB STL
ITBSTL
ITB
ITB 2STL
STL
ITB 2ITB2 STL
STL
ITB 2STL 2 2STL
2STL 21407600
STL1407600
STL 1407600
2 221407600 91407600
140760091407600
1407600 915
9 1407600
15
9 915
91407600
1407600 9 15915910 10
915 10 10
1515 1515
10
1510010
0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 03030Ajaw
10 0Ajaw
30Ajaw 30333Mol
030Ajaw
3 Ajaw Mol Mol
3Ajaw
Ajaw 33Mol
Ajaw 3Ajaw 3Ajaw
3Mol
Mol
3Ajaw 3 Mol 9
3 3 Mol
Mol 9 9 9 1
9
Mol
3Mol 9 1
9 9 1 9 Confl
1 1 9 9 1 Confl
Confl
1 1 1 1
Confl
Confl Confl
1 Confl Confl
Confl
Confl
Confl
ITB
ITB
ITB ITB
ITB STL
ITBSTL
ITB
ITB 5STL
STL
ITB 5ITB5 STL
STL
ITB 5STL 5 5STL
5STL 51404000
STL1404000
STL 1404000
5 551404000 91404000
140400091404000
1404000 915
9 1404000
15
9 915
91404000
1404000 9 159159915015
0150 15
015 0 0000 0 00 000000 0 00 04040Ajaw
15 0Ajaw
40Ajaw 13
4 Ajaw 0413
040Ajaw Yax
413
4AjawYax
Yax
Ajaw
Ajaw
134 413 13
Ajaw
Yax 1313
Yax
4Ajaw
Ajaw Yax
Yax 1313
Yax 9 9
Yax
13 9 9 9 1
Yax
Yax 9 1
9 9 1 9 Confl
1 1 9 9 1 Confl
Confl
1 1 1 1
Confl
Confl Confl
1 Confl Confl
Confl
Confl
Confl
IXK
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9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
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15 Ajaw
0 0Ajaw 0Ajaw
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Ajaw 99 9 9 9 2929 92 29 9292 2 2 2 22+u +u+u+u+u+u+u+u +u+u
+u
PUS
PUS
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9 1346400
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070Ajaw
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9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
3 3K’ank’in
3K’ank’in
K’ank’in
3K’ank’in
3Ajaw 3K’ank’in
PUS
PUS
PUS PUS
PUS STL
PUSSTL
PUS
PUS PSTL
STL
PUSP PUSP STL
STL
PUS PSTLPSTLPP STLP1346400
STL1346400
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9 1346400
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070Ajaw
7 Ajaw K’ank’in
73Ajaw
Ajaw K’ank’in
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7Ajaw 9K’ank’in
9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
3 3K’ank’in
3K’ank’in
K’ank’in
3K’ank’in
3Ajaw 3K’ank’in
PUS
PUS
PUS PUS
PUS STL
STL
PUS
PUS
PUS PSTL
STL
PUSP PUSP STL
STL
PUS PSTLPSTLPP STLP1373400
STL1373400
STL 1373400
PPP 91373400
137340091373400
1373400
1373400 910
9 1373400
10
9 910
91373400
1373400 9 10910915
91015 15 15
1010 1010
15
1015015
0150 15
0150 0000 0 00 06060Ajaw
15 0Ajaw
60Ajaw 13
6 Ajaw0613
060Ajaw 6Mak
13
6AjawMakMak
Ajaw
Ajaw
136 613
Ajaw13
6Mak
AjawMak
1313
Ajaw Mak 1313
Mak
Mak 99Mak
Mak
13 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
Mak
QRG
QRG
QRG QRG
QRG STL
QRGSTL
QRG
QRG FSTL
STL
QRGF QRGF STL
STL
QRG FSTLFSTLFF STLF1414800
STL1414800
STL 1414800
FFF 91414800
141480091414800
1414800
1414800 916
9 1414800
16
9 916
91414800
1414800 9 16916910
91610 10 10
1616 1616
10
1610010
0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 01010Ajaw
10 0Ajaw
10Ajaw 30131Zip
010Ajaw
1 Ajaw Zip
13Ajaw
Ajaw Zip
31Zip
Ajaw 3Ajaw
13Ajaw 3Zip
Zip
1Ajaw 3 Zip 9
3 3 Zip
Zip 9 9 9 2
9
Zip
3Zip 9 2
9 9 2 9 confl
2 2 9 9 2 confl
confl
2 2 2 2
confl
confl confl
2 confl confl
confl
confl
confl
QRG
QRG
QRG QRG
QRG STL
STL
QRG
QRG
QRG JSTL
STL
QRGJQRG J STL
STL
QRG JSTLJSTLJ JSTL JSTL
STL J JJ 99 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9955 5 5 514 14
5 514
5 14514
55141414 1414 14 99 9 9 9 2929 92 29 9292 2 2 2 22
SBL
SBL
SBL SBL
SBL TBL
SBLTBL
TBL
SBL
SBL 1TBL
SBL 1SBL
SBL1 TBL
TBL 1TBL 1 1TBL
TBL 1TBL1408940
1408940
1TBL 1408940
1 11408940 91408940
1 1408940 91408940
1408940 915
9 1408940
15
9 915
91408940
1408940 9 15915913
91513 13 13
1515 1515
13
151313
131313 13
1313
1313013
0130 13
0130440Ajaw
13 0Ajaw
40Ajaw 30434Wo
040Ajaw
4 Ajaw Wo
43Ajaw
Ajaw Wo
34Wo
Ajaw 43Ajaw
Wo
4Ajaw 3Wo
3Wo
3Ajaw Wo 3 3Wo 8Wo
3Wo8 8 8 8 1818 81 18 8181 1 1 1 11
TIK
TIK
TIK TIK
TIK STL
TIKSTL
TIK
TIK 1STL
STL
TIK1TIK 1 STL
STL
TIK 1STL1STL1 1STL 11299600
STL1299600
STL 1299600
1 111299600 91299600
129960091299600
1299600 9 0909 90 09 9010
9 1299600
91299600
1299600 9100 010
0 10010 010
0010 0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 07070Ajaw
10 0Ajaw
70Ajaw 30737Yax
070Ajaw
7 Ajaw Yax
73Ajaw
Ajaw Yax
37Yax
Ajaw 73Ajaw
Yax
7Ajaw 3Yax
3Yax
3Ajaw Yax3 3Yax9Yax
9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
3Yax
TIK
TIK
TIK TIK
TIK STL
STL
TIK
TIK
TIK 31
STL
TIK31
STLTIK31STL
STL
TIK STL
31 31
STL3131STL 1299600
31
STL1299600
STL 1299600
3131 91299600
129960091299600
1299600
1299600
31 9 0909 90 09 9010
9 1299600
91299600
1299600 9100 010
0 10010 010
0010 0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 07070Ajaw*
10 0Ajaw*
70Ajaw* 30737Yax*
070Ajaw*
7 Ajaw* Yax*
73Ajaw*
Yax*
37Yax*
Ajaw*
Ajaw* 73Ajaw*
Yax* 3Yax*
3Yax*
3Ajaw*
7Ajaw* 9Yax*
3 3Yax*
Yax* 9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
3Yax*
TNA
TNA
TNA TNA
TNA FRG
FRG
TNA
TNA FRG
TNA 88
TNA
FRG 88
TNA 88FRG
FRG
TNA FRG
88 FRG
8888 FRG
88 88
FRGFRG 8888
88 99 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
TNA
TNA
TNA TNA
TNA MNT
MNT
TNA
TNA MNT
TNA TNA
MNT161
TNA161161
MNT
TNA MNT
MNT161MNT
161 MNT
161 1403572
161
MNT1403572
161
MNT 1403572
161 91403572
1403572
161 91403572
1403572
1403572
161 914
9 1403572
14
9 914
91403572
1403572 9 14914918
91418 18 18
1414 1414
18
141414
18 14 14
1818 1818
14
1812
1412 12 12
1414 1414
12
14512 Eb
512 Eb
5 Eb
12 512 10
512
Eb
12Eb510 Yaxkin
510
5Eb Yaxkin
EbEbYaxkin
105 510
Eb Yaxkin
10
Yaxkin
5Eb Eb1010 1010
Yaxkin
Yaxkin
Yaxkin 4Yaxkin
10 4 4 4 1414 41 14 4141 1 1 1 11
4Yaxkin
Yaxkin
Unprov.
Unprov.
Unprov. TRN
TRN
Unprov.
Unprov. TRN
Unprov.
Unprov.
Unprov.
Unprov. TRN TRN
Unprov.
Unprov.TRN
TRN TRN TRN 1327969
TRN 1327969
TRN 1327969 91327969
132796991327969
1327969
1327969 9 4949 94 49 9498484 48 84 4814
9 1327969
91327969
1327969 414
8 814
8 14814
8814914
9149 14
9149**9 9*9 * 9*9*9*** * ** *** * * * **11 1 1 1 1111 1 11 111 1 1 1 11
14
UAX
UAX
UAX UAX
UAX PLYCHR
PLYCHR
UAX
UAX PLYCHR
UAX UAX
PLYCHR
UAX STR
STR
PLYCHR
UAX PLYCHR STRISTR
PLYCHR
PLYCHR 1044000
IPLYCHR
IPLYCHR
1044000
STR I1044000
STR
PLYCHR STR
STR STR
I1044000 71044000
I1044000
ISTR
I STR 71044000
1044000 7 5757 75 57 7570505 50 05 5050000 0 00 000000 0 00 03030Ajaw*
I7II1044000
71044000
1044000 0Ajaw*
30Ajaw* 18
0318
030Ajaw*
3 Ajaw* 3K’ank’in*
18K’ank’in*
K’ank’in*
3 318
Ajaw*
3Ajaw*
Ajaw*
18 Ajaw*
18 1818
K’ank’in*
1818
3K’ank’in*
Ajaw*
Ajaw* 99K’ank’in*
K’ank’in*
K’ank’in*
K’ank’in*18 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
K’ank’in*
K’ank’in*
UAX
UAX
UAX UAX
UAX STL
STL
UAX
UAX
UAX 18
STL
UAX18
STL
UAX 18STL
STL
UAX STL
18 18
STL1818STL 1267200
18
STL1267200
STL 1267200
1818 81267200
126720081267200
1267200
1267200
18 816
8 1267200
16
8 816
81267200
1267200 8 168168816016
0160 16
016 0 0000 0 00 000000 0 00 03030Ajaw
16 0Ajaw
30Ajaw 80383K’ank’in
030Ajaw
3 Ajaw K’ank’in
38Ajaw
Ajaw K’ank’in
83K’ank’in
Ajaw 38Ajaw
K’ank’in
8Ajaw
3Ajaw 9K’ank’in
9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
8 8K’ank’in
8K’ank’in
K’ank’in
8K’ank’in 8K’ank’in
UAX
UAX
UAX UAX
UAX STL
STL
UAX
UAX
UAX 22
STL
UAX22
STL
UAX 22STL
STL
UAX STL
22 22
STL2222STL 1321200
22
STL1321200
STL 1321200
2222 91321200
132120091321200
1321200
1321200
22 9 3939 93 39 9310
9 1321200
91321200
1321200 9103 310
3 10310 010
3310 0100 10
0100 0000 0 00 01010Ajaw
10 0Ajaw
10Ajaw 80181Mak
010Ajaw
1 Ajaw Mak
18Ajaw
Ajaw Mak
81Mak
Ajaw 18Ajaw
Mak
8Ajaw
1Ajaw 8Mak
8Mak Mak8 8Mak9Mak
9 9 9 9 3939 93 39 9393 3 3 3 33
8Mak
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX Berlin
YAXBerlin
Berlin
YAX
YAX YAX LTL
Berlin
YAX LTLLTL
Berlin
YAX Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
LTL LTL LTL1406421
Berlin1406421
LTLLTL
Berlin 1406421
Berlin LTL 91406421
140642191406421
1406421
1406421
LTL
LTL 915
9 1406421
15
9 915
91406421
1406421 9 159159915615
6156 15
615 613
15 13
6 613
6 13613
6613113
1131 13
1131771Imix
13 1Imix
71Imix 19
7 Imix1719
171Imix 7Sip
19
7ImixSipSip
7 719
Imix
Imix
19 Imix19
7Sip
ImixSip
1919
Imix Sip 1919
Sip
Sip 99Sip
Sip
19 9 9 9 3939 93 39 9393 3 3 3 33
Sip
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX LTL
LTL
YAX
YAX
YAX 21
LTL 21
YAX
LTL
YAX 21LTL
LTL
YAX 21 21
LTL LTL2121LTL
211302884
LTL1302884
LTL 1302884
2121 91302884
130288491302884
1302884
1302884
21 9 0909 90 09 9019
9 1302884
91302884
1302884 9190 019
0 19019 219
0019 2192 19
2192 4242 24 42 242224K’an
19 4K’an
24K’an 24222Yax
424K’an
2 K’an Yax Yax
2K’an
K’an 22Yax
K’an 2K’an 2K’an
2Yax
2Yax
K’an 2 Yax
Yax 8
2 2 Yax 8 8 8 1
8
Yax
2Yax 8 1
8 8 1 8 confl
1 1 8 8 1 confl
confl
1 1 1 1
confl
1 confl
confl confl
confl
confl confl
confl
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX LTL
LTL
YAX
YAX
YAX 26
LTL 26
YAX
LTL
YAX 26LTL
LTL
YAX 26 26
LTL LTL2626LTL
26
LTLLTL 262626 99 9 X 9 91414
9 914
9 1491499141414 1414 14131313 1313131313 1313 13 13 13Yaxkin
13Yaxkin
Yaxkin
13 13 Yaxkin
13
Yaxkin1313 1313
Yaxkin
Yaxkin
Yaxkin 13 Yaxkin 33 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 33
Yaxkin
Yaxkin
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX LTL
LTL
YAX
YAX
YAX 29
LTL 29
YAX
LTL
YAX 29LTL
LTL
YAX 29 29
LTL LTL2929LTL
291395970
LTL1395970
LTL 1395970
292929 91395970
139597091395970
1395970
1395970 913
9 1395970
13
9 913
91395970
1395970 9 13913917
91317 17 17
1313 1313
17
131212
17 12 12
1717 1717
12
1710
1210 10 10
1212 1212
10
12810 Ox
810 Ox
8 Ox
10 810 13
810
Ox
10Ox813 Yax
813
8Ox Yax
OxOxYax
138 813
Ox
Yax
8Ox Yax
13
Ox1313
Yax 1313
Yax
Yax 7Yax
13 7Yax
Yax 7 7 7 3737 73 37 7373 3 3 3 33+u +u+u+u+u+u+u+u +u+u
+u
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX LTL
LTL
YAX
YAX
YAX 48
LTL 48
YAX
LTL
YAX 48LTL
LTL
YAX 48 48
LTL LTL4848LTL
481328936
LTL1328936
LTL 1328936
4848 91328936
132893691328936
1328936
1328936
48 9 4949 94 49 9411
9 1328936
91328936
1328936 9114 411 811
4 114114411 8118 11
811816
11 16
8 816 82816
8 16816 Kib
216 Kib
2 Kib
16 216 19
216
Kib
16 219
Kib 2Pax
19
2Kib PaxPax
Kib
Kib192 219
Kib 19
2Pax
Kib Pax
1919
Kib Pax 1919
Pax
Pax 55Pax
Pax
19 5 5 5 1515 51 15 5151 1 1 1 11
Pax
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX STL
STL
YAX
YAX
YAX 11
STL
YAX11
STL
YAX 11STL
STL
YAX STL
11 11
STL1111STL 1411560
11
STL1411560
STL 1411560
1111 91411560
141156091411560
1411560
1411560
11 916
9 1411560
16
9 916
91411560
1411560 9 169169916116
1161 16
116 1 0101 10 01 1010000 0 00 011
16 0 0Ajaw
011 11
Ajaw
0 11 08011
Ajaw
011
Ajaw Sek
811Sek
Ajaw8Ajaw
11
AjawSek11
8Ajaw811
Sek
11 Ajaw
Sek
8Ajaw8Sek
8Ajaw
Sek Sek8 8Sek9Sek
9 9 9 9 1919 91 19 9191 1 1 1 11
8Sek
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX STL
YAXSTL
YAX
YAX 6STL
STL
YAX6YAX 6 STL
STL
YAX 6STL6STL6 6STL 61184613
STL1184613
STL 1184613
6 661184613 81184613
118461381184613
1184613 8 4848 84 48 8410
8 1184613
81184613
1184613 8104 410
4 1041041010
410 1010
1010 10 1013
1013 13 13
1010 1010
13
10513 Ben
513 Ben
5 Ben
13 513 11
513
Ben
13 511
Ben Ch’en
511
5Ben Ch’en
Ch’en
Ben
Ben115 511
Ben Ch’en
11
Ch’en
5Ben 1111
Ben 1111
Ch’en
Ch’en
Ch’en 6Ch’en
Ch’en
11 6 6 6 2626 62 26 6262 2 2 2 22+u
6Ch’en +u+u+u+u+u+u+u +u+u
+u
YAX
YAX
YAX YAX
YAX STR
STR
STR
YAX
YAX
YAX 44
YAX
STR44
YAX 44STR
STR
YAX STR
44 STR
4444 STR
44 1385561
44
STR1385561
STR 1385561
4444 91385561
441385561 91385561
1385561
1385561 912
9 1385561
12
9 912
91385561
1385561 9 129129912812
8128 12
812 814
12 14
8 814
8 14814
8814114
1141 14
114112
14 1 1Imix
12 12
Imix
1 12 14112
Imix
112
Imix Pohp
4Imix
12Pohp
4Imix
12 Pohp
12
4Imix
Imix 412
Pohp
12 Imix
Pohp
4Imix4Pohp
4Imix
Pohp 2Pohp
4 4Pohp
Pohp 2 2 2 2 3232 23 32 2323 3 3 3 33
4Pohp
Table 2. Collected Data (STL = stela, PNL = panel, LTL = lintel, HRS = hiero. stair, MNT = monument; TBL = tablet; FRG = fragment;
site codes per Graham and Mathews 1999).
14
13
13131313131313 1313
13
13

Results and Analysis
Glyph F varies independently across all sites in this
study. As seen in Table 2, F1 appears at each site in the
database. This is illustrated in Figure 3, showing there
were no sites which show a preference for one particular
variant of Glyph F (excepting Quirigua, which only had
a small sample size of two). A greater sample size would
increase the robustness of this test. In this sample there
is a slight chance this outcome was due to the vagaries
of sampling, and there is only a moderate divergence
from the expected values (χ2 = 57.35; df = 44; p < .09;
Cramer’s V = .51, where 0 is no deviation and 1 is
complete deviation from expected values).
Glyph F variants appear to increase in number
over time. Although dates ranged from the Old Era
(12.10.0.0.0) through 9.17.0.0.0.0, as seen in Table 1, they
were all likely written in the ninth baktun. F1 is the
most popular variant throughout the Classic, but after
9.10.0.0.0 (the Late Classic), a wider variety of Glyph
F variants are used. F1 is used in 92.3 percent of Early
Classic inscriptions (before 9.10.0.0.0; n=12 of 13) but
only 64.7 percent in the Late Classic (after 9.10.0.0.0;
n=21 of 34). There is moderate chance these results were
due to the vagaries of sampling, and results were not as
divergent as they might seem in Figure 3 (χ2 = 4.46; df =
4; p < .4; Cramer’s V = .31).
Although it appears glyphs G9 and F1 are strongly
correlated, analysis showed there was no particular
relationship between any Lord of the Night and Glyph F
variant. The raw data show a large number of G9/F1 co-
occurrences (38 percent), but this is due to the fact that
Glyph F by:
Site
10 25
F1
F2 20
F3
F4 15
F5
10
0 0
TNA
CPN
UAX
PNG
YAX
COB
NAR
QRG
PUS
TIK
PAL
ITB
100%
50%
0%
Figure 3. Graphs of observed frequencies and proportions of Glyph F variants.
14
Johnson
G9 and F1 are the most common variants, comprising 50
and 68 percent of the sample respectively. When shown
proportionally, in Figure 3, it is clear that F1 appears
frequently with most Lords of the Night. A larger sample
of non-G9 inscriptions is needed, but there is only a
small chance that this outcome is due to the vagaries of
sampling, and there is only a moderate divergence from
the expected values (χ2 = 57.51; df = 32; p < .01; Cramer’s
V = .48).
Similarly, F1 appears to be the most commonly
conflated variant, but this again was a result of its
overall popularity. Although F1 is present in 71 percent
of the conflations (n=12 of 17), it is present in 66 percent
of the non-conflated (n=29 of 44) examples as well. This
can be seen graphically in Figure 3, showing that any
Glyph F variant is as likely to be conflated as its overall
likelihood of being used at all. Unfortunately, a larger
sample is needed, as there is a large enough chance that
this outcome is due to the vagaries of sampling, but the
results were close to the expected values (χ2 = 3.84; df =
4; p < .5; Cramer’s V = .24).
Preliminary results suggest Palenque, Quirigua, and
Copan had a higher proportion of conflation of Glyphs
G and F. This is significant in that these three sites are
well known for their artistic flair. On average, only 30
percent of inscriptions at any site are conflated, but
Palenque, Quirigua, and Copan each had significantly
higher percentages of conflation: 78, 67, and 50 percent,
respectively. Even with a small sample size, there is
a very low chance that these results are due to the
vagaries of sampling, and there is a moderate to large
Period: Lord of the Night Conflation
20 30
10 15
0 0
EAR LAT
Confl
Not
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
G7
G8
G9
CLA CLA 100%
50%
0%
 Glyph F of the Supplementary Series

G F Day Number     2 Day Cycle     3 Day Cycle     4 Day Cycle     5 Day Cycle     6 Day Cycle     7 Day Cycle     8 Day Cycle     9 Day Cycle
33 33 31 31 113 13275466.00
275466.00
1275466.00
13 275466.00
31275466.00
275466.00 10 00275466.00
275466.00 1 0 275466.00
13 0275466.00 275466.00
00 00 02002 2200 21021 1120 102010 00120 021202 22012 2 0122 2201 232023 33220 3 23 32 32 32 3 3
88 88 81 81 118 18275480.00
275480.00
1275480.00
18 275480.00
81275480.00
275480.00 10 00275480.00
275480.00 1 02275480.00
18 0275480.00 02 22275480.00
0 2002 0020 0 2000 0020 020202 22002 2 022 220 202020 00220 08208 8802 8 028 802 80 80 8 8
99 99 91 91 119 191044000.00
1044000.00
11044000.00
19 1044000.00
911044000.00
1044000.00 10 001044000.00
1044000.001 0 1044000.00
19 01044000.00 1044000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 06006 6600 60060 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11267200.00 191267200.00
1267200.00
19 1267200.00
911267200.00
1267200.00 10 001267200.00
1267200.001 0 1267200.00
19 01267200.00 1267200.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 04004 4400 4004 0040 0 4000 0040 0 040 004 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191296000.00
1296000.00
11296000.00
19 1296000.00
911296000.00
1296000.00 10 001296000.00
1296000.001 0 1296000.00
19 01296000.00 1296000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 06006 6600 60060 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11299600.00 191299600.00
1299600.00
19 1299600.00
911299600.00
1299600.00 10 001299600.00
1299600.001 0 1299600.00
19 01299600.0000 001299600.00
0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 01001 1100 1001 0010 0 1000 0010 0 010 001 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191299600.00
1299600.00
11299600.00
19 1299600.00
911299600.00
1299600.00 10 001299600.00
1299600.001 0 1299600.00
19 01299600.00 1299600.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 01001 1100 10010 0010 0 1000 0010 0 010 001 0 0 0 0
88 88 81 81 118 181302884.00
1302884.00
11302884.00
18 1302884.00
811302884.00
1302884.00 10 001302884.00
1302884.001 021302884.00
18 01302884.00 1302884.00
02 220 2002 0020 042004 44020 420242 22402 2 4022 2240 242424 44224 48248 8842 8 428 842 84 84 8 8
7*7* 7*7* 1 7*
7* 1 117* 17*
1315982.00
11315982.00
7* 17* 1315982.00
11315982.00
1315982.00 10 001315982.00
1315982.00
1315982.00
1 021315982.00
17* 01315982.00 1315982.00
02 220 2 022 220 2 202 2220 2 222 222 23223 3322 36236 6632 623262 22632 2 632 263 26 26 2 2
99 99 91 91 119 191319004.00
1319004.00
11319004.00
19 1319004.00
911319004.00
1319004.00 10 001319004.00
1319004.001 0 1319004.00
19 01319004.0000 001319004.00
0 00 000 04004 4400 4004 0040 014001 11040 140414 44104 401040 00410 0 410 041 04 04 0 0
88 88 81 81 118 181324692.00
1324692.00
11324692.00
18 1324692.00
811324692.00
1324692.00 10 001324692.00
1324692.001 0 1324692.00
18 01324692.00 1324692.00
00 00 0 00 000 02002 2200 20020 0020 052005 55020 540254 44502 405040 00450 0 450 045 04 04 0 0
11 11 1327969.00 11 111327969.00
1 1 1327969.00
1327969.00 164116 66141 61146 11614 1 6111 1161 1 161 116 1 1
11 1 11 11327969.00 1 11327969.00
11 1327969.00
111327969.00 1327969.00
11327969.00
1327969.00 11 11 1 11 111 14114 4411 4114 1141 1 1
55 55 51 51 115 151328936.00
1328936.00
11328936.00
15 1328936.00
511328936.00
1328936.00 10 001328936.00
1328936.001 021328936.00
15 01328936.00 1328936.00
02 220 2002 0020 012001 11020 120212 22102 201020 00210 0 2100 0021 050205 55002 5 05 50 50 50 5 5
99 99 91 91 119 11346400.00 191346400.00
1346400.00
19 1346400.00
911346400.00
1346400.00 10 001346400.00
1346400.001 0 1346400.00
19 01346400.0000 001346400.00
0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 06006 6600 6006 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191346400.00
1346400.00
11346400.00
19 1346400.00
911346400.00
1346400.00 10 001346400.00
1346400.001 0 1346400.00
19 01346400.00 1346400.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 06006 6600 60060 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11364400.00 191364400.00
1364400.00
19 1364400.00
911364400.00
1364400.00 10 001364400.00
1364400.001 0 1364400.00
19 01364400.00 1364400.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 02002 2200 2002 0020 0 2000 0020 0 020 002 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191368000.00
1368000.00
11368000.00
19 1368000.00
911368000.00
1368000.00 10 001368000.00
1368000.001 0 1368000.00
19 01368000.00 1368000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 04004 4400 40040 0040 0 4000 0040 0 040 004 0 0 0 0
11 11 1 11 11 1370269.00
11370269.00 11 111370269.00
1 1 1370269.00
1 11370269.00
11 1370269.00
111370269.00 1370269.00
11370269.00
1370269.00 1 111370269.00
1 11 111 14114 4411 4114 1141 154115 55141 5 1455 5514 515151 11551 1 51 15 15 15 1 1
1
77 77 71 71 117 171372300.00
1372300.00
11372300.00
17 1372300.00
711372300.00
1372300.00 10 001372300.00
1372300.001 011372300.00
17 01372300.00 1372300.00
01 110 1001 0010 0 1000 0010 040104 44001 46046 6640 64406 44640 476447 77464 7 467 746 74 74 7 7
99 99 91 91 119 11373400.00 191373400.00
1373400.00
19 1373400.00
911373400.00
1373400.00 10 001373400.00
1373400.001 0 1373400.00
19 01373400.00 1373400.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 00 0 0 0 0
55 55 51 51 115 151377401.00
1377401.00
11377401.00
15 1377401.00
511377401.00
1377401.00 11 111377401.00
1377401.001 121377401.00
15 11377401.00 1377401.00
12 221 2112 1121 1 2111 1121 151215 55112 54154 4451 415141 11451 154515 55145 5 145 514 51 51 5 5
77 77 71 71 117 171383136.00
1383136.00
11383136.00
17 1383136.00
711383136.00
1383136.00 10 001383136.00
1383136.001 011383136.00
17 01383136.0001 111383136.00
0 1001 0010 01100 11010 140114 44101 461046 66410 604160 00641 076407 77064 7 067 706 70 70 7 7
44 44 41 41 114 141396800.00
1396800.00
11396800.00
14 1396800.00
411396800.00
1396800.00 10 001396800.00
1396800.001 0 1396800.00
14 01396800.00 1396800.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 06006 6600 60060 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11396800.00 191396800.00
1396800.00
19 1396800.00
911396800.00
1396800.00 10 001396800.00
1396800.001 0 1396800.00
19 01396800.00 1396800.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 06006 6600 6006 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191398600.00
1398600.00
11398600.00
19 1398600.00
911398600.00
1398600.00 10 001398600.00
1398600.001 0 1398600.00
19 01398600.00 1398600.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 0 00 00 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11402200.00 191402200.00
1402200.00
19 1402200.00
911402200.00
1402200.00 10 001402200.00
1402200.001 0 1402200.00
19 01402200.0000 001402200.00
0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 02002 2200 2002 0020 0 2000 0020 0 020 002 0 0 0 0
44 44 41 41 114 141403572.00
1403572.00
11403572.00
14 1403572.00
411403572.00
1403572.00 10 001403572.00
1403572.001 011403572.00
14 01403572.00 1403572.00
01 110 1001 0010 021002 22010 240124 44201 42204 22420 24422 44242 4 2444 4424 4 424 442 4 4 4 4
99 99 91 91 119 11404000.00 191404000.00
1404000.00
19 1404000.00
911404000.00
1404000.00 10 001404000.00
1404000.001 0 1404000.00
19 01404000.00 1404000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 03003 3300 3003 0030 0 3000 0030 0 030 003 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191407600.00
1407600.00
11407600.00
19 1407600.00
911407600.00
1407600.00 10 001407600.00
1407600.001 0 1407600.00
19 01407600.00 1407600.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 05005 5500 50050 0050 0 5000 0050 0 050 005 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11407600.00 191407600.00
1407600.00
19 1407600.00
911407600.00
1407600.00 10 001407600.00
1407600.001 0 1407600.00
19 01407600.0000 001407600.00
0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 05005 5500 5005 0050 0 5000 0050 0 050 005 0 0 0 0
88 88 81 81 118 181408940.00
1408940.00
11408940.00
18 1408940.00
811408940.00
1408940.00 10 001408940.00
1408940.001 021408940.00
18 01408940.00 1408940.00
02 220 2002 0020 0 2000 0020 020202 22002 21021 1120 142014 44120 481248 88412 8 418 841 84 84 8 8
88 88 81 81 118 11411200.00 181411200.00
1411200.00
18 1411200.00
811411200.00
1411200.00 10 001411200.00
1411200.001 0 1411200.00
18 01411200.00 1411200.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 00 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 191411560.00
1411560.00
11411560.00
19 1411560.00
911411560.00
1411560.00 10 001411560.00
1411560.001 0 1411560.00
19 01411560.00 1411560.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 03003 3300 30030 0030 0 3000 0030 0 030 003 0 0 0 0
44 44 41 41 114 141421653.00
1421653.00
11421653.00
14 1421653.00
411421653.00
1421653.00 11 111421653.00
1421653.001 1 1421653.00
14 11421653.0011 111421653.00
1 11 111 13113 3311 3113 1131 123112 22131 251325 55213 542154 44521 4 524 452 45 45 4 4
99 99 91 91 119 191422000.00
1422000.00
11422000.00
19 1422000.00
911422000.00
1422000.00 10 001422000.00
1422000.001 0 1422000.00
19 01422000.00 1422000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 06006 6600 60060 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
99 99 91 91 119 11422000.00 191422000.00
1422000.00
19 1422000.00
911422000.00
1422000.00 10 001422000.00
1422000.001 0 1422000.00
19 01422000.00 1422000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 06006 6600 6006 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
88 88 81 81 118 181804760.00
1804760.00
11804760.00
18 1804760.00
811804760.00
1804760.00 10 001804760.00
1804760.001 021804760.00
18 01804760.00 1804760.00
02 220 2002 0020 0 2000 0020 020202 22002 26026 6620 602060 00620 086208 88062 8 068 806 80 80 8 8
88 88 82 82 228 28824021.00
824021.00
2824021.00
28 824021.00
82824021.00
824021.00 21 11824021.00
824021.00 2 12824021.00
28 1824021.00 12 22824021.00
1 2112 1121 1 2111 1121 151215 55112 52152 2251 25512 55251 582558 88525 8 528 852 85 85 8 8
66 66 62 62 226 261184613.00
1184613.00
21184613.00
26 1184613.00
621184613.00
1184613.00 21 111184613.00
1184613.002 101184613.00
26 11184613.00 1184613.00
10 001 0110 1101 130113 33101 3 1033 3310 3 313 3331 35335 5533 56356 6653 6 536 653 65 65 6 6
77 77 72 72 227 1379662.00
21379662.00
27 1379662.00
721379662.00
1379662.00 20 001379662.00
271379662.00
1379662.002 011379662.00
27 01379662.00 1379662.00
01 110 12012 2210 2 1022 2210 242124 44221 4 244 442 464246 66442 67467 7764 7 647 764 76 76 7 7
99 99 92 92 229 291404000.00
1404000.00
21404000.00
29 1404000.00
921404000.00
1404000.00 20 001404000.00
1404000.002 0 1404000.00
29 01404000.00 1404000.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 03003 3300 30030 0030 0 3000 0030 0 030 003 0 0 0 0
11 11 12 12 221 21408141.00 211408141.00
1408141.00
21 1408141.00
121408141.00
1408141.00 21 111408141.00
1408141.002 1 1408141.00
21 11408141.0011 111408141.00
1 11 111 1 11 111 1 11 111 10110 0011 05105 5501 510151 11501 1 501 150 15 15 1 1
99 99 92 92 229 291414800.00
1414800.00
21414800.00
29 1414800.00
921414800.00
1414800.00 20 001414800.00
1414800.002 0 1414800.00
29 01414800.00 1414800.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 02002 2200 20020 0020 0 2000 0020 0 020 002 0 0 0 0
11 11 12 12 221 211800622.00
1800622.00
21800622.00
21 1800622.00
121800622.00
1800622.00 20 001800622.00
1800622.002 011800622.00
21 01800622.00 1800622.00
01 110 12012 2210 2 1022 2210 242124 44221 45245 5542 564256 66542 615461 11654 1 651 165 16 16 1 1
99 99 93 93 339 391321200.00
1321200.00
31321200.00
39 1321200.00
931321200.00
1321200.00 30 001321200.00
1321200.003 0 1321200.00
39 01321200.00 1321200.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 000 000 0 000 000 06006 6600 60060 0060 0 6000 0060 0 060 006 0 0 0 0
22 22 23 23 332 321373150.00
1373150.00
31373150.00
32 1373150.00
231373150.00
1373150.00 30 001373150.00
1373150.003 021373150.00
32 01373150.0002 221373150.00
0 2 022 220 202020 00220 0220 2202 2 0222 2202 262026 66220 6226 2262 2 622 262 26 26 2 2
22 22 23 23 332 321373528.00
1373528.00
31373528.00
32 1373528.00
231373528.00
1373528.00 30 001373528.00
1373528.003 021373528.00
32 01373528.00 1373528.00
02 220 2002 0020 032003 33020 320232 22302 2 3022 2230 202320 00223 02202 2202 2 022 202 20 20 2 2
22 22 23 23 332 321373528.00
1373528.00
31373528.00
32 1373528.00
231373528.00
1373528.00 30 001373528.00
1373528.003 021373528.00
32 01373528.00 1373528.00
02 220 2002 0020 032003 33020 320232 22302 2 3022 2230 202320 00223 0220 2202 2 022 202 20 20 2 2
22 22 23 23 332 321385561.00
1385561.00
31385561.00
32 1385561.00
231385561.00
1385561.00 31 111385561.00
1385561.003 121385561.00
32 11385561.00 1385561.00
12 221 2112 1121 1 2111 1121 151215 55112 52152 2251 215121 11251 12251 22125 2 122 212 21 21 2 2
77 77 73 73 337 371395970.00
1395970.00
31395970.00
37 1395970.00
731395970.00
1395970.00 30 001395970.00
1395970.003 011395970.00
37 01395970.0001 111395970.00
0 12012 2210 201020 00210 042104 44021 420242 22402 2 4022 2240 272427 77224 7 27 72 72 72 7 7
99 99 93 93 339 391406421.00
1406421.00
31406421.00
39 1406421.00
931406421.00
1406421.00 31 111406421.00
1406421.003 101406421.00
39 11406421.00 1406421.00
10 001 0110 1101 1 0111 1101 131013 33110 32132 2231 253125 55231 502350 00523 0 520 052 05 05 0 0
99 99 94 94 449 41405800.00 491405800.00
1405800.00
49 1405800.00
941405800.00
1405800.00 40 001405800.00
1405800.004 0 1405800.00
49 01405800.00 1405800.00
00 00 0 00 000 0 00 000 0 00 000 04004 4400 4004 0040 0 4000 0040 0 040 004 0 0 0 0
77 77 75 75 557 571383136.00
1383136.00
51383136.00
57 1383136.00
751383136.00
1383136.00 50 001383136.00
1383136.005 011383136.00
57 01383136.00 1383136.00
01 110 1001 0010 01100 11010 140114 44101 461046 66410 604160 00641 076407 77064 7 067 706 70 70 7 7

Table 3. Correlation of Glyphs G and F, Day Numbers, and cycles of 2-9 days; the numbers indicate the day-number’s position
in a cycle of the number of days at the head of the column.

differentiation between the expected and observed
percentages (χ2 = 25.34; df = 11; p < .01; Cramer’s V =
.64).
The final analysis shows empirically that Glyph F
variants are not part of a repeating cycle. Table 3 shows
each Glyph F with a complete long count date, with its
associated Glyph G, and day number (long count date
converted to decimal system). In each of the nine columns
to the right, the day number has been divided by the
number of days in each cycle (from two to nine), and
the remainder is displayed. If a cycle of Glyph F existed,
the numbers in the corresponding cycle-length would

15

TI’
HUN
HUN
na
Copan Stela 1 Dos Pilas Stela 8
TI’?
HUN
G9
Copan Stela D
Figure 4. Atypical Glyph F variants
(redrawn from Schele and Miller 1983:Figure 32).
appear contiguously in that column. Glyph G’s cycle is
born out by this, as the numbers in the “nine-day cycle”
column match those in the Glyph G column. There is
no cycle of Glyph F variants (less than nine days) even
if there were more or less than the five variants I have
defined. If there were less, and a cycle existed, a number
of Glyph F variants would share an identical remainder.
If there were more, a variant’s section would have more
than one remainder, but the all of those remainders
would be within that variant. This is not the case, and
there appears to be no cycle.
Another aspect of examination is whether or not
the same day can be represented by different Glyph F
variants. Of the seven pairs of recurring dates in my
sample, five evince the same Glyph F variant, while two
show different variants. One pair of mismatched Glyph
Fs comes from Piedras Negras. Stelae 1 and 3 have the
same date (9.12.2.0.16) but give F1 and F5 respectively.
Another mismatch comes from two different sites.
Itzimte’s Stela 5 shows F1 for the same day (9.15.0.0.0)
that Piedras Negras’ Stela 11 gives F2. Of the five pairs
of monuments which share a date and Glyph F variant,
all are inscribed with F1, by far the most popular
manifestation. Three of the matching pairs are from the
same sites. Tikal Stelae 1 and 31, Pusilha Stelae P and O,
and Piedras Negras Stelae 3 and 1 share dates and the
F1 variant. Coba Stela 20 also matches Naranjo Stela 13
in date (9.17.10.0.0) and F Glyph (F1). Another pair of
matching dates and Glyph F variants are Stela 2 at Itzimte
and Piedras Negras Stela 10—interesting in that these
two sites are also an example of mismatched F-variants
described above. It should be noted, although it comes
as no surprise, Glyph G was correct and matched for
all of these examples. Although this is a small sample,
16
Johnson
it seems likely that there was no need to agree on the
Glyph F variant in a long count. This further suggests
that there was no underlying cycle or reason for the
na choice of Glyph F variant used in an inscription beyond
scribal preference.
Implications of Analysis
Although no predictive patterns were found, there
are a number of observations that can be made about
Glyph F from these collected and analyzed data. First,
Glyph F variants occur independent of the Long Count,
Supplementary Series, and location. It does appear,
though, that a greater variety of Glyph F variants were
used after 9.10.0.0.0. The variants can be said to be
completely interchangeable; just as the scribe has a choice
between writing ba-la-m(a), BALAM, or BALAM-(ma)
to give the word bahlam. This suggests that the variation
is purely orthographic, not a variable denoting a position
in any cycle or count. Of course, this observation is not
new, but this paper statistically demonstrates the free
variation of Glyph F.
Second, the fact that Glyph F is a constant part of the
calendar formula suggests it has a static reading for all
of its occurrences. The full reading of Glyph F appears
to be TI’ HUN-(na) or TI’ hu-n(a), giving ti’ huun/hu’n.
There is no single agreed-upon gloss for this phrase in
the topical literature.
The term ti’ is attested as “mouth” in Ch’ol, Chontal,
and Ch’orti’ (Aulie and Aulie 1978; Hull 2005; Keller
and Luciano 1997; K’ulb’il Yol Twitz Paxil 2001; Pérez
González and de la Cruz 1998; Schumann 1973), as well
as Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Tojolab’al, Q’anjob’al, Aketeko, and
Yucatec (Zender 2004:Table 4, citing Barrera Vásquez et
al. 1980:91, Bricker et al. 1998:68, Furbee-Losee 1976:397,
Laughlin 1975:337, Lenkersdorf 1981:351, and Slocum et
al. 1999:122). These entries seem to confirm the suggested
gloss of “mouth” and “lips.” The other meanings of
“opening” and “edge” are semantically related to mouth
and recorded in Ch’ol, Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Tojolab’al, and
Yucatec (Zender 2004:Table 4, citing Barrera Vásquez et
al. 1980:91, Bricker et al. 1998:68, Furbee-Losee 1976:397,
Laughlin 1975:337, Lenkersdorf 1981:351, and Slocum
et al. 1999:122). The lexeme ti’ is also recorded as “to
speak” in Tzotzil and Yucatec, as well as “language” in
Ch’orti’ (Zender 2004:Table 5, citing Heath de Zapata
1980:183-184, Laughlin 1975:337, and Wisdom 1950:672;
see also Houston 2009). It is from this reading that the
similar title ti’ sak huun/hu’n is glossed as “speaker of
the white headband.”
Clearly huun or hu’n is suggested by the hu-n(a) or
HUN-(na) reading of each variant. Glossed as “book,”
“paper,” “headdress,” or “bundle” it is likely that only
one meaning is expressed in this formulaic context. HUN
may be semantically related to, or an underspelling of,
huunal/hu’nal that is, “headdress.” This is thought to be
the headband with which rulers are bound (Jackson and
Glyph F of the Supplementary Series
Stuart 2001:222). The traditional “headdress” reading is
mirrored in the royal title sak huun/hu’n, or “white crown”
(Schele et al. 1990:4; Zender 2004:215). I have found no
examples of a complete HUN-na-la or hu-na-la spelling.
There are, however, three examples (Quirigua Stela K,
Copan Stela I, and Dos Pilas Stela 8) which one might
interpret as TI’-HUN-NAL (T128:60:1000a), giving ti’
hu’nal, or “headdress;” illustrated in Figure 4. Although
the T1000a glyph in these examples might represent an
aspect of the Maize God (nal is glossed as “corn” but is
not currently an accepted reading for this glyph), it more
likely represents the syllable na, an allograph of the
usual T23 subfix of Glyph F. The lack of a clear huunal/
hu’nal example leads me to believe that “headdress” is
not meant in Glyph F. Furthermore, although it could be
argued that a bark paper headdress might be referred to
as huun/hu’n because of the material, this must be more
firmly demonstrated through iconography before it can
be applied to an isolated HUN reading, especially one
which is represented with the T609b/codex variant.
In another interpretation, Schele (1983:79, 90)
suggests the central element is a sacred bundle or
jaguar throne pillow, which is carried by the Lord of the
Night as his patan, or “burden.” Although patan would
be complemented by the final -na syllable, the central
element can now be read as HUN or hu. As Schele
(1983:80) herself mentions, at the time of her writing,
the syllabic sign we now read as hu (T740) was not yet
understood.
In contrast to these views, I would suggest the
reading of “book” is more likely, particularly in the
presence of the T609b, F4 variant. This is a clear depiction
of a jaguar-pelt-bound codex (the horizontal lines are
pages of the codex, the jaguar pelt is the cover), not a
cushion or bundle, as others have suggested (Schele
1983:79, 90; Thompson 1962:212). Furthermore, the
word huun/hu’n/hun or some cognate thereof (usually
jun) is glossed as “paper” in Ch’ol and Ch’orti’ and even
“book” in Chontal (Aulie and de Aulie 1978; Hull 2005;
K’ulb’il Yol Twitz Paxil 2001; Keller and Luciano 1997;
Pérez González and de la Cruz 1998; Schumann 1973).
One possible problem with this argument, however, is
that the “codex” variant does not appear until late in
my examples. If the meaning of “book” were meant, the
F4 variant might be expected to be the most commonly
occurring variant early on. However, T609b is not
attested in any context before the Late Classic, mitigating
this problematic point.
The complete phrase has a number of suggested
readings. The possible glosses described above
suggest mouth/lips/opening/edge combined with
book/headdress/bundle. In Thompson’s (1962) Maya
Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction, he devotes less than
one page to describing this glyph. He suggests that it
stands to “explain or amplify the function of Glyph G”
and that together they should be interpreted as “God
Gn is the Lord of the Night” but notes this is not a
direct translation (Thompson 1962:212). He does make
the important observation linking the “jaguar bundle”
(T609b) and the “knotted element” (T60) in Glyph
F, showing the rarer form is not a local variant but
dispersed across the Maya area (Thompson 1962:212).
Linda Schele (1983:90) suggested the meaning “in
office” or “in power,” but her literal reading was patan,
meaning “cargo” or “burden,” discussed above. David
Stuart (2005:196) has recently suggested the reading “is
(at) the margin(?),” drawing on evidence such as Yucatec
u chi’ hú’un, “margin of the book” (Zender 2004:217-218,
citing Barrera Vásquez et al. 1980:91, Heath de Zapata
1980:183) and Colonial Tzotzil ti’il hun, “book margin”
(Laughlin 1988:1:313). But it is unclear exactly how this
is to be meaningfully connected with Glyph G.
All of the suggested readings are somewhat
problematic. Either the phrase does not make semantic
sense in relation to the Lord of the Night, or it is not
a close reading of the glyphs. There is a semantic
relationship between “mouth” and “book,” though,
especially in a society of limited literacy. Books may
have been read aloud and religious texts chanted. For
instance, the similar phrase ti’ sak huun/hu’n is glossed
as “speaker of the white crown” (Schele et al. 1990:4;
Zender 2004:215), but in this case ti’ huun/hu’n might be
read instead as “speaker of the book,” or more literally,
“mouth of the book.”
This reading of ti’ huun/hu’n, as “speaker of the
book,” makes semantic sense in relation with Glyph G,
which is the “Lord of the Night” patron deity of that
particular day. Glyph G and F might then be read Gx ti’
huun/hu’n, or “Gx [is the] speaker of the book.” Although
“speaker” might be a liberal translation, the association
of speech and mouth are clear. A similar connection
between “mouth” and speech is described above, where
ti’ is attested as the verb “to speak” and “language.” A
reading of “Gx [is the] mouth of the book” or “Gx [is
the] mouthpiece of the book” does not seem a stretch
of the data. If the particular Lord of the Night is the
patron for a day, it is not unlikely that he has a shamanic
duty, which would involve the use of divinatory books.
The interpretation of HUN alone as “paper” is equally
possible, but with the presence of “mouth” and the
T609b variant, the gloss of “book” makes more semantic
sense.
Glyph F occasionally appears with an u- prefix,
indicating possession or the third-person singular
ergative pronoun. Out of my 64 examples, five are
preceded by a possessive prefix, u-: Piedras Negras
Lintel 3 (u-TI’-HUN-(na), F2), Stela 3 (u-TI’-HUN-
(na), F1), and Stela 9 (u-TI’-HUN-(na), F2), as well as
Yaxchilan Lintel 29 (u-TI’-hu-n(a), F3) and Stela 6 (u-TI’-
HUN-(na), F2). Furthermore, Copan’s Stela D has a full-
figure G9 carrying a large T609b codex on his back with
a tumpline, drawn in Figure 4. This suggests again that
17

Glyph F is intimately associated with the current Lord
of the Night. Interestingly, Mathews and Biro (2006, but
see also Zender 2004:214) state that the possessed form
of ti’ sak hu’n is u ti’ hu’nil; the -il is a common possessive
suffix (Houston et al. 2001). This is not seen on any of
the five possessed Glyph F examples above, but rather u
ti’ huun/hu’n. Although I do not wish to dwell on the sak
hu’n title, it may be that the term “book” is meant here
too; a book might need a speaker, but a crown might
not. What is needed is a clear iconographic depiction of
somebody with the ti’ sak huun/hu’n title either with a
book, or wearing a distinctive headdress.
Furthermore, as pointed out by Jackson and Stuart
(2001:219), a possessed title between two nouns links
them in a direct way. When Glyph F is preceded by u-, it
suggests that the Lord of the Night is directly linked to
the oral recitation of the book. This might suggest that
the Lord of the Night is the reader of the book containing
the lunar series calculations or other divinatory material;
the Lord of the Night is the day keeper for that entire
day and night. Gx uti’ huun/hu’n might be translated as
“Gx, [it is] his speaking of the book.”
Another topic, on which these findings bear is the
use of the knotted HUN glyph in the aj k’uhun title
discussed in depth by Jackson and Stuart (2001). They
discount Lacadena’s (1993, cited in Jackson and Stuart
2001:221-222) reading of a-k’u-HUN-na as ak’hun, or
“he who gives/bears paper” because the God C head
does not have the value of k’u in any other context
but rather K’UH or K’UHUL only. They also shy away
from Houston and Grube’s (cited in Jackson and Stuart
2001:221-223) reading of AJ-K’UHUL-HUN-(na), or aj
k’uhul hu’n, glossed as “he of the holy books/headbands/
paper” for a number of reasons. First, “books” and the
implied scribal aspects thereof are considered to be too
narrow of a reading because of the variable meaning of
HUN (or HU’N in the authors’ orthography). Second, the
fact that “the appearance of HU’N or -HU’N-na in the
God C title is quite rare and generally late in date, falling
in the last century of the Classic period” (Jackson and
Stuart 2001:223; Zender 2004:215). In the data compiled
for this paper, it can be clearly seen that T60/HUN was
by far the most popular Glyph F variant from 9.0.0.0.0
(ca. 435 AD) through the end of the Classic (the last date
in this database is 9.17.0.0.0, ca. 771 AD). Furthermore, in
his discussion of the ti’ sakhuun/hu’n title, which contains
another HUN element (T522), Zender (2004:212) states
that this title’s morphology is “highly standardized and
formally conservative,” that is, largely unchanging over
time in contrast to the “relatively chaotic spellings of the
ajk’uhuun[/aj k’uhun]” title over time. Therefore, if the
title were meant to be aj k’uhul hu’n, it is likely that the
HUN element would have appeared more frequently
and earlier. Jackson and Stuart (2001:224-226) gloss
their reading of aj k’uhun as “one who keeps/guards/
worships/venerates” on the back of similar meanings
18
Johnson
from modern Greater Tzeltalan languages.
Conclusion
Although it has been generally accepted that Glyph F
in the Supplementary Series was a freely-varying, even
optional component, this paper demonstrates this fact
statistically. There is no correlation between any Glyph
F variant and a specific site, its Glyph G counterpart, or
tendency to conflation. It is likely, though, that Copan,
Quirigua, and Palenque had a greater penchant for
conflating Glyphs F and G than other sites, although
a larger sample size is needed. Therefore, it can be
concluded that Glyph F is a formulaic part of the
Supplementary Series.
Although there have been many suggested readings
for Glyph F and its relationship with Glyph G, they
have been either divorced from glyphic readings or
semantically unclear. I suggest that Glyph F describes
the Lord of the Night as responsible for reading a
divinatory codex. Glyphs G and F, reading Gx TI’-
HUN-na or Gx ti’ huun/hu’n may be translated as “X
Lord of the Night is the mouth/speaker of the book,”
which possibly contains Lunar Series, astronomical, or
divinatory information. Finally, the continuous use of
the “knotted element” through the entire ninth baktun
supports the argument for Jackson and Stuart’s (2001) aj
k’uhun reading.
Aknowledgments
I would like to thank Markus Eberl for his notes on this
article and useful discussions about this topic. I would
also like to thank Marc Zender and David Stuart for
their correspondence regarding the ti’ reading and other
topics. All errors and missteps are my own.
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Neg. No. 10313, Courtesy of the Museum of New Mexico.
Morley's Diary,1932
Editor’s note
A leading archaeologist of his time, Sylvanus Griswold Morley
was an Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
the foremost organization excavating archaeological sites in
Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras in the early part of the
twentieth century. This diary continues his account of the
Carnegie Institution’s expedition to Calakmul begun on April
3, 1932. Morley’s professional companions were his wife
Frances, Karl Rupert, John Bolles, and Gustav Stromsvic.
April 26 - Tuesday (cont.)
Chicle-blocks which had been loaded on to these three
carts were removed and our own baggage divided into
3 parts loaded on in place.
We were to go on ahead mounted taking with us on
our saddles, sleeping accoutrements, so that we could
rest comfortably at Tanché until the carts caught up. Don
Manuel said if we left at six we should be a Tanché by
midnight, and from there we might be able – or might
not – to catch the greatly to be desired truck.
Happily these plans, which would have involved a
long and tiring night ride for us never materialized, for
just at six, the long awaited truck was heard snorting in
the distance. It was our old friend “The San Juan” which
had brought us out and at the moment the only one of
Francisco Buenfil’s three trucks that would run.
I arranged with Don Manuel and the chauffeur
that we would start back in it at once, i.e. after supper.
Frances ordered a third meal from the nice Señora who
had given us breakfast and luncheon and as soon as the
truck was unloaded – corn was being brought in for the
mules – a layer of chicle was stored on the bottom and
then our baggage went aboard.
Again Gustav superintended loading, lashing boxes,
kayaks, etc. down. Again sleeping space was reserved
for us at the front – Frances, myself, Karl, John and
Gustav – then Tarsisio and Arturo and lastly Demetrio
with his Simonita. Frances achieved almost a mattress
20
by building up blankets, three of them, on the chicle
under us.
We bid goodbye to Don Manuel, to Carlos, the
Belizano, and climbed aboard.
The chauffeurs were tinkering with a part to replace
part of the steering apparatus if it broke, which seemed a
not remote contingency in the light of recent experience,
and everything was at last ready to start.
We pulled out of Rio Desempeño at 8:40, only 40
minutes after the boys said they would be ready, almost
a record in our experience. It was hot and at first we did
not use the single blanket Frances reserved to go over
us. Undressing consisted in removing one’s shoes.
In spite of the constant jarring and jolts we caught
naps here and there and so the night advanced. Before
midnight we caught up with the carts of chicle which
had left El Rio at six and after fooling along behind them
for a considerable time the road widened at a despecho
or alternative road to avoid a mud-hole where we
passed them. These carts are hauled by six mules each
and make fairly good time, themselves.
We only bogged down once in the long akalche
between Tumbo and El Rio, which had given us such
trouble coming in, and this caused only a slight loss of
time. And so bumping along, lurching along, and jolting
along Tuesday passed into Wednesday.
April 27 - Wednesday
Sleeping was only fitful as the bumps were continuous
though irregular and I was not sorry to reach Tanché
sometime after midnight. We had a rather longish stop
here while the truck was watered, oiled, and gasolined. I
suspect the chauffeurs had a little coffee too as we heard
laughing and chattering in a lighted hut nearby in spite
of the graveyardness of the hour.
We got under way again and I think I must have
slept more. I do not remember passing through the
Maya village of Paso Hol. If the dogs barked they did
not awaken me. Two of our boys at Calakmul, Lino and
Rafael Paat come from this village.
Just beyond, i.e. this side now we crossed quite a
hill, indeed a fair range, known locally as “El Cerro de
la Paloma Blanca”, “The Hill of the White Pigeon”. This
I do remember rumbling down, though afterward I fell
asleep again.
When I awoke dawn was coloring the east and we
were dashing along at a smart clip, perhaps 15 or even
18 miles an hour! We were in the flats just outside of La
Gloria.
And here we nearly had trouble with the truck. The
boys had forgotten to fill the extra water tin at the last
place where water was to be had and in consequence we
were blowing off steam at a great rate, the engine had
lost half of its pulling power and indeed was beginning
to pound. But La Gloria was actually round the next
corner and an ayudante was sent ahead with the ever
faithful gasoline tin to get some water.