22.3MB1 Electromagnetism: Lecture Notes Are at

22.
3MB1 Electromagnetism
Dr Andy Harvey
e-mail a.r.harvey@hw.ac.uk
lecture notes are at:

http://www.cee.hw.ac.uk/~arharvey/22.3MB1electromagnetism.zip
Revision of Electrostatics (week 1)

Vector Calculus (week 2-4)
Maxwell’s equations in integral and differential form (week 5)
Electromagnetic wave behaviour from M axwell’s equations (week 6-7.5)
–Heuristic description of the generation of EM waves
–Mathematical derivation of EM waves in free space
–Relationship between E and H
–EM waves in materials
–Boundary conditions for EM waves
Fourier description of EM waves (week 7.5-8)
Reflection and transmission of EM waves from materials (week 9-10)
http://www.cee.hw.ac.uk/~arharve 1
Maxwell’s equations
t in differential form
J Equationof continuity
dt
E Faraday' s law
dt
H J Am pere' s law
D
.B 0 Gauss' law for m agnetostatics
D Gauss' law for electrostatics
D E
• Varying E and H fields are
B H
coupled
NB Equat ions br ought f r om elsewher e, or t o be car r ied on t o next page, highlight ed in t his colour
NB I mpor t ant r esult s highlight ed in t his colour
Fields at large distances from charges and current sources
E H
H J E
dt dt
• For a straight conductor the magnetic field is
given by Ampere’s law
• At large distances or high frequencies H(t,d)
H lags I(t,d=0) due to propagation time
I – Transmission of field is not instantaneous
– Actually H(t,d) is due to I(t-d/c,d=0)
• Modulation of I(t) produces a dH/dt term
• dH/dt produces E
• dE/dt term produces H
• etc.
• How do the mixed-up E and H fields spread
out from a modulated current ?
– eg current loop, antenna etc
A moving point charge:
• A static charge produces radial
field lines
• Constant velocity, acceleration and
finite propagation speed distorts
the field line
• Propagation of kinks in E field
lines which produces kinks of
2
t and 2 E t
• Changes in E couple into H & v.v
– Fields due to t are short range
2 2
– Fields due to E t propagate
• Accelerating charges produce
travelling waves consisting
coupled modulations of E and H
Depiction of fields propagating
from an accelerating point charge
E in plane of page
H in and out of page
• Fields propagate at c=1/ 3 x 108 m/sec

Examples of EM waves due to
accelerating charges
• Bremstrahlung - “ breaking radiation”

• Synchrotron emission
• Magnetron
• Modulated current in antennas
– sinusoidal v.important
• Blackbody radiation
2.2 Electromagnetic waves in lossless media -
M axwell’s equations
Maxwell Constitutive relations
D D E r o E
H J
dt B H r o H
B J sE
E
dt SI Units
D • J Amp/ metre2
.B 0 • D Coulomb/metre2
• H Amps/metre
• B Tesla
Equation of continuity Weber/metre2
Volt-Second/metre2
J • E Volt/metre
t • Farad/metre
• Henry/metre
• s Siemen/metre
2.6 Wave equations in free space
• In free space
– s =0 J=0
– Hence: D D
H J
dt dt
B
E
dt
– Taking curl of both sides of latter equation:
E B o H
t t t
o
t t
2
E
E o
t2
Wave equations in free space cont.
2
E
E o
t2
• It has been shown (last week) that for any vector A
2
A .A A
2 2 2
where 2
x2 y2 z2
is the Laplacian operator
Thus: 2
2
E
.E E o
t2
• There are no free charges in free space so .E= =0
and we get 2
2 E
E o
t2
A t hr ee dimensional wave equat ion
• Both E and H obey second order partial differential wave
equations: 2
2 E
E o
t2
2
2 H
H o
t2
• What does this mean

– dimensional analysis ?
Volts/metre Volts/metre
o
metre 2 seconds2
– o has units of velocity-2
– Why is this a wave with velocity 1/ o ?
The wave equation
2
2 A v
A o
t2
• Why is this a travelling wave ? ẑ
• A 1D travelling wave has a solution of the form:
A Ao f ( z vt) Const ant f or a
t r avelling wave
A A 2
2
Ao f vt Ao v f vt
z t
Substitute back into the above EM 3D wave equation
Ao f vt Ao v 2 o f vt
This is a travelling wave if v 1 o

• In free space v o o 2.9979 08 m/sec c
2
2 2 E
Ex sin vt E o
t2
• Substitute this 1D expression into 3D ‘ wave equation’ (Ey=Ez=0):
2
2
sin vt cos vt sin vt
z z
2 2
2
sin vt v cos vt v sin vt
t t
2 2 2
sin x vt o v sin x vt
1
v
o
• Sinusoidal variation in E or H is a solution ton the wave equation
Summary of wave equations in free space cont.
• Maxwells equations lead to the three-dimensional wave equation to

describe the propagation of E and H fields
• Plane sinusoidal waves are a solution to the 3D wave equation
• Wave equations are linear
– All temporal field variations can be decomposed into Fourier components

• wave equation describes the propagation of an arbitrary disturbance
– All waves can be written as a superposition of plane waves (again by Fourier

analysis)
• wave equation describes the propagation of arbitrary wave fronts in free space.
Summary of the generation of
travelling waves
2 2
• We see that travelling waves are set up when E 0
– accelerating charges
– but there is also a field due to Coulomb’s law:
q
E
4 or 2
– For a spherical travelling wave, the power carried by the travelling

wave obeys an inverse square law (conservation of energy)
• P a E2 a 1/r2
– to be discussed later in the course
• Ea1/r
– Coulomb field decays more rapidly than travelling field
– At large distances the field due to the travelling wave is much
larger than the ‘ near-field’
Heuristic summary of the generation of travelling waves
t due to charge
constant velocity (1/ r2)
E due to stationary
charge (1/r2)
2
E t2 kinks due to charge
acceleration (1/r)
2
H t2 due to E (1/r)
2.8 Uniform plane waves - transverse relation of E and H
• Consider a uniform plane wave, propagating in the z
direction. E is independent of x and y
0 0
y
In a source free region, .D= =0 (Gauss’ law) :
x y z
.E 0
x y
E is independent of x and y, so
x y z
0, 0 0 Ez 0 (Ez constis nota wave)
y
• So for a plane wave, E has no component in the direction of
propagation. Similarly for H.
• Plane waves have only transverse E and H components.
Orthogonal relationship between E and H:
• For a plane z-directed wave there are no variations along x and y:
Hy Hx A ax z y
H ax ay y
z z
x z
ay
D
t az
y x
y
x y z
x ay ay D
H J
dt
• Equating terms: • and likewise for E o H t :
Hy Ex Ey Hx
o
z t z t
Hx Ey Ex Hy
o
z t z t
• Spat ial r at e of change of H is pr opor t ionat e t o t he t empor al r at e of change
of t he or t hogonal component of E & v.v. at t he same point in space
Orthogonal and phase relationship between E and H:
• Consider a linearly polarised wave that has a transverse
component in (say) the y direction only:
Ey Eo f vt Hy Ex
Ey z t
Hx
vEo f vt Hx Ey
t z
z t
Hx vEo f vt d const vEo f vt
vEy
Hx Ey
o
• Similarly Ey Hx
o
z t
Hy Ex Ex Hy
o o
z t
• H and E ar e in phase and or t hogonal
Hx Ey Hy Ex
o o
• The ratio of the magnetic to electric fields strengths is:

E x2 E y2 E Note:
o
H x2 H y2 H
E E 1
c
which has units of impedance B oH o o
Volts/ metre
amps/ metre
• and the impedance of free space is:

7
o 4 0
20 377
o
1
0
36
Orientation of E and H
• For any medium the intrinsic impedance is denoted by
Ey Ex
Hx Hy
and taking the scalar product
E.H Ex H x Ey H y
H yHx HxH y 0
so E and H are mutually orthogonal

• Taking the cross product of E and H we get the direction
of wave propagation
E H az A B ax y Bz Az B y
xH y Ey H x
ay z Bx Ax B z
a z H y2 H x2
az x By Ay B x
2
E H az H
A ‘ hor izontally’ polar ised wave
• Sinusoidal variation of E and H
Hy Ex
• E and H in phase and orthogonal o
Hy
Ex
E H
A block of space containing an EM plane wave
• Every point in 3D space is characterised by
– Ex, Ey, Ez
– Which determine
• Hx, Hy, Hz
• and vice versa
– 3 degrees of freedom
Ex
Hy Ex
o
E H Hx Ey
Hy o
An example
application of
Maxwell’s
equations:
The Magnetron
The magnetron
• Locate features:
Lorentz force F=qv B
Poynting vector S
Displacement current, D
Current, J
Power flow of EM radiation
• Intuitively power flows in the direction of
propagation
– in the direction of E H
E H az xH y EyH x
az H 2
E2
az
• What are the units of E H?

– H2= .(Amps/metre)2 =Watts/metre2 (cf I2R)
– E2/ =(Volts/metre)2 / =Watts/metre2 (cf I2R)
• Is this really power flow ?
Power flow of EM radiation cont.
• Energy stored in the EM field in the thin box is:
E2
dU dU E dU H uH dx
uE
E 2
2
oH
2
E2 oH uH
dU Adx
2 2 2
E 2 Adx
Hy Ex
• Power transmitted through the box is dU/dt=dU/(dx/c).... o
dx
Ex
E H
Hy
Area A
Power flow of EM radiation cont.
dU E 2 Adx
2
dU E2
S Adx W/m2
Adt A dx c o
• This is the instantaneous power flow

– Half is contained in the electric component
– Half is contained in the magnetic component
• E varies sinusoidal, so the average value of S is obtained
as: E E sin
2
vt
o
Eo2 sin2 vt
S
Eo2 2 2 E o2
S RMS o sin vt
2
• S is the Poynting vector and indicates the direction and magnitude of

power flow in the EM field.
Example problem
• The door of a microwave oven is left open
– estimate the peak E and H strengths in the aperture of the door.
– Which plane contains both E and H vectors ?
– What parameters and
equations are required?
• Power-750 W
• Area of aperture - 0.3 x 0.2 m
• impedance of free space - 377
• Poynting vector:
E2
S H2 W/m2
Solution
E2 2
Power SA A A Watts
Power 750
E 377 2,171V/m
A 0.3.0.2
E 2170
H 5.75A/m
377
7
B oH 4 10 5.75 7.2µTesl a
• Suppose the microwave source is omnidirectional and displaced
horizontally at a displacement of 100 km. Neglecting the effect of
the ground:
• Is the E-field
a) vertical
b) horizontal
c) radially outwards
d) radially inwards
e) either a) or b)
• Does the Poynting vector point
a) radially outwards
b) radially inwards
c) at right angles to a vector from the observer to the source
• To calculate the strength of the E-field should one
a) Apply the inverse square law to the power generated
b) Apply a 1/r law to the E field generated
c) Employ Coulomb’s 1/r2 law
Field due to a 1 kW omnidirectional generator (cont.)
P 103
Power S 2
5.97 nW/m2
4 4 05
Power Power 750

E 2
377 1.5 mV/m
A 4 4 5
0
4.1 Polarisation
• In treating Maxwells equations we referred to

components of E and H along the x,y,z directions
– Ex, Ey, Ez and Hx, Hy, Hz
• For a plane (single frequency) EM wave
– Ez=Hz =0
– the wave can be fully described by either its
E components or its H components
– It is more usual to describe a wave in terms of Hy Ex
o
its E components
• It is more easily measured Hx Ey
o
– A wave that has the E-vector in the x-direction
only is said to be polarised in the x direction
• similarly for the y direction
Polarisation cont..
• Normally the cardinal axes are Earth-referenced
– Refer to horizontally or vertically polarised
– The field oscillates in one plane only and is referred to as linear polarisation
• Generated by simple antennas, some lasers, reflections off dielectrics
– Polarised receivers must be correctly aligned to receive a specific polarisation
A horizontal polarised wave generated by a horizontal dipole and

incident upon horizontal and vertical dipoles
Horizontal and vertical linear polarisation
Linear polarisation
• If both Ex and Ey are present and in phase then components
add linearly to form a wave that is linearly polarised signal
at angle
1
Ey
tan
Ex
Horizontal Vertical Co-phased vertical+horizontal

polarisation polarisation =slant Polarisation
Slant linear polarisation
Slant polarised waves generated by co-phased horizontal and vertical

dipoles and incident upon horizontal and vertical dipoles
Circular polarisation
LHC polarisation NB viewed as approaching wave
Eh Eoh sin vt
Ev Eov sin z vt
2
Eov cos vt
RHC polarisation
Eh Eoh sin vt
Ev Eov sin z vt
2
Eov cos vt
Circular polarisation
LHC
RHC
LHC & RHC polarised waves generated by quadrature -phased horizontal

and vertical dipoles and incident upon horizontal and vertical dipoles
Elliptical polarisation - an example
Ev .5 sin vt
3
Eh .0 sin vt
Constitutive relations
• permittivity of free space 0=8.85 x 10-12 F/m D E r oE
• permeability of free space o=4 x10-7 H/m B H r oH
• Normally r (dielectric constant) and r J sE

– vary with material
– are frequency dependant
• For non-magnetic materials r ~1 and for Fe is ~200,000
• r is normally a few ~2.25 for glass at optical frequencies
– are normally simple scalars (i.e. for isotropic materials) so
that D and E are parallel and B and H are parallel
• For ferroelectrics and ferromagnetics r and r depend on the
relative orientation of the material and the applied field:
x xx xy xz Hx At j 0
microwave j 0
y yx yy yz Hy frequencies: ij
Hz 0 0 o
z zx zy zz
Constitutive relations cont...
• What is the relationship between and refractive index for non
magnetic materials ?
– v=c/n is the speed of light in a material of refractive index n
1 c
v
o o r
n
n r
– For glass and many plastics at optical frequencies
• n~1.5
• r~2.25
• Impedance is lower within a dielectric
o r
o r
What happens at the boundary between materials of different
n, r, r ?
Why are boundary conditions important ?
• When a free-space electromagnetic wave is incident
upon a medium secondary waves are
– transmitted wave
– reflected wave
• The transmitted wave is due to the E and H fields at
the boundary as seen from the incident side
• The reflected wave is due to the E and H fields at the
boundary as seen from the transmitted side
• To calculate the transmitted and reflected fields we
need to know the fields at the boundary
– These are determined by the boundary conditions
Boundary Conditions cont.
1, 1,s 1
2, 2,s 2
• At a boundary between two media, r, rs are different on either

side.
• An abrupt change in these values changes the characteristic
impedance experienced by propagating waves
• Discontinuities results in partial reflection and transmission of
EM waves
• The characteristics of the reflected and transmitted waves can be
determined from a solution of Maxwells equations along the
boundary
2.3 Boundary conditions
• The tangential component of E is continuous E1t, H1t 1, 1,s 1
at a surface of discontinuity
– E1t,= E2t E2t, H2t 2, 2,s 2
• Except for a perfect conductor, the
tangential component of H is continuous at a
surface of discontinuity
– H1t,= H2t
• The normal component of D is continuous at
the surface of a discontinuity if there is no
surface charge density. If there is surface D1n, B1n 1, 1,s 1
charge density D is discontinuous by an
amount equal to the surface charge density. D2n, B2n 2, 2,s 2
– D1n,= D2n+ s
• The normal component of B is continuous at
the surface of discontinuity
– B1n,= B2n
Proof of boundary conditions - continuity of Et
x
E y1 E x1 E y3 1, 1,s 1
y
E y2 E y4 2, 2,s 2
E x2
• Integral form of Faraday’s law:

B
E.ds .dA
A
0 0 t 0 0
y y y y Bz
E y2 E y1 Ex1 x E y3 E y4 Ex 2 x x y
2 2 2 2 t
0
As y 0, z y 0 That is, the tangential
component of E is
E x1 x E x 2 x 0
E E continuous
x1 x2
Proof of boundary conditions - continuity of Ht
x
H y1 H x1 H y3 1, 1,s 1
y
H y2 H y4 2, 2,s 2
H x2
• Ampere’s law
D
0
H.ds
t
J .dA
0 0
0 A
y y y y Dz
H y2 H y1 H x1 x H y 3 H y4 H x2 x Jz x y
2 2 2 2 t
0
As y 0, Dz Jz y 0 That is, the tangential
component of H is
H x1 x H x 2 x 0
H x1 H x 2 continuous
Proof of boundary conditions - Dn
Dn1
y
z 1, ,s 1
2, 2,s 2
Dn 2
• The integral form of Gauss’ law for electrostatics is:
dA dV
V
applied to the box gives
Dn1 x y Dn2 x y edge s x y
As dz 0, edge 0 hence
Dn1 Dn 2 s
The change in the normal component of D at a
boundary is equal to the surface charge density
Proof of boundary conditions - Dn cont.
Dn1 Dn 2 s
• For an insulator with no static electric charge s=0

Dn1 Dn 2
• For a conductor all charge flows to the surface and for an

infinite, plane surface is uniformly distributed with area
charge density s
In a good conductor, s is large, D= E 0 hence if
medium 2 is a good conductor
Dn1 s
Proof of boundary conditions - Bn
• Proof follows same argument as for Dn on page 47,
• The integral form of Gauss’ law for magnetostatics is
.dA 0
– there are no isolated magnetic poles
Bn1 x y Bn 2 x y edge 0
Bn1 Bn 2
The normal component of B at a boundary is

always continuous at a boundary
2.6 Conditions at a perfect conductor
• In a perfect conductor s is infinite
• Practical conductors (copper, aluminium silver) have
very large s and field solutions assuming infinite s can
be accurate enough for many applications
– Finite values of conductivity are important in calculating
Ohmic loss
• For a conducting medium
– J=s E
• infinite s infinite J
• More practically, s is very large, E is very small ( 0) and J is finite
2.6 Conditions at a perfect conductor
• It will be shown that at high frequencies J is confined to a surface
layer with a depth known as the skin depth
• With increasing frequency and conductivity the skin depth, dx
becomes thinner
Current sheet
dx
dx
Lower frequencies, Higher frequencies,
smaller s larger s
• It becomes more appropriate to consider the current density in

terms of current per unit with:
limJdx J s A/m
dx 0
Conditions at a perfect conductor cont. (page 47 revisited)
x
H y1 H x1 H y3 1, 1,s 1
y
H y2 H y4 2, 2,s 2
H x2
• Ampere’s law: H.ds

D
J .dA
A t 0 Jsz x
0 0
y y y y Dz
H y2 H y1 H x1 x H y 3 H y4 H x2 x Jz x y
2 2 2 2 t
0
As y 0, Dz t x y 0, Jz x y xJ sz
That is, the tangential component of H is
H x1 H x2 J sz discontinuous by an amount equal to the
surface current density
Conditions at a perfect conductor cont. (page 47 revisited)
cont.
• From Maxwell’s equations:
– If in a conductor E=0 then dE/dT=0
– Since H
E
dt
Hx2=0 (it has no time-varying component and also
cannot be established from zero)
H x1 J sz
The current per unit width, Js, along the surface of a
perfect conductor is equal to the magnetic field just
outside the surface:
• H and J and the surface normal, n, are mutually
perpendicular: J n H
s
Summary of Boundary conditions
At a boundary between non-conducting media
Et1 Et 2 n 1 E2 0
H t1 Ht2 n 1 H2 0
Dn1 Dn 2 n. 1 D2 0
Bn1 Bn 2 n. 1 B2 0
At a metallic boundary (large s )

n 1 E2 0
n 1 H2 0
n. 1 D2 s
n. 1 B2 0
At a perfectly conducting boundary
n E1 0
n H1 Js
n.D1 s
n.B1 0
2.6.1 The wave equation for a conducting medium
• Revisit page 8 derivation of the wave equation with J 0
D B
H J E
dt dt
As on page 8:
B
E B o H
t t t
D
E o
t t
J sE
2
J D D E
o o
t t2
2
E
os o
t t2
2.6.1 The wave equation for a conducting medium
cont.
2
E E
E os o
t t2
2
2 E E
.E E os o
t t2
In the absence of sources .E 0 hence:
2
2 E
E os o
t t2
• This is the wave equation for a decaying wave
– to be continued...
Reflection and refraction of plane waves
• At a discontinuity the change in , and s results
in partial reflection and transmission of a wave
• For example, consider normal incidence:
Incidentwave Ei e j t z
Reflected wave Er e j t z
• Where Er is a complex number determined by the

boundary conditions
Reflection at a perfect conductor
• Tangential E is continuous across the
boundary
– see page 45
• For a perfect conductor E just inside the
surface is zero
– E just outside the conductor must be zero
Ei Er 0
Ei Er
• Amplitude of reflected wave is equal to
amplitude of incident wave, but reversed in
phase
Standing waves
• Resultant wave at a distance -z from the
interface is the sum of the incident and
reflected waves
ET , t incidentwave reflected wave
Ei e j t z
Er e j t z
Ei e j z
ej z
ej t ej ej
sin
2j
2 jEi sin z e j t
and if Ei is chosen to be real

ET ,t Re 2 jEi sin z cos t j sin t
2 Ei sin z sin t
Standing waves cont...
ET , t 2Ei sin z sin t
• Incident and reflected wave combine to produce

a standing wave whose amplitude varies as a
function (sin z) of displacement from the
interface
• Maximum amplitude is twice that of incident
fields
Reflection from a perfect conductor
• Direction of propagation is given by E H
If the incident wave is polarised along the y axis:
Ei a y E yi
Hi a x H xi Fr om page 18
then E H ay ax yi H xi
a z E yi H xi
That is, a z-directed wave.
For the reflected wave Ε H a z E yi H xi and Er a y E yi
So H r x H xi H i and the magnetic field is
reflected without change in phase
ej e j
• Given that cos
2
derive (using a similar method that used
for ET(z,t) on p59) the form for HT(z,t)
HT , t Hie j t z
Hre j t z
j z j z j t
Hi e
2 H i cos z e j t
As for Ei, Hi is real (they are in phase), therefore

HT , t Re H i cos z cos t j sin t 2 H i cos z cos t
HT , t 2H i cos z cos t
• Resultant magnetic field strength also has a
standing-wave distribution
• In contrast to E, H has a maximum at the surface
and zeros at (2n+1) /4 from the surface:
resultant wave resultant wave
E [V/m] H [A/m]
z [m] z [m]
free space silver free space silver

z = 0 z = 0
ET ,t 2Ei sin z sin t
HT , t 2H i cos z cos t
• ET and HT are /2 out of phase( sin t cos t /2 )

• No net power flow as expected
– power flow in +z direction is equal to power flow in - z direction
Reflection by a perfect dielectric
• Reflection by a perfect dielectric (J=s E=0)
– no loss
• Wave is incident normally
– E and H parallel to surface
• There are incident, reflected (in medium 1)and
transmitted waves (in medium 2):
Reflection from a lossless dielectric
Reflection by a lossless dielectric
Ei 1H i
j
Er 1H r
s j o r
Et 2Ht
• Continuity of E and H at boundary requires:

Ei Er Et
Hi Hr Ht
Which can be combined to give
1 1 1
Hi Hr i Er Ht Et i Er
1 2 2
1 1 Er
i Er i Er 2 1
1 2 E
Ei 2 1
2 i Er 1 i Er
Ei 2 1 Er 2 1
The r ef lect ion coef f icient
Ei Er Et
Hi Hr Ht
• Similarly
Et Er Ei Er 2 1 2 1 2 2
E 1
Ei Ei Ei 2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2
E
2 1
The t r ansmission coef f icient
• Furthermore:
Hr Er
H
Hi Ei
Ht 1 Et 1 2 2 2 1
H
Hi 2 Ei 2 2 1 2 1
And because = o for all low-loss dielectrics

Er 1 2 n1 n2
E H
Ei 1 2
n1 n2
Er 2 1 2n1
E
Ei 1 2
n1 n2
2 2 2n2
H
1 2
n1 n2
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lecture notes are at:

Revision of Electrostatics (week 1)

NB I mpor t ant r esult s highlight ed in t his colour

H in and out of page

• Fields propagate at c=1/ 3 x 108 m/sec

• Bremstrahlung - “ breaking radiation”

• What does this mean

This is a travelling wave if v 1 o

• Sinusoidal variation in E or H is a solution ton the wave equation

• Maxwells equations lead to the three-dimensional wave equation to

– All temporal field variations can be decomposed into Fourier components

– All waves can be written as a superposition of plane waves (again by Fourier

– For a spherical travelling wave, the power carried by the travelling

• The ratio of the magnetic to electric fields strengths is:

• and the impedance of free space is:

so E and H are mutually orthogonal

Lorentz force F=qv B

• What are the units of E H?

• This is the instantaneous power flow

• S is the Poynting vector and indicates the direction and magnitude of

Power Power 750

• In treating Maxwells equations we referred to

A horizontal polarised wave generated by a horizontal dipole and

Horizontal Vertical Co-phased vertical+horizontal

Slant polarised waves generated by co-phased horizontal and vertical

LHC & RHC polarised waves generated by quadrature -phased horizontal

• permeability of free space o=4 x10-7 H/m B H r oH

• Normally r (dielectric constant) and r J sE

• At a boundary between two media, r, rs are different on either

• Integral form of Faraday’s law:

• For an insulator with no static electric charge s=0

• For a conductor all charge flows to the surface and for an

The normal component of B at a boundary is

• It becomes more appropriate to consider the current density in

• Ampere’s law: H.ds

At a metallic boundary (large s )

• Where Er is a complex number determined by the

and if Ei is chosen to be real

• Incident and reflected wave combine to produce

As for Ei, Hi is real (they are in phase), therefore

free space silver free space silver

• ET and HT are /2 out of phase( sin t cos t /2 )

• Continuity of E and H at boundary requires:

The t r ansmission coef f icient

And because = o for all low-loss dielectrics

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