 Small non-polar molecules can do this

 Some small polar molecules can do this too but slower

 Charged large particles cannot do this so they take part in other process such as facilitated diffusion
 At equilibrium, particles are still moving freely and randomly but there is not net movement
 Large surface are of the alveoli
 Numerous capillaries around the alveoli
 Thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries meaning short diffusion distance (between alveolar air and the blood in the
capillaries)

Lungs

 lungs allow rapid gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood
 ribs move up and diaphragm moves down → thorax volume increases → pressure decreases in the lungs → air is
drawn into the lungs via the trachea
 diaphragm muscles and muscles between the ribs relax → thorax volume decreases → pressure increases in the
lungs → air is forced out through the trachea
Epithelial Cells

 form the outer surfaces of many animals (e.g. mammals)

 line cavities and tubes within animals and cover the surfaces of internal organs
 cells work together as a tissue (epithelium/epithelia)
 epithelium consists of one or more layers of cells sitting on a basement membrane (made of protein fibres in a jelly-
like protein-carbohydrate matrix)
 basement membrane anchors epithelium to the connective tissue below
 basal membrane faces basement membrane
 apical membrane faces away from basement membrane

Squamous/Pavement Epithelium

 in the walls of the alveoli and capillaries

 very thin flattened cells
 can be less than 0.2μm thick

Columnar Epithelium

 in the small intestine

 extend out from the basement membrane
 column-shaped cells
 free surface facing the intestine lumen is normally covered in microvilli → increase the surface area for absorption

Ciliated Epithelial Cells

- in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles

- cilia (hair-like structures) on the apical surface which beat in a coordinated way to move substances along the tube
they line
- ciliated columnar epithelium of the airways in the lungs - some cells have their nucleus at the base of the cell while
others have it in the centre → appears to be stratified (composed of several layers) → pseudostratified - but each
cell is in contact with the basement membrane
  the concentration gradient

 phospholipids in water may form a monolayer on the surface, spherical micelles or bilayers.
 + freeze fracture – bumps showed proteins

 Membrane ensures only the water passes through the membrane to reach equilibrium and not the solute
 Done until equilibrium is reached  isotonic
 Channel proteins  some channels can be open or closed depending on whether there is a signal  gated channel
 A signal can be a specific molecule like a hormone or a potential difference (voltage)

 ATP = adenosine triphosphate

 ATP hydrolyses and removed end phosphate group with little energy needed into ADP
 Energy is released as bonds form between water and phosphate  energy changes the shape of the carrier protein
so it moves the substance to the other side
 A, g has 2 ring
 C, t has 1 ring
 3 make a rung so only a,t and c,g
 Ring determines pairing as well as the hydrogen bonds that keep them together only work for a,t with 2 and c,g
with 3
CF Problems

How sticky mucus increases the chance of lung infections

 Microorganisms get trapped in mucus and can cause illness e.g. pathogens
 Mucus is normally wafted into the back of the mouth where it is either coughed out or swallowed and acid in
stomach kills most bacteria
 People with cf have sticky mucus that cannot waft this mucus and it would layer up and build up in airways
 There are low levels of oxygen in mucus because oxygen diffuses slowly through it and epithelial cells use up more
oxygen in cf patients
 Harmful bacteria thrive in anaerobic conditions causing illness

How sticky mucus affects gas exchange

 Sticky mucus blocks narrow airways

 Prevents movement of air into the alveoli behind blockage and reduces number of alveoli proving surface are for
gas exchange
 Allow air when breathing in but now out  lead to over inflation  damage elasticity of lungs
 People with cf usually cant do physical activity since oxygen cant reach muscle cells quick enough  oxygen needed
for aerobic respiration to release energy

Why is CF mucus so sticky?

 Contains less water than normal due to abnormal salt and water transport across the cell surface membrane cause
by a faulty transport protein channel in the membrane
What happens in the membranes of the cells lining the airways?

 Cells lining airways produce mucus

 People without cf, water is continually regulates to maintain a constant viscosity
 Regulation of the water content of the mucus is achieved by transport of sodium and chloride ions across the
epithelial cells
 Water then follows the ions by osmosis

Regulating mucus water content in unaffected lungs

Excess water in the mucus