Chapter No. al z as Ag AIO Att Al alg. Ala AIS, Als Al? alg. 24 | 25 A26 TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘The Work of the Aerospace Structures Engineer. STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES (Loads, Reactions, Stresses, Shears, Bending Moments, Deflections) Equilibrium of Force Systems. Truss Structures. Externally Braced Wings. Landing Gear. Properties of Sections - Centroids, Moments of Inertia, ete. General Loads on Aircraft. Beams Shear and Moments. Seam - Column Moments, Torsion - Stresses and Deflections. Detlections of Structures. Castigliano’s Theorem. Virtual Work. Matrix Methods. THEORY AND METHODS FOR SOLVING STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES Statically indeterminate Structures. Theorem of Least Work. Virtual Work. Matrix Methods. Bending Moments in Frames and Rings by Elastic Center Method. Column Analogy Method, ‘Continuous Structures » Moment ‘Slope Deflection Method. ‘bution Method, BEAM BENDING AND SHEAR STRESSES. MEMBRANE STRESSES. COLUMN AND PLATE INSTABILITY. lid and Open Sections - Shear Center. Flow in Closed Thin-Walled Sections. Membrane Stresses in Pressure Vessels. Bending of Plates. Theory of the Instability of Columns and Thin Sheets. INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL AIRCRAFT STRESS ANALYSIS Introduction to Wing Stress Analysis by Modified Beam Theory. Introduction to Fuselage Stress Analysis by Modified Beam Theory. ‘Loads and Stresses on Ribs and Frames. Analysis of Special Wing Problems. Cutouts. Sheer Lag. Swept Wing. ‘Analysis by the “Method of Displacements”. THEORY OF ELASTICITY AND THERMOELASTICITY The 3-Dimensional Equations of Thermoelasticity. ‘The 2-Dimensional Equations of Elasticity and Thermoelasticity. Selected Problems in Elasticity and Thermoelasticity.TABLE OF CONTENTS Continued Chapter No. FLIGHT VEHICLE MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES: 81 Basic Principles and Definitions. 82 Mechanical and Physieat Properties of Metallic Materials for Flight Vehicle Structures, geese Bsoae 10 on 12 13 D1 D2 D3 STRENGTH OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES Combined Stresses, Theory of Yield and Ultimate Failure. ‘Steength of Columns with Stable Cross-Sections. Yield and Ultimate Strength in Bending. ‘Strength and Design of Round, Stream Torsion and Combined Loadings. Buckling Strength of Fiat Sheet in Compression, Shear, Bending and Under Combined Stress Systems. Local Buckling Stress for Composite Shapes. rippling Strength of Composite Shapes and Sheet-Stiffener Panels in Compression. Column Strength. Buckling Strength of Monocoque Cylinders. Buckling Strength of Curved Sheet Panels and Spherical Plates, Ultimate Strength of ‘Stiffened Curved Sheet Structures. Design of Metal Beams. Web Shear Resistant (Non-Buckting) Type. Part 1. Flat Sheet Web with Vertical Stiffeners, Part 2, Other Types of Non-Buckling Webs. Diagonal Semi-Tension Field Design. Part 1. Beams with Flat Webs. Part 2, Curved Web System. ‘Sandwich Construction and Design, Fatigue. (Oval and Square Tubing in Tension, Compression, Bending, CONNECTIONS AND DESIGN DETAILS Fittings and Connections. Bolted and Riveted. Welded Connections. Some important Details in Structural Design. Appendix A Elementary Arithmetical Rules of MatricesAccelerated Motion of Rigid Airplane ee AMD sireratt Bolte. 110122) DL? Sirerait Sure. 102202 Dna Alzeralt Wing Sections - Ai ‘Types sees aircraft Wing Structure = Tress Ty air Fores : Allowable stresses (and titeractions) 1.38 Analysis of Frame with Pinned Supports. ARI Angle Method ct pplication of Htatrve Methods fo Various Structures... AT.22 applied baad sss ALL Axis of Symmetry | 112... AR4 Beaded Webs... .. . . - 10.16 ‘Beam Design - special Cases. 3.10 ‘Beam Fised End Moments by ‘Method af Area Moments. AT.32 Beam Rivet Design 10.3 ‘Beam Shear and Bending ‘Moment ASL ‘aeame = Forces ata Seccion | AS.7 Beams - Moment Diagrams. | A8.8 Beains with Non-Parallel Flanges - one Beams - Shear and Moment Dageams AB Beams ~ statically Deter~ tminate & Indeterminate... AS.1 Banging and Compression of Columns se es ss Aa Bending Moments © Elastic Center Methods = 2... ADT ending of Rectangular Plates alata Bending Strength ~ Baste ‘Approach. 3.1 Bending Strength - Example” Problems see 3.4 Pending Strain of Rowse : chs Bending Stengih Soli ‘Round Bar ees ot Bending Strasses |... At Bending Stresses - Curved Beams ALLIS Bending Stresses - Elastic | Raage = pees ALAS Bending Stresses ~ Non ‘omogeneous Sections . . . . ALG. IL Benaing Stresses About Principal Axes... Aa. Betaing of Thin Plates ais. i0 Bolt Gencing Strength. © |). DL.8 Be Cog Strength Avaya Methods... Balt Snear, Tension & Bending Serengsts Bousaary Cancitions Box Beams Analysis grass Backing CSeificiens ‘Buckling of Fiat Panela with Dissimuar Faces auciding of Flac Sheets ander Combined Loads « ° Dueling st Reeser plates : INDEX ‘Buckling of StUfened Flat ‘Sheets under Longitudinal Compression cat Buckling under Sending Loads C5. 6 Buckling uncer Shear Loads. . C5.5 uekling under Transverse Shear cee Che Garry Over Factor»... ALLS Castigliano's Theorem «| 2. a7.5 Controids - Centor of Gravity. 3.1 Gladding Reduction Factors... 5.5 Column Analogy Method... AL0.1 Column Curves - Non Dimensional. «ee se + Columa Curves - Solution Columa End Restraint... Columa Formulas « Columa Strength. « ° . Columan Strength with Keown” End Restraining Moment. . C2.16 Combined Axial and Trans- ‘verse Loads ~ Generat Aeuan = eee AB AL combined Sending aid) Compression. =... . . C422 Combined Bending and Flecural shears... . C210 Combined Bending ad Tension se CRB Combined Bending and ‘Tension or Compression of Thin Plat Combined Bending & Torsion | ‘Combined Stress Equations « Compatability Equations. Complex Bending - ‘Symmetrical Section. . Compressive Buckling Siress for Flanged Elements Conical Shells ~ Buckling ‘Strengths «+ 2 can Constant Shear Flow Webs | Ald. 10 Constant Shear Flow Webs ~ Single Cell - 2 Flange Beam. A1S.9 Constant Shear Flow Webs ~ Single Cell - 3 Flange Beam. A1S.5, Continuous Structures = Curved Members... ~~ AILST ‘Continuous Structures = Variable Moment of ertia . All. 18 core Shear eee ee ese + « C1226 Gorrection for Cladding: | ¢ 1 C14 orrugated Core Sandwich Paulure Modes coszone Procedsre | reap of Materials | | Creep Pattern ripping Stresses Caieulations cee OUT critical Shear Stress ||| | | C116 Srystallization Theory 2) Guimaatie Oamage Theary. | C122 Curved Bears . “35.3 Curved Sheet Paaeis = ‘Buckling Stress cat Garved Web Systems | 1) | 611.39 Cutouts in Webs or Sita Panella. ss = ee DOT Deflection Limitations in Plate Analvses.-- AIT.S Daflections oy Siastie Weights AT.27 Deections by Moment Areas. AT.20 Deflections for Thermal strains «= oo. ATAT Dallections oy Virewt Work |” A.2 Delta Wing Example Problem. 23.2 Besign for Compression... C42 Design Conditions anc Dasien ‘Weights - AS Design Fiz equiremenis| for atrplane = - - M8 Design Loads DILL age Design for Tension ©2211. CAL Dilferentiat Equation of Deflection Surface...» .% A812 Discontinaities 2 820.15 Distribution of Loads to Sheet Panels. vv ves sss ARLZ uctuiey - DIITIT “aus Dummy Uat Loads Ll age Dynamic Elfect of Air Forces. Ad. 19 -Bilect of Axial Load on ‘Moment Distriution. . . . . ALL 22 lfective Sheet Wiaths ||. C710 Blaatie Buckling Strength af ‘Flat Sheet in Compression. . 5.1 dlastie ~ Inelaste action... BIS Elastic Lateral Support Columns. CaiT Blastie Stabulity of Columa |. A172 ‘lastic Strain Energy cL Elasticity and Thermo: lasticty = One-Dimensional Proolema 326.1 Blastictty and Thermo- elasticity Tao-Diroensional Equations. « ne ASE Electric Are Welding Daz End Bay Bests Lol euts End Momenta for Continuous Frameworks. vss «ALL IO Bquattons of Static Equilibria... es ARE Equiltorium Equations |. | A282 Failure of Columas by Compression. 2s ALBA Failure Modes in Curved Honeycomo Panels... . . C12.20 allure of Structures ©.) BLT Fatigue Analysis - Statistical Distribution =...» 19.4 Extipie and Fail-Safe Design | 19.3 Fatigue of Materials. « Bits Faugue SN Curves «001 Fillers Furning Design Fixed Bod Moments Fixed End Moments Due to Support Deflections . « Eixtty Cooliicients. Flange Design - Flange Desugn Streoses : Flange Discontinuities. Flange toads Flange Strength (Cripeling) - Flat Sheet Web ota Vertical | Susteners Flemural skedr Flow ‘Distribveion vs ss « ALS. 2M Flemura! Shear Flow ~ ‘Symmetrical Beam Section = AL4.S Flemaral Shear Strese. sss ALEStatic Tension Stress Strain Diagram =... . BL Statteally Determinate Coplanar Structures and Loading ee ee ART ‘statically Determtnate ane Tndeterminate Structures ..A2.4 Statically Indeterminate Frames ~ Joist Rotation. . AL2,7 Statically indeterminate Problem sss AB Stepped Column © Strengin | C24 Stifened Cylindrical ‘Stractares ~ Utimate Strengths... tee C88 Stifiness & Carry-over ” Factors for Curved Members All. $0 Stufness Factors s+. sss + ALLA ‘Strain ~ Displacemeat Relations eee ee ee ee Ans ‘strain Energy | DOAnL ‘Strain Energy of Plates Due Bending vee es - A119 Strain Energy in Pare Bending of Plates. ee ALBA Streamline Tabing = Strength | “C4. 12 Strength Checking and Desigs = Problems... .. C45 Strere*" °: Round Tubes -_ ster Combined Loadings .. C4.22 ‘tress Analysis Formulas | | C1115 Stress Analysis of Thin Skin « Multiple Stringer Cantilever Wings ee ee ee es AITO Seress Concentration Factors | C13.10 ‘Stroge Distribution & Angle ‘of Dwist for 2-Cell Thin Wall Closed Section . « 8.7 stress-strain Curve. |.) 1) BLT Stress-strain Relations | |! | Anda Stresses around Panel Culost, 422.1 Stresses in Uprights cuit Stringer Systems in Diagonal Tension. cus Structural Design Philosopay C13 Structural Ficings vo wwe. AZ2 Structural Skin Panel Details | 3.32 Structures with Carved Members... . . ALL 29 Successive Approxiciation ‘Mettoa for Multiple Cell Als.26 Fitting Units... ARS ‘Symmetrica Sections External Shear Loaded « ai, INDEX - Continued Tangent Mogulus... ‘Tangent-Modulus Theory | Tax Loacs Tension Clips | | | ‘Tension-Field Beam Action. Tonsion- Field Beam Formaiaa ‘Theorem of Castiglione » ss = Tygorem of Complemeniary Energy nee ‘Theorem of Least Wore’ | | ‘Theorems of Virtual Wort and Minimum Potential Energy ‘Thermal Detlections by Matrix Methods. = Dimensional Equations. = . Tata Walled Shella = S| ‘Three Cell ~ Multiple Flange Beam - Symmetrical about One ANS vet es ee ets Three Flange ~ Sireie Cali Wiog Torsion - Clreular Sections. ‘Torsion - Btfect of End Restraint ‘Torsion ~ Nos-eireuiar Sections. . cee Torsion Open Sections’ * > >: Torsion of Thin-Walled Shiner 2aving Closed Type jitters ss Torsion Tain Wailed sections | Torsional Moments ~ Beams. Torsional Medulus of Rupture. ‘Torsional Shear Flow in ‘Multiple Cell Beams by Method of Successive Corrections. =» ‘Torsional Shear Sesses in. ‘Multiple-Cell ThineWall {Closed Section - Digtri>ution ‘Torsional Streagta of Round ‘Tubes ents ‘Torsional Stresses ta Maltiple-Cell Thin-Walled Tubes ‘Transmission of Power by ‘Cylindrical Shaft. =. . : ‘Trlarial Stresses =. : ‘Truss Deflection by Method” of Blastle Weights... ‘Truss Structures... . | 1 BLS ale, 13,33 3.2 cunt ema ALS ans Aga Ans 8.39 ans A233 AlS.18 Ano. aB1 A616 8.3 ass AG. 1S 8.5 ASS ait 8.10 AGT 4.17 Redundancy oes... 26. ABT ‘Tubing Design Pacis 2251) Cals ‘Two-Dimensional Proslens, | Az6.5 ‘Two-Cell Multiple Flange Beam - One ds of Symmecy ‘Type of Wing Rite ‘Ultimate strength in Combined ‘Bending & Flemrai Shear... 4.25 Ultimate Strength in Combined Compression, Bending, Flemral Shear & Torsion. . C4.28 Ultimate Strength in Combined ‘Compression, Bending & Torsion sees ca.2e Ultimate Strengt in Combined ‘Tension, Torsion and Internal Pressure p in pat. . 4.26 = AIS IL ‘Aa Uniform strese Condition. | Ci-1 5.15, Aa.2 eee cee es AIOE Saaymmesical Fraes wig Principal Axes 29.18 neymmetzical Structures © Ad. 13 Vv. 'y = Load Factor eee AAT Wagner Equations .. =... C14 Web Bending Shear Stresses C10.5 Web Design oe ee es CLLRS Web splices |. 521121)! cxolt0 Web Strengen, ‘state Webs | | “C10. § ‘Webs with Roun Lightening” Holes... nee = C1OIT Wing Analysis Protlerae °! > “A19.2 Wing Arrangements... <<. AIG] Wing Hitective Section ©.‘ ata. i2 ‘Wing Internal Stresses. . | | 29,44 ‘Wing Shear and Beading Anaiyeia . . ee AIDE Wag Shar and Beidisg waoments wee AB Wing = Shear Lag: 2222 LD aia, 28 Wing Shears ana Moments’ | |” As. 10 Wing Stitisess Macrte. . . | | 23-11 Wing Strength Requirements | Al3. 5 Wing Stress Anaigais Methods 419. 5 Wing ~ Ultimate Strength... A19.12 Work of Structures Group. | |” Ai.2 Y stiffened Sheet Panels... C7.20CHAPTER AL THE WORK OF THE AEROSPACE STRUCTURES ENGINEER ALI Introduction. The first controllable human flight in a heavier than afr gachine was made by Orville right on December 17, 1908, at Kitty Hank, North Carolina. It covered’a distance ot 120 feet and the duration of flight was twenty Seconds. Today, this initial flight sppears very unimpressive, but 1t comes into its true perspective of Importance when we realize that mankind for centuries nas dreamed about doing or tried to do what the wright Brothers accomplished in 1903. ‘The tremendous progress accomplished in the first 50 years of aviation nistory, with most of tt occurring in the last 25 years, 1s almost unbeltevable, Dut without doubt, the progress im the second 60 year period will still be gore unbelievable and fantastic, 4s this 1s sritten in 1064, jet atrlins transportation at 600 MPH 4s well established and several types of milttary atrerazt nave speeds in the 1200 to 2000 MPH range. Preliminary destgns of a Supersonic afritner with Mach 3 speed nave besn completed and the government is on the verge of Sponsoring the development of such a flight vehicle, thus supersonic air trangportation should become comon in the early 1970’3. The rapid progress in missile design aas ushered in the Space age. Already many space venicles ave been flown in search of new knowledge which 1s needed before successful exploration of space such as iandings on several planets can take place. Unfortunately, the rapid Gevetopment of the alsstle and rocket power has given mankind a flight vehicle when combined with the nuclear bomb, the awesome potential to quickly destroy vast Tegions of the earth. Wdntle no person st present knows here or what space exploration will lead to, relative to benefits to mankind, wwe do ion that the next, great aviation expansion basides supersonic airline transportation will be the full develop zent and use of vertical take-off and landing airoraft. Thus persons who will be Living through the second half century of aviation progress will no doubt witness even nore fantastic progress than oceurred in the first 50 years of avtatton history. AL.2 General Organization of an Aircraft Company Engineering Division. ‘the modern comercial airliner, military airplane, missile and space vehicle 1s 4 alghly sctentific machine and the combined know! and experience of hundreds of engineers and scientists working in close cooperation is necessary to insure a successful product. Thus the engineering division of an aerospace company consists of many groups of specialists whose specialised training covers all tlelds of engineering education such as Physics, Chemical and Metallurgical, Mecnantesl, Zlectrical and, of coursa, Aeronautical angineering. It so happens that practically all the aerospace companies publisn extensive pamphlets or brochures explaining the organization of tae enginesrtng division and the dutics and Fesponsibilities of the sany sections and groups and illustrating the tremendous laboratory and test facilities which the aerospace industry possesses. It 1s highly recommended that the Student read and study these tree publications in order to obtain an early general under- Standing on how the modern flight vehicle is conceived, designed and then produced. In general, the engineering derartuent of an aerospace company can be Droken down into six large rather distinct sections, watch in turn are further divided into specialized groups, woich in turn are further divided into sualler working groups of engineers. To tllustrate, the six sections will be listed together with some of the vartous groups. ‘This 1s not a complete List, but it should give an {dea of the broad, engineering set-up that ts necessary. re Pre liminary Design Section. Technical Analysis Section. a @) (3) &) } G) Aerodynanies Group Structures Group veignt and Salance Control Group Foner Plant analysis Group Matertals and Processes Group Controls Analysis Group 11]. Component Design Section. a (2) Structural Design Group (tng, Body and Contrel Surfaces) Systems Design Group (11 aecnanical, Aycraulic, electrical and thermal installations) IV. Laboratory Tests Section, ALLALa THE WORK OF THE AEROSPACE STRUCTURES ENGINEER (2) Wing Tunnel and Fluid Mechanics Test ‘The final results of the work of this Labs. group are formal reports givins c-mp! (2) Structural Test Labs. load design eriteria, with many grachs (3) Propulsion Test Labs. mary tables. The final results (A) Bleetronics Test Labs. plete shear, moment and normal £1 (3) Electro-Mechanieal Test Labs. to a convenient set of V2 axes (5) Weavons and Controls Test Labs. creft untts such as the wing, © (7) Analog end Digital Computer Labs. V. Plignt Test Section, VI. gineering Field Service Section. Since this textbock deals with the subject of structures, tt seems appropriate to discuss in some detail the work of the Structures Group. For the detailed discussion of the other groups, the student should refer to the vartous air- craft company publications. AL.3. The Work of the Structures Group ‘The structures group, relative to number of engineers, ts one of the lergest of the many groups of engineers that mke up Section If, ‘the technical analysis section. The structures group ts primartly responsible for the structural integrity (safoty) of the airplane. Safety may depend on sufficient strengtn or suffictent rigidity. This structural integrity must be accompanied with lightest possible watght, because any excess weight has detri~ mental effect upon the performance of aircraft. For example, ina large, long range missile, one pound of “nnecossary structural welghe may add more than 200 Ibs. to the overall welght of the missile. ‘The structures group ts usually divided {nto sub-groups es follows: (1) (2) 3) a) THE WORK OF THE APPLIED LOADS GROUP Applied Loads Calculation Group Stress Analysis and Strength Group Dynamics analysis Group Special Projects and Research Group Before any part of the structure can be finally proportioned relative to strength or rigidity, the true external loads on the air craft aust be detemmined. Since critical loads cone from asny sources, the Loads Grcup must analyze loads from aertdynamic forces, as well as those forces fron power plants, alferart inertia; control system actutors; launching, landing and recovery gear; armanent, etc. The effects of the asrodyramic forces are initiaily calculated on the assumption that the airplane structurs is a rigid body. afte: the atreraft structure 1s obtained, 1ts true rigidity can be used to obtain dynamic eftects. Results of wind tunnel model tests aro usually necessary in the application of aerodynamic principles ta load and pressure analysis. THE WORK OF STRESS ANALYSIS uD ST aCuP Essentially the primary job of the stross group 18 to help specity or determine the kind of material to use and the thicmoss, size ant crogs-sectional shape of every su: ber or unit on the airplane or aisstle, and also to assist in the design of all Joints and connections for such members. Safety atv: Weight are the parancunt stractural design re- quirements. ‘The stress group must constantly work closely with the Structural Design Sect’ im order to evolve the best structural over-all arrangement. Such factors a3 poser plants, built in ful tanks, landing gear retracting wells, and other large cut-outs can dictacs = type of wing structure, as for example, a two spar single cell wing, or a multiple star multiple cell wing. To expedite the initial ser: sesign studies, the stress group must supply Lnitiel structural sizes based on approxizate loads, ‘The tinal results of the work by ne stress group are recorded fn elaborate reports which Show how the stresses ners calculated and now the required member sizes wore obtained to carry these stresses effictently. The tinal size of a member may be dictated by one or more factors Such as elastic action, inelastic action, ele~ vated tenperatures, fatigue, ete. To ingure ations, she the accuracy of theoretical cal: stress group must have the assistance of t! structures test laboratory in omer to obtain information on which to base allowable desizn stresses. THE WORK OF THE OYNAMICS ANALYSIS GROUP ‘The Dynantes Analysis Croup has rapidly expanded in recent years relative to number of engineers required because supersonic airplane: misatlas and vertical rising aircraft neve 91 sented many naw and complex problens in the generel field of aynanics. In some alrerart companies the dynamics group {s set up as a Separate group cutside the Stricturas Group, ‘The engineers tn the dynanics group are Pesponsible for the investigation of vibration and sheck, atreratt flutter and the establish— ment of design requirements or changes for its control or correction. Aircraft contain dozens of sechantcal installactons. vitration of any of these installations or sysceas may 32 Sf such charscter as 70 cause faLlsy eperstion or danger of failure and theresore the cynamicANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEMICLE STRUCTURES characteristics aust be changed or modifted in order to insure reliable end safe oparation. ‘The major structural units of atreraft such as the wing and fuselage ere not rigid bodies. ‘Thus When & sharp air gust strikes a flexible Wing in high speed [light, we have a aynanic load eftuation and the wing mill vibrate. The dynamicist gust determine whether this vibration 18 Serious relative to Inducad stresses on the wing structure. The dynanies group ts also responsible tor the determination of the stability end performance of missile and flight vehicle guidance and control systems. The dynamles group must work constantly sith the various test laboratories In order to obtain reliable values of certain factors that are necessary in many theoretical calculations. THB WORK OF THE SPEQTAL PROJECTS GROUP In general, all tne various technical Geeta est | ALS groups have a special sub-group which are work— Ing on design problems that m111 be encountered J che near or sistant fusare es aviation pro- ses. Por example, in the “tructures Group, this sub-group atgnt te studying auch problens as: (1) now to calculate the thermal stresses in the wing structure at super-sonic speeds; (2) now to stress analyze a new type of wing structure; (3) mhat type of body structure ts vest for future space travel and what kind of materials will be needed, te. chert 1 tllustrates tn general a typical nake-up of the Structures Section of a large aeroscace company. Chart 2 lists the many’ items which the structures engineer gust be concerned with in Insuring the structural integrity of the flight vehicle. Botn Charts land 2 are trom Chance-Vougnt Structures Design Manual and are reproduced with tnetr permission. an Ter 1 bo a T ~ cnet Structures Section Organization Chance-Vought Corp.Aa THE WORK OF THE AEROSPACE STRUCTURES ENGINEER THE LINKS TO STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY «+++ ARE NO BETTER THAN THE WEAKEST LINK MATERIALS OF ‘CONSTRUCTION asioers ‘STIFFNESS pees ‘CRITERIA eimisions STRESS UTR Sage aL ANALYSIS. coves Sa SBAY nasi anna Ean PANEL FLUTIER-S4iM CONTOURS wenn STRAIM COMPATEBNLITY, cORROL SSE EREEIONS Shin corti Teun ETS saree Macs canon iaaton, eke was OL OM. DTERCENE ‘mena Sats \ -[asooname cower sh etait sous DYNAMIC RESPONSE. Bers ENT wArsis LOADS AND ENVIROMENT uct oxo carain Bone uo ener ‘oka oad laure ovis ‘aroiwe ores Srwanie wernt atoms Sans i asa COMPONENT ALLOWABLES ‘ Sisto ANALYSIS. raceme ema Lo Scr SUIS ‘ano "ds rot Ha un SCS va at essa ht san awuysis ae snare outs iment THERA AySI5 en rs DERaCHON AALS cones srimess sores sueeuNe Chart 2 ‘From Chances Vought Structures Design Manual MATERIALS AND QUALITY CONTROL uct STRESE-STRAIN esau sss ear aca core stmess coRansion santana rasencune speircavon cononmsnes SUE Pn ConACHAPTER A2 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES A2.1 Introduction. The equations of static equilibrium aust constantly be used by the stress analyst snd structural designer 1 ob taining unknown forces and reactions or unkno“n Invernal stresses. They are necessary whether the structure.or machine be simple or complex. The ability to epply these equations is no Gouot vest developed by solving many problems. This chapter initiates the application of these Important physical laws to the force and stress analysis of structures. It is assumed that @ student has completed the usual college course in ongineering macnanics called statics. A2.2 Equations of Static Equilibrium, To completely define a force, we must know tts magnitude, direction and point of apptica— sion, ‘These fects regarding the force are generelly referred to as the characteristics of the force. Sometimes the ore general term of Line of ation or location is used as e force characteristic in place of point of applica’ Gestgnation. on A force acting in space ts completely defined 1! we know tts components in three Girections and [ts moments about 3 axes, 2 for sxample Fy, Fyy Fg 2nd My My and Me. For Qquiltoritin of a forea system there can te no resultant force and thus the equations of equilitriwn ara obtained by equating the force and nonent components to zero, The equations of statie equilibrium for the vartous types of force systens ill now 32 sumarized. EQUILTSRIUM SQUATTONS PCR GENERAL EF y az = 0 Thus for 2 general space Zorce systen, there are 6 equations of static equilibrium avaliable, Three of these end ao mors can be foree equations. It ts often more conventent so take the moment 2xes, 1, 2 and , as any set ot x, goneat equations about 4 att 2 force equations are written for autually perpendicular axes and need not be the x, y And 2 axes. SQUILISAIUM OF SPA coneurr force system cass through a comen point. ‘The resultant, 12 any, must therefore be a force and not a moment and thus only 5 equations are necessary to completely define the condition that the resultant must be zero. The equations of equilibrium available are therefore:— BF 0 Fy or 0 wa (2.2) Bz = 0 0 A combination of force and nonent equations to make 2 total of not more than 3 can be used. For the aouent equations, axes through the votnt of concurrency cannot be used since all forces of the system pass through this paint. The moment axes need not be the same direction as ‘the directicns used in the force equations out, of course, they could de. ‘SQUILTER: OF SPACE PARALLEL FORCS SYSTEM In a parallel force system the direction of all forces ts know, but the magnitude and Iceation of each 13 unknown, Tmus to determine magnitude, one equation ts required and for location two equations are necessary since the roree 1s not confined to one plane. in general the 3 equations comonly used to make the Taq sultant zero for this type of force system are one force squation and tao moment equations. For exemple, for a space parallel fores system acting in the y direction, the equations oF squilioriun would be: By = 0, Be = 0, 227 -72.5) JQUILIBRIUM OF GENERAL C In this type of force system all forces lie in one plane anc tt texes only 3 equations to determine the magnitude, direction and location or the resultant of such 4 force system. Sitner Zorce or moment equations can be used, except that a seximm of 2 force aquations ean be used. ‘or example, for a force systex acting in the xy plane, whe Zolloniis combination of equtit- britm eqiations could Se used. Hy 20 y= 0 Fy 0 My. BFy #0 or Mp.2 0 or Meas Oor Met 0 24 Beto MFO Meet Dest 0 (the eubsertpts 1, 2 and 3 to atsterent locations for z exes or moment centers.)Az? DAUILIBEIOM OF COPLANAR. Sines 211 forces 1Lo In the sane olane and also pase through 2 common soint, the Tagn:tuce and direction of the resultant of this tyre of force system 15 unknown Dut the location ts ictowm since the roint of concurrency 1s an the Line of action cf the resultant. Thus only tno equations of equilitrium are necessary to Yezine the resultant and sake {t aero. The combin~ ations avatieole are, Hera Her S eet tO BTS] 2s By 20) B20” Bet” Bye =0 (te z axis or monent canter locations must be other than through the point of concurrency) QUILIBRIUH OF CO-PLANAR PURALLEL FORCE SYST! Since the direction of all forces in thts typo of force syston ie Kom and since. ce forces ait lie in one sane plane, {t only takes 2 equations to decine the sagnitide and Location or the ceoulsant of sucha toree systea. tence, there are only © equations of equilisrie avatie able for this type of force system, manely, a force and aoaent equation or two néuont equations. For exaaple, cor forces parallel to Faxis and locatee in the xy plane the equilt= Eeftm equations available would be: ~ Bes Bige = 0 (Te mouent centers 1 and 2 cannot be on the same y axis) By 20 ° My = 0 EQUILIBRIUM OF COLINEAR FORCE SYST A colinear foree system 1s one where all forces act along the same line or in other words, the direction and location of the forces 4g known but their magnitudes are unimowm, thus only magnitude needs to be found to define the resultant of 2 colinear force system. ‘Tnus only one equation of equiltortum ts avaflable, ramely BPSO or M,50 ~--~----2.7 where moment center 1 is not on the line of action of the force systen AZ.2 structural Fitting Umts for Establishing the Force Characteristics of Direction and Pout of Application To completely define a force in space req quires ¢ equations and 3 equations ir the force ts limited to one plane. In seneral e structure 4s loaded by ‘cow forces ana these forces are trensfarred through the structure ‘n some aanner of internal stress distribution and then EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. equal he various tynes 9: Limited, the structural engi use o: fitting unite which establish th Sirection of an unimown force oF 1 applica’ Gecreasin af unknowns to be deternined. which follow {llustrate the tye: units employed or over ganerai rethocs © taDlishing the Zorc2 cnaracte! qiraction and potnt of application. Ball and Socket Fitting For any space or coplans> and Q acting on the bar, ¢! Such forces must act trroucn bell {2 rotetton of the var 15 a bali and socket joint can se or control the direction and 1 force appliea to a stru: ‘through of fitting. Since the Joint has no rotati resistance, no couples in any plane can 38 applied to tt. ne action of 2 Singte Pin Fitting, for any force such as P and Q acti xy plane, the line of action 9 sut gust pass through the ain center since © fitting unit cannot resist a axts through the pin center. There: forces acting in the xy plane, 0: and Line of action are establisha: Joint as titu mire, Since Single pin fitting can resist moments about axes perpendicular to the pin axis, the ciraction and Line of action of out of plane forces ts fore not established by sizgle a Bt. —<—<—_——- * Tf a ber AB has each ond, then any 2 strgle pin fittings at ree P lying in the xy plens and applied co end B aust nave 3 direction and Line of action colnelaing sith 2 lina Join tne pin canters at and the fittings cannot axis.ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES Double Pin - Universal J Since single pin fitting units can resist, applied moments about axes normal to the pin axis, a double otn joint as {llustrated above fs often used. Tals fitting unit cannot resist oments about y oF 2 axes and thus applied forces such as P and Q aust have a Line of action and direction such 2s to pass through the center of the fitting untt as {llustrated in the figure, The fitting unit can, however, resist a moment about the x axis or in other words, a universal type of fitting unit can resist a torsional noment. Llers In order to permit structures to move at support points, a fitting unit involving the idea of rollers 1s often used, For example, the truss In the figure above 1s supported by a pin fitting at (A) which ts further attached toa fitting portion that prevents any nori- zontal movement of truss at snd (A), however, the other end (B) 1s supported by 2 nest of rollers which provide ne hortzontal resistance to 2 horizontal covexent of the truss at end (8), The rollers fix the direction of the reaction at (B) as perpend!cular to the roller bed. Since the fitting untt 1s joined to the truss Joint by a pin, the point of application of t Teaction {5 21s0 mnown, henes only one force characteristic, namely magnitude, {8 unknown fora roller-pin type of fitting, for the fitting unit at (A), point of application of the reaction to the truss 1s kncvm because of she pin, but direction and aegnituee are unaom. Lubricated Slot or Double Roller Type ‘tting| uae. Lubricated stot Ans Another general fitting type that 1s used to establish the direction of a force oF reaction is {Ylustrated in the figure at the bottom of the first column. Any reacting force at joint (A) aust be horizontal stnce the support at (A) is 80 designed to provide no vertical resistance. pe P Since a cable or tie rod has negligible bending resistance, the reaction at Joint B on the crane structure from the cable mst be colinear with the cable axis, hence the cable astablishes the force characteristics of direc ‘ion and point of application of the reaction on the truss at point B. A2.4 symbols for Reacting Fitting Unita as Used in ‘Problem Solation. In solving a structure for reactions, aenber stresses, etc., one aust know what force characteristics are unknown and {t 1s common practice to use simple synbels to indicate, wnat fitting support or attaciment units are to be used or are assumed to be used in the final design, Tho following sketch symbols are com monly used for coplanar fores systaas. A ouall circle at the end of a member or on a triangle reprasents a single pin conection and fixes the point ef application of forces acting between this unit and a connecting member or structure. ea © ZS iy ‘yy ‘The above graphical symbols represent 2 reaction in which translation of the attach- ment point (b] 1s prevented but rotation of the attached structure about (b) can take place. ‘Thug the reaction ts unknown in direction and magnitude but the point of application 1s known, namely through potnt (b), Instead of using Erection as 2n unknown, {¢ 1s more convenient to replace the resultant reaction by tno com- pononts at right angles to each other as indi~ cated in the sketenes,Ana z BILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. (), waite Boge bepin Rollers Rollers ‘Te above fitting units using rollers fix the direction of the reaction as normal to the roller bed since the fitting unit cannot resist a horizontal force through point (b). Hence the direction and point of application of the reaction are established ant only magnitude 1s unknown. ‘The graphical symbol above 1s used to Fepresent 2 rigid support which 1s attached Figidly to a connecting structure, ‘The Te- action is completely unknom since all 3 force characteristics are unknown, namely, magnitude, direction and point of application. It {3 con venient to replace the reaction R by two force components referred ta some point (>) plus the ‘unknown moment M which the resultant reaction R caused about point (b) as indicated in the above sketen. This discussion applies to coplanar structure with all forces in tne same Plane. For a space structure the reaction Would have 3 furcher unknowns, namely, Rz, My and My. ‘A2.5 Statically Determinate and Statically Indeterminate ‘Structures, A statically determinate structure ts one in whten all external reactions and internal stresses for a given load system can be round by use of the equations of static equilibrium and 2 statically indeterminate structure 1s one in wnich all reactions an¢ internal stresses cannot be found by using only the equations of equilitriun. A statically determinate structure ts one that has Just enough external reactions, or Just enough internal members to make the Structure stable uncer a load system and if one Teaction or member {3 removed, the structure is Teduced to ¢ linkage or a qecitanisn end is, therefore not further capable of resisting the load systen. If the structure has more ex- ternal reactions or tnternal members than is necessary for stability of the structure under @ given load system it 1s staticelly incever~ minata, and the degree of redundancy capends on the number of unknowns beyond that number watch can be found by the equations o? static equili- prim. A structure can te statically tnaster- inate with respect to external reactions alone or to internal stresses alone or to 50 The additional equations shat are nesded to solve a statically {ndetersinate structure are obtatned oy considering the distortion of the structure. This means that the izo of sll members, the Tateriel tron which members are ade aust be known since distortions must te calculated. in 2 statically ceteninate structure thts information on izes and aatertal ts not required but only the configuration of the structure as a whole, Thus design analysts for statically determinate structure {s straignt forward wnereas a generel trial and error oro~ cedure is required for design analysis of statically indstersinate structurss. ‘A2.8 Examples of statically Determisats and statically Indeterminate Structures. ‘The first step in analyzing a structure ts to determine whether the structure as oresant fs statically determinate. If so, the reactions and internal stresses can be found without ‘mon= tng sizes of meabers or Kind of matertal. Iz not statically determinate, the elastic theory aust be applied to obtain additional equations. ‘The elastic theory 1s treated in considerable detatl in Chapters A? to Al2 inclusive. To help the student become faniiiar with the problen of determining whether 4 structure is statically deteminate, several example problems will be presented. Example Problen 1. Fig. a2 Tn the structure known forses or loads shown in Pig. 2.1, the are the distributed leads of 10 1d. per inch on menver ABD, The reactions a points 4 and 0 are unknown, The reaction at Chas only one unknown characteristic, namély, magnitude because the point of application of Ry tg tarough the pin center ar C and the directten Of Ro must de parallel to line OB because thers 1s a pia at the other end 8 of member CB. At point A the reaction ts unknown in airaction and magnitude but the point of application must be through the pin center at A. ‘Thus there are 2 unknowns at 2 ané one unknown at C or a cotalANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE strucTURES of S. With 3 equattons of equitibrimm avati- able for @ coplanar rorce system the structure is statically determinate. Instead of using en angla aS an unknown at A to find the direction of the reaction, it 1s usually more convenient to replace the reaction by components at right angles to cach other as Hq and Yq in the figure and thus the 3 unicoms for the structure are 3 aagnitudes. Example Problem 2 F P tao) e $e Ye Ha BA Bap Hal h z Fig. A2.3 YA rig.aaa Ne Ny Fig. 2.2 shows a structural crane carrying a known load system P, Due to the sins at reaction points 4 and B the point of application is known ior eaen reaction, however, the aagai~ tude and direction of each’ is unknowm making a ‘total of 4 unknowns with only 3 equations of equilibrium available ror a coplanar force system. At first we might conclude that the structure is statically indeterminate but we dust realize this structure nas an interme) pin at C which means the bending moment at thie point 1s zero since the pin has no reststance So rotatton. If the entire structure is in equilibrium, then eact part aust likewtse be im equilibrium end we can cut out any portion as a 2ree body anc apply the equilibrium equations. Fig. 2.3 shows a trae beay af the frane to lett of pin atc. Taking acments about © and equating to zero gives usa fourth ation to use In deteraining the 4 unknowns, Ha, Yas Vp and fig. The monent equation about ¢ gees Rot include the unknowns Vo and Ha since they have no moment about ¢ because of zero amas. As in exanple problem 1, the reac=ions 2¢ A and 2 have been replaced Sy # and ¥ com Bonents instead of using an angie (direction) as eh unknown characteristic. ‘The structure is statically determinate, Example Problem 3. > a) ty We D Fig. And NRe Fig. 2.4 shows 2 straight aember 1-2 carrytng a ‘mown load system ? and supported by 5 struts ARS attached to reaction points ABCD. Av reaction points A, 3 end D, the reactaon, {8 known in direction and potnt of application Dut the magnitude te unknowm as indicated by the vector at esch support. At point C, the ren getion is unknown In direction decatise 2 struts enter Joint C. Magnitude 1s also unkown but Point of application is imowm since the reaction Gust pass through C. Thus we have S unknoms, namely, Ro, Ray Rp, Yo and He. For a coplanar force system me nave 3 equilitrium equations available and thus the first conelusion might be that we have 2 statically indeterminate structure to (5-3) = 2 degrees requndant. Hone ever, observation of the structure shows tno internal pins at points £ and F which means that the bending moment at these two points is Zero, thus giving us 2 more aquations to use with the % equations of equilibrium. Thus drawing tree vedies of the structure to left of pin E and to right of pin F and equating moments avout each pin to zero we obtain 2 equations watch do not include unknowns other than the 5 unknowns listed above. The structure 1s thers~ fore statically deterainate. Example Probiem 4. He EOS Mc NG te te we Fe ans re ans Pig. 2.5 shows a beam AB which carries a super-structure CED which in turn 1s subJected to the known leads P and Q. The question 1s woether the structure ts statically determinate. The external unknown reactions ror the entire structure are at points A and B, At A due to the roller type of action, magnitude {s the only unknown characteristic of tne reaction since direction and point of application are known. AG B, wagnitude and direction are unknown Sut point of application 1s imcwn, nence wo fave 3 unknowns, namely, Ry, Vp and Hg, anc with 3 equations of equilitriut available we can tind these reactions and therefore the structure is statically determinate with respect to external Feactions. xe now investigate to seo if the internal stresses can be found oy statics after having found the external reactions. Obviously, the internal stresses will be afzectea by ine internal reactions at C and 0, so we draw 4 tree Dody of the super-strusture a3 tllustrated tn Fig. 2.8 and consider the internal zorces that existed at C and D as external reactions. In ‘the actual structure the members are rigidly attached together at point ¢ such as a welded or ALAnt multiple bolt connection, This neans that all three force or reaction charecteristios, nanel magnitude, direction and point of azplicatien are urengim, or in othar words, 3 unknowns exist atc. For convenience me will represent these unknowns by three components as show in Fig. 2.8, namely, He, Vg and Mo, At Joint D in Fig. 2.6, the only lnknown regarding the ree action {$ Rp @ magnitude, since the pin at each end of the sember DE establishes the direction and soint of application of the raaction Rp. Hence we nave 4 unknoms and only 3 equations of equilitrim for the structure in Fig. 2.€, thus the structure 1s statically inteteminate with respect to al) of the internal stresses. ‘The student should observe that internal stresses between points AC, 8D and FE are statically deterinate, and thus the stactcally indeterminate portion is the structural or} angle CEDC. Beample Probl ° > P ig. a2.7 ig a2.8 ha al Hp ali By ity Py SEBS tye MM Ne Pigs. 2.7, 2.8 and 2,9 show the same structure carrying the same iiown load system P but with different support conditions at points 4 and 3, The question is whether each structure ts statically indeterninate and if 50, to wnat degree, that 1s, what number of unknowns Deyond the equations of statics avail- able. Since we have a coplanar force system, only 8 equations at statics are available for equilibrium of the structure as 2 whole. 3 PoP F MA a . In the structure in Fig. 2.7, the reaction at A and also at 8 1s unknown in magnitude and rection but point of application is mown, hence 4 unknowns and mith only 3 equations of statics available, makes the structure statically tndeterminate to the first degree. In Fig. 2.8, the reaction at A ts a rigid one, thus all 3 characteristics of magnitude, iirection and point of application of the re~ action are unknown. At point B, due to pin only 2 unknowns, nensly, magnitude anc di- rection, thus making @ total of 5 unknowns with oply § equations of statics avatlaple or the structure ts statically indeterminate to the second degree. In the structure of Fig. 2,3, both supports at A and B are rigid thus all'3 force characteristics are unktomm at each support or a total of § unknowns which makes the structure statically indeterminate to the third degree. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. Example eroblen 5 et Ya NB Fig. A2.10 Fig. A211 Fig. AR 12 Fig. 2.10 shone 2 2 bay criss supported points A and 8 and carrying a imowm load syst: P,Q. All members of the truss are connscte: af their ends by 4 common pin at each joiat. ‘The reactions at A and 3 ere epplied throu fittings as indicated. ‘The question is whether the structure 1s statically detera: Relative 19 externa] reactions at 4 structure ts statically determinate type of support procuces only one unknowm at A and two unknowns at 3, nacely, Vg, Vg and Hy as shown in Fig. 2.10 and ne nave 3 squations static equllivrium avatlapi: fe now investigate to see 1° we can find ‘che internal member stresses after caving tound tne values of the reactions at A anc B. Suppose we cut out Joint B as indicated by section 1-1 tn Fig. 2.10 and draw 3 tree body es shown in Fig. 2.11. Since the embers of the truss nave Pins at each end, the loads in these meuders gust be axial, thus dlreczion and lize of action is known ana Only magnitude 1s unknown. In Fig. 2.11 Hg and Yy are known but AB, CB, a DB are unknown in gagnitude hence we have S un- imowns but only 2 equations of squillorium for 2 coplanar concurrent force systen. If we cut througn the truss in Fis, 2.10 by the section 2-2 and draw a free bedy of the lowar portion as shown in Fig. 2.22, we have 4 unknowns, namely, the axial loads in CA, DA, 08, DB Dut only 3’ equations of equiltbriim evatlable for 8 coplanar force system. Suppose we were able to find the stresses in CA, DA, CB, 98 in some sanner, and we would non proceed to Joint D anc treat it as 2 free vody or cut through the upper panel along, section 4-4 and use the lower perticn as 2 free poay, ‘The same reesoning as used above would show us we have one gore unknown than ths of equilltriun equations available and thus we nave the truss statically inceterzinate to the second degree relacive to internal member stresses. ber Physical; nucture has two nore members than is necessary for the stability the estructura under load, as we coulé leave out one diagonal member {n eachANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES the structure would de still stable and all Rauber axial stresses could de found by the equations of static equilibriua without regard to their size of cross-section or the kind of material. Adding the second diagonal aenber tm each tanel would necessitate ‘mowing the size of all truss members and the kind of material used before member stresBes could be found, 26 the additional equations needed must come from a consideration involving distortion of the truss. assume for example, that one diagonal in the upper panel was left out. We would then be able to find the stresses in the meubers of the upper panel by otetics but the lower panel would still be statically inde terminaze to 1 cegree because of the doub: Giegonal system and thus one additional equation ts necessary and would involve a consideration of truss distortion, (The solution of static- ally indeterminate trusses 1s covered in Chapter 4@.} 2.7 Example Problem Solutions of Statically Determinate Coplanar Structures and Coplanar Loadings. Although a student has taken a course tn statics before taking a veginning course in aircraft structures, it 1s felt that « Linited problens involving the application of the equations of static aquiltortum ts quite Justified; particularly {¢ the problems are possibly Soneshat more difficult than acest of problems in the usuai deginning course 1n statics. Since one mist use the equations of static équilitriun as part of the aecassary equations in solving statically tndeterstnate structures and since statically indeterminate structurss are covered in rather caplet detat2| tn other chapters of his book, only Limited space will be given to problems {nvolving stetics in this chapter. Example Problem 8 Fig. A214 shows a quon simplified wing structure, consisting of a wing spar supported by Lift and cabane struts wnich tie the wing spar to the fuselage structure, The distributed| air load on the wing spar is unsymmetrical about’ center line of the atrfrae, The wing svar Is made in three units, readily disassembled by using pin fittings at points 0 and 0". All supporting wing Struts nave single pin fitting units a= eaca end. The problem ts to deter~ 20%/in. s0n/i See TT Pre a Sin Fig. A214 eee Ant mine the axtal loads tn the members and the re- agtions on the spar. Solution: The first thing to decide is whether The structure is statically determinate. From the figure it is observed that the wing spar 1s supported by five struts. Due to the oins av each end of ali struts, we have five unknowns, namely, the asgnitude of tha load in each strut. Direction and location of each strut load ts wom because of the pin at each end of the struts. We heve 3 equations of equilivrium for the wing spar as @ single un{t supported by the 5 struts, thus two gore equations are necessary if the S wmkmown strut loads are to be found. It 1s noticed that the wing spar includes 2 ine ternal single pin comections at points 0 and 0 Thais establishes the fact that the moment of all forces located to one side of the pin must bo equal to zero since the single pin fitting can~ not resist 2 moment, Thus we obtain two addi~ ‘tional equations because of the to internal pin fittings and thus we have § equations to find 5 unknowms. Fig. 2.15 shows a tree body of the wing spar to the right of hinge fitting at 0. sons2430 rorse(g0e19)45 By eat ot? ——— I ant Yo E TA Fig. AQIS In order to take moments, the distributed load on the spar has been replaced by the re~ sultant load on each spar portion, namely, the total load on the portion acting through tae centroid of the distributed load system. The strut reaction SA at A aas deen shown in phantom ag it 1s more conventent to deal itn tts com ponents Ya and Xj. The reaction at 0 15 une known in Sagnitude and direction and for con- venience we Will deal with {ts components Xo and Yp. ‘The Sense assimed {s indicated on the figure. The sense of a force ts represented graphically by 2n arrow heed on the end of a vector. The correct sense is obtained from the solution of the equations of equiltorium since, a force or moment aust be given a plus or minus Sign in writing the equations. Since the sense of a force or aoment is unknowm, it is aesuted, and if the algebraic solution of the equilibrium equations gives a plus value to the magnitude ‘then the true sense 1s as assumed, and opposite to that ascumed If the solution gives a minus sim, If the unknom forces are axial Loads tn nemhers it 1s common practice to call tensile stress plus and compressive stress ainus, thus Awe assume the sense of an unknown axtal toad ag tension, the solution of the equiltoriumA28 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES, equations will give a plus value for the magnt- tude of the unknown 1f the true stress 1 tension and a ainus sign will indicate the assimed tension stresses should bs reversed or compression, thus giving 2 conststancy of st To find the unknown Yq we take aoments about point 0 and equate to zero for equiliariim, Big = = 2460 x Gl - 2015 x 100+ Bex, = 0 Hence %, = 204000/82 = 2480 1b. The plus sign means that the sense es assumed in the zigure is correct. ay geometry Xa = 2480 x 117/66 = 4400 1b. and the load in strut ZA equals #2480" = S050 1b, tension or as assumed in the figure. To find Xo we use the squilipriun equation Xo = 4400 = 0, wnence Xo = 4400 1b, IP To find Yo we use, BFy = 0 = 2460 + 1013 - 2480 ~ Yo = 0, whence Yo'= 993 1b. To check our results for equilibrium we will take monents of all ferces about A to see 1f they equal zero. Dy = 2460 x 4) - 1013 x 20 ~ 993 x 62 = 0 check On the spar portion O'A', the reactions ere obviously equal to 40/20 times those Found for portion QA since the external loading is 40 as compared to 20, Hence A'E! ~ 6750, Xo: = 5880, Yor = 1325 Fig. 2.16 shons a tree body of the center spar portion with the reactions at 0 and 0! ae found previously. The unknown loads in the strute have deen assumed tension as shown by. the arrows. zonons0x40 1800080 padi} sor Fig. A216 To find the load in strut BC take moments about Bt Bigh = 1925 x 20 - 2000 x 5 - 1800 x 85 = 885 x 8 + 60 (BC) 30/23.8 = 0 whence, BC = 2720 Ib, with sense as assumed, To find strut load aC! take aments about point C, Mp = 1825 x 65 + 2000 x 30'~ 1800 x 10 ~ 983 x 35 30/83.6 = 0 40 whence, B'C' = 6000 lb. with sense as shown. To find load in member BC use equation = 0 = 1525 + 2000 + 1600 + 963 - 6000 (/33.6) = 2720 (0/35.8) - B'C (80/54) =o whence, B'C = ~ 2635 1b. The minus stan means it acts opposite to that shown in figure or 18 compression instead o7 tension. The reactions on the spar can now be determined and shears, dending moments and axial leads on the spar could be found. The numerical results should de checked for aquili- briwm of the spar as a whole vy Taking aouents of all forces about a different aouent center to see if the result 1s zero. Brample Problem Fig. 2.17 shows a sizplified airplane landing gear unit with all aembers and loads confined to one plane. The brace struts are pinned st each end and the support at ¢ ts of ‘the roller typs, thus no vertical reaction can be produced by the support fitting at point 2. ‘The menber at C can rotate on the roller tut horizontal movement is prevented, A kom load of 10,000 1b. is applied to axle wit at A. The problen is to find the Icad in the brace struts and the reaction at Cy Soluttor Due to the single pin fitting at each of the brace struts, the reactions at 3 end DANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES are colinear with the strut axis, thus direction and point of application are soln for reaction Ry and Rp leaving only the magnitude of each as unknowm. The roller type fitting at ¢ fixes the direction and point of appiteation of the Teaction Ro, leaving magnitude as the only unenowm. Thus there are 3 unos Rg, Ro and Rp and with 3 equations of static equilibrium available, the structure {s statically deterai- pate with respect to external reactions. The Seuse of each of the 3 unknown reactions has deen assumed a8 Indicated by the vector. To find Rp take moments about point B:- Bg = - Looce sin 50° x 36 ~ 10000 ces 30° x 12 = Rp (12/17) 23 = 0 whence, Rp * - 16750 1b, Since the result comes out witt a minus sign, the reaction Rp has a sense opposite to that snow by che vector in Fig. 2.17. Since the reaction ap 18 colinear with the Line DE because of the pin ends, the lead in the brace strut DE 1s 16750 1b. compression. In the above monent equation about B, the reactton Ry was resolved into vertical and porizontal components at point 0, and thus only the vertical component watch equais (12/17) Rp enters Into tae equation Since the korizontal component hes 2 line of action through point 8 and therefore no monent. Ag does not enter in equation as it has zero monent about 8. To find Rg take EFy = 0 RY = 10000 x cos $0? + (- 16750)(12/17) + Ag (24/26.8) = 0 whence, Rg = 3540 Ib. Since sign cones out plus, the sense 1s the same as assumed in the figure, The strut icad BF 1s therafore 3540 1b. tension, since reaction Rg is colinear with line BF. To find Rg take IH = 0 BH_= 10000 sin 50° - 3540 (12/26.8) + (~ 16760) (le/i7) + Ro = 0 whence, Ro = G407 Ib. Result is nlus and therefore agsuted sense was correct. To check the numerical results take mouents about point a for equilibrium. My = 8407 x 36 + 3540 (24/26.3) 12 ~ 3540 {12/26.8) 36 + 16750 (12/17) i2 ~ 18760 (12/17) $6 = 308000 + 38100 = 57100 + 142000 - 426000 = 0 (check) ‘A2.2 Stresses in Coplanar Truss Structures Under Coplanar Loading. In atreraft construction, the truss type Of construction ts quite comon. The nest comon is the tubular steel welded trusees chet make up the fuselage frame, and less freq: A29 the aluminum alloy tubular truss. Trussed type beams composed of closed and open type sections are also frequently used tn wing beam construc- tion. The stresses or loads in the members of @ truss are camonly referrea to as "primary" and "secondary" stresses. The stresses which are found under the following assuaptione are referred to es primary stresses. (1) The members of the truss are straignt, weightless and Lie in one plane. (2) The members of a truss neeting at a Dotnt are considered as Joined together ay a Somon frictionless pin and all member axas in— tersect at the pin center. (3) All external loads are applied to the truss only at the joints and in the plane of the truss. ‘Thus all loads or stresses produced im members ars either axial tension or compres sion without bending or torsion. Those trusses produced tn the truss mem ders due to the non-fulfiliment of the above assumptions are referred to as secondary, stresses. Most steel tubular trusses are welded ‘together at their ends and in other truss types, the members are riveted or bolted together. This restraint at the joints aay cause second= ary stresses in some members greater than the primary stresses. Likewise 1t is comon in actual practical design to apply forces to the truss members between thetr ends by supporting many equipment installetions on these truss embers. However, regardless of the magnitude of these so-called secondary loads, it ts comon practice to first find the primary stresses under the assumption outlined above. GENERAL CRITERIA POR DETERMINING WHETHER ‘TRUSS STRUCTURES ARE STATICALLY DSTERMINATS ‘WITH RESPECT 0 INTERNAL STRESSES. ‘The simplest truss that can de constructed is the triangle which has three members m and three joints j. A more elaborate truss consists of additional triangular frames, so arranged ‘that each triangle adds one Joint and two men~ bers. Hence the number of members to insur: stability under any loading is: ae2]-3------------~- (2,2) A truss having fewer mesbers than required by Eq. (2.8) is ina state of unstable equili— brium and wil) collapse except uncer certain conditions of leading. ‘The loads in the members of @ truss with the rimber of members shown in | equation (2.8) can be Zound with the available equations of statics, since the forces tn the meubers acting at a point intersect at a common point or form a concurrent ‘ores system. For thts type of force system there are two static equilibrium equations avatlable. ‘Thus for J number of joints there are 23$2.10 equations available. However three inenen: squitions are necastary to cetermine the 2x: nal reactions, thus the number oP equations necessary to Solve Zor all the loads in she menbers is 2) ~ 3. Hence tf the munder o7 truss monbers is that given by equation (2.3) the truss 1s statically deterinate relative to the primary loads in the truss members ana the truss ts also stable. If the truss has more aembers than indi- cated by equation (2.2) the truss 1s considered Fedundant and statically {nceterainace since the member loads cannot be found in all the members by the laws of statios. Such redundant structures If the embers are properly placed are stable and will support loads of any, arrangement. in general there are three rather distinct aethods or procedures in applying the equattons of static equilinriim te finding the primary stresses in truss type structurss. They are often referred to as the method of Joints, nonents, and shears. 2.9 Method of Joints. If the truss as a whole ts tn equiliprin then cach member or Joint in the truss must Likewise ve in equilibrium. The forces in the members et a truss joint intersect in = comon Point, thus the forces on aach Joint fom a concurrent-coplanar force system. The method of joints consists in cutting out or isolating 8 Joint as a tree body and applying the laws of equilibrium for a concurrent foree system. Since only two independent equations are avail~ able for this type of systen only two unknowns Gan exist at any joint. Thus tha procedure 1s to start at the joint where only two unknowns exist and continue progressively throughout the truss joint by Joint. To {llustrate the method consider the cantilever truss of Fig. A2.13. From cbservation there are only two members with internal stresses unmowm at Joint Ly. Fig. A219 shows a free body of joint Ly. The stresses in the members Ly Le and Ly Uy have deen assumed es tension, as Indicated by the arrows pulling away trom tne Joint Ly. Te static equations of equiliorium cor the forces acting on joint L, are 2H and V = 0, BY = - 1000 - LU, (40/60) =0---- ~~ -@) whence, LU, = ~ 1250 lb. Since the sten came out minus the stress 1s opposite to that assimed tn Fig. 42,19 or compression. aK = = 500 - (~ 1250)(0/S0) - Labs = 0 = =f) whence, Les = 260 1b. Since sign comes out plus, sense fs sane as assuned in ¢igure EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES Fig.a2.19 \ oF tension. In equation (5) the loaa of 1250 in LaLa was substituted as a minus value since it was found to act opposite to chat chown in Fig, Ag.19. Possibly a better proceeure noald be to change the sense of the arrow in che trae body diagram for any solved sembers Sefors writs ing further equilitriun equations, ve must proceed to joint La instead Re = 3770 + 20.26 x 114.5 + ($0.28 + 15.33) 1 5 hence Ra = 1295 2b, (The student should always check results oy taking monents about point (1) to see if Zt, = 0) Rear Beam 14. 144/10. 14.5 70.5°—4t The rear beam has the sane span dimensions but the loading ts 14.74 2b/in. Hence beam re- actions R, and Ry will be 14,74/80.25 = .4875 ‘times those for front bean. hence Ry = «4675 x S770 = 1a38 Ib, Ry = 4875 x 1295 = 631 Ib, The next step in the solution ts che solving for the arial loads {n all the members. We will use the methed of joints and consider the structure gade up of three trues systems as illustrated at the top of the next column, namely, a front litt truss, a rear list truss and a drag truss. The beans ere comuon to Doth Litt and drag trasses. Table AZ.i gives the V, D and $ projections of the litt truss members ag determined from {information given in Fig. 42.35, The true EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE sysTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. 4 RB. 3 v 7B FN 7A [ax | Drag Truss SAN NEON 2 "SB 3 Froot Lift ‘Truss A® toe i it ‘Truss member lengths L and 7 gonponent ratios then teliow by simple calculation, sabte 42.1 T [ wor fom) y laps [2 [ale laa [Frese seus] Fa) soe [0 [ue,a4[tia.00],0023) 0 [.e0s! Lins oan [ae © [ite-34|ite-s0|-asaa)_9 _|-asea! Prone Seat | Sy [57.98 | H i4,24 209,70], 4201], bau aa78 Bear Serat_] oy |Sh0@ | 0 /ia.3e]iz0-00|. 488] 0 |-a0a0 We starc the solution of Joints oy starting foint (1). Free body sketcnes are sketche! below, All members are ¢: two-force rembers or taving pins at ‘thus magntvude 1s the cnly unknown character istic of cach member load, The drag truss nen- vers coming in to joint (1) ara replaced sy a Single reaction called 2:. after Da is found, tts influence tn causing loads in drag truss members can then be found nen the rug truss as a whole is treated. In the Jotnt solutcon, the drag truss ms been assumed parallel to crag Girection watch 1s not quire true from Pig. 2.26, but the error on member loacs is nest gible. SOINT 1 (Equations of Squiitbriun) jor wa ra y sp ® ZY 5 S770 x .9986 ~ .0523 FB - IS = = S770 x 0523 - l9e6 FB | BD = .0654 Sp + Dy =O == Solving equatians 1, 2 and 3, we obtain FB T= e515 1b. {compreseton) Sr S833 1b. (tension) Dy 738 1b. (art)ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PLIGHT VEWICLE STRUCTURES Joint (3) (Equations of equilibrium) 1838 (drag truso aa_} 1836 “reaction on wo @h p,m) ne ¥-$ plane ‘V-D plane ‘sa, 1858 x .9986 - .0525 RB - .4486 Sq = 0 -(4) 3 9886 RB - S850 8 * 0 (3) 3) Solving equations 4, 5 and 6, we obtain RB =~ 4169 1b. (caupression} SR = 4579 1. {tension} D,=0 Fig, A2.S8 shows the reactions of the Lift struts on the drag truss at Joiata (1) and (3) 28 found above. “ a @ a Fig. 42.38 00 Drag Truss Panel Potnt Loads Due to Air Orag oa It was assumed that the alr load components im the drag direction were § 1lb./in. of wing acting torvard. ‘The distributed load of 6 1b./tn. fs re= placed oy concentrated loads at the panel potnts ae chow in Fig. 42.39. Zach panel point takes one half the distributed load to the adjacent panel point, except for the two autboard panel Doints which are affected by the overhang tip portion. ‘Thus the outboard panel point concentration a Anat points (2) and (4). In the design of the beam and fittings at this point, the eftect of the actual conditions of eccentricity should of course be considered. Combined Loads on Drag Truss Adging the two load systens of Figs. 42.33 and 42.39, the total drag truss loading is ob- tained as shown in Fig. 42,40, The resulting uember atial stresses are then solved for oy the method of index stresses (art. 42.9), ‘The values are indicated on the truss diagram. It 1s customary to make one of the fittings attach— ing wing to fuselage {ncapable of transferring grag reaction to fuselage, so that the entire drag reaction fron wing panel on fuselage ts definitely confined to one point. In this ex- ample point (2) has been assumed as point wnere wag ts resisted. Those drag wires which would be in compression are assimed cut of action. tl 1 “AGT “AL SH ~T0.515 Fig 1908 = Drag Reaction 798 Fig. A240 Ruselage Reactions As a check on the Work as well as to obtain reference loads on fuselage from wing structure, ‘the fuselage reactions will be checked against the externally applied air loads. Table az.2 gives the calculations in table Zora. of 264 1b. 18 determined by taking moments about Table 42.2 (3) of the drag iced outboard of (3) as follows: | -—————— = > . = 70.5 x § x 35.05/S8.5 = 254 13, me TGge3 | me | 9 | a PS 70.5 x 6 x 35.25/58.5 = 254 12 : eee | ume) OF [a | OP 7o simplify the drag truss solution, the . (tension) = CRB - 2280 x 1868 = 0ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES whence CRB = - 1510 1d, (compression) BD =D, - 2860 x .1485 = 9 whence Dy = 835 Ib, drag truss resozton Senter Front Sean sae (1294 - 726) = ss8 (Ref. , Table A2.2) [7 — = 3 Se =) Fo —— 0 Pao 7 R=2898 Beesate Fig, A243 Fig. 42.43 shows the ¥ loads on the center rront beaa and the resulting ¥ component oz the cabane reaction at Joint (7), at Joint 7 2535 ‘vp PianeD IV = 2585 - 721 Op = .S87 cp = 0 28 =~ CFE = .640 Op + S36 Cp = 0 2D - .240 Cp + .397 cy = 0 Solving the thrae equations, we obtain CFB = ~ 2281 (compression) Cr = 26a cp = 1088 Solution for Loads tn Drag Truss Members 42.44 shows al) the loads applica to the center yansl drag truss, The S and D ree getions frm the outer panel at Joints (2) and Panel point 36 Drag Load 336 1 aie, ~ lo | p38 ust t__{isig 10) f usst | % aay vest / a Neer | Es ae} a sweat fe ‘at 908 wad ig. azss reste A219 (4) are taken from Teele 32.2 of problem 1. The drag loa of 336 Ib. at (3) Is due to the rear cabane strut, as is likewise the deem axtel load of - 1510 at (8). The axial beam load of ~ 2282 lb. at (7) {s cue to reaction of front gabane truss. The zerel potat Loads are a3, the given running drag tcad of 6 ib./in, act forward. to. ‘The reaction which holds all these drag truss loads in equiltortum is supplied by the cabane truss at point (7) since the trent and Gfagonal cabane struts intersect to fom a rigid triangle. Thus the drag reaction R aquals one half the total ¢rag loads or 2634 19. Solving the truss for the loading of Fig. 82.44 we obtain the menber axial loads of Pig. A248, 137 368 08 ust & ‘st Xl a Ble ays oy 3 ° 15027|__-11908 -17308_|-15028 Vt D Plant BD = ~ 2534 = .240 0p + 1397 cp SO BV = = .72L Cp - .§97 Sp 20 Solving for Op and Gp, ne obtain = - 2740 1b. (compression) BLO (tenston) 0 adding these loads to those previously calc lated for 117t loads: op = = 2740 + = 105 op = 1058 + S510 = 4358 1b. cg = 2280 1b. uselage Re:EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS TRUSS STRUCTURES, Fee | ener ¥ > [2 ia WO tae see Ga as ise | 3 | prosg tare serve | 2000 738 | e280 in @ | Reraite gene | st) cos | © | ono 8 Applied Air Loads V component = 7525 (outer anel) + 65 x 45 10445 (check) 1210 (outer panel) ~ 68 x 6 = ~ 1500 (error 2 1b.) D component = The total st. centerline ot Joad on a vertical plane thru airplane should equal the $ com~ ponent of tne applied loads. ‘The applied sice loads = - 58: 1. (see problan 1). The air lead on center pane} is vertical and thus has zero S component. Fron Table 42.3 tor fuselage reactions nave 23 = 16178. From Fig. 42.45 the load in ‘the front bean at @ of airplane equals - 17308 and 563 for rear bean. The horizontal component of the diagonal drag strut at joints 12 equals 216 x 45/57.6 = 169 1b. Then total S components = 16178 - 17308 + 968 + 169 5 ~ 393 1D. wich checks the side component of the applied sir loads. Example Problem 22. Single Scar Truss Plus Torsional Truss Systen, In snall wings or control surfaces, fabric is often used as the surface covering. ‘Since the fabric cannot provide reliable torstonal Tegistance, internal structure must be of such design as to provide torsional strength. 4 single spar plus a special type of truss system 18 Often used to give a satisfactory structure. Pig. AZ.6 tilustrates such 2 type of structure, necely, @ trussed single spar AEF plus 4 tri- angular truss system between the spar an the trailing edge 0S. Fig. 42.46 (a, 5, ¢) shows the three projections and dimensions. The 2ir iead on the surface covering of the structure is assumed to be 0.5 1b./in.* intensity at star 2iRe and then varying linearly to aero at the trailing edge (See Fiz. 4) ‘The problem will be to determine the axtal loads in all the aembers of the structure. It w{Ll be assumed that all aeubers are 2 force noabers as 1s usually done in finding the primary leads In trussea structures. 7 ‘Tpanels @ 12" = 84" Fig. 400 souttow: ‘The total atr load on the str the average tntensity ver square inch times the surface area or (0,5)(.5)(26 x 94) = 756 1b. In order to solve a truss system by a meted of Joints the distriputed lead must be replaced by an equivalent load system acting at the joints of the structure. Referring to Fig. (2), tae total air load ons strip 1 inzh wide and 36 tzehes long ts 36(0.5}/2 = 9 1d. and tts vay oF resultant location 1s 12 inches tron Line AB. In Fig. 46a this recultent load of § tb./in. ts smaginad as acting on an imscinary bean Located along the line I-l. Tnis running load apzl aiong shis line is now repiaced sy an equivaiont force system acting at joints OPASEDECA, Tae Pesults 97 this Joint distribution are shom oy the Joint loads in Fiz, aZ.d6. To titustra’ how Hed, lations for loads at foints S80R will be af Fig. a2.4@ shone 2 porticn of che structura to be considered. For @ running leaa of 2 ie./tn., along 1 ine lel, reactions will beANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES ¢ nr err Fig. A248 simple beans resting at zoints 2, 3, 4, 5, ste. fe distance between 2-3 is 8 inches. ‘The total load on this distance 1s @x9=72 1b. One halz or 36 1d. goes vo point (2) and the other half to point (3). Tha o6 1p. at (2) is then replaced by an equivalent force system at © and 8 or (26)/3 = 12 1b. to § and (36) (2/3) = 24 to BZ. The distance between points (3) and (4) ts 8 inches and the load is 8x 9= 72 1d. One hali of this or $6 goes to point (3) and this added to the pravious 36 gives 72 1b. at (8). ‘Tae load of 72 ts then replaced by an equivalent force system at S and D, or (72)/3 = 24 1b. to 8 and (72) (2/3) = 49 to'D. The tinal load at 8 is therefore 24+ 12 = 36 Ib. as chown in Pig. A 2.48. Due to symetry of the triangle CRD, one half of the total load on the distance CD goes to points (4) ana (5) or (24 x 9)/2 = los ib. The distribution to D ts therefore (108) (2/3) = 72 ang (108)/3 = 36 to R. Adding 72 to the previous load of 48 at D gives a total Load at = 120 1b. as shown in Fig. A2.46. ‘The 108 Ib. at point (5) also gives (108)/3 36 to Ror a total of 72 2b, at R, The student Should check the distribution to other joints as shown in Fig. A2.46. To check the equivalence of the derived Joint load system with the original air load System, the magnitude and aoments of each system must be the same. Adding up the total joint loads as shown in Fig. A2.46 gives a total 02 756 Ib. which cnecks the original air load, ‘Tne moment of the total atr lead about an x axis at left ond of structure equals 786 x 42 = 31782 in. 1b. The nonent of the Joint Icad. systam in Fig. 42.48 equals (66 x 12) + (72 x 36) + (72 x 80) + (56 x 2a) + les (24 + 4a) + (120 x72) + (24 x 84) = 31752 fn.1. or a oneck. The moment of the total air load about Line AE equals 758 ¢ 12 = 9072 tn.ib. The ‘gouent of the distributed joint loads equals (6+ 66 + 72+ 72 + 36)36 = 9072 or @ check. Caloulation of Reactions The structure is supported by single pin tunings at points a, Nand 0, with pin axes yarallel to x axis. It iil be assimed that tha citting at i wekes off the spar load tn 2dtrection. Pig. A248 shows the reactions Oy, Ogy ay» Sys lig. 70 find Op take moaents about y axie Glond spar AEFN. Aza Dy = (6 + 66 + 72 + 72 + 06)36 ~ 36 0, 50 waence Oz = 252 1b. acting dow as assumed. To find Oy take moments about 2 axis through point (A). Mz 30+ 36 Oy 50, OY #0 ‘To tind Ay take moments about x axis through point N, The Moment of the air loads was pre= viously calolated 2s - 31752, hence, My = = S17S2 + 9 Ay = 0, whence, Ay = 3826 1b. To find Ny take BFy = 0 BFy = 3528 - Ny = 0, hence Ny = 3528 1b. To find Nz take IF; 50 2g 5 = 252 + 786 ~ Nz = 0, hence Ne = 504 Ib. ‘The reactions are all recorded on Fig. 42.46, Solution of Truss Member Loads For saplictty, the loa¢ systen on the structure will be considered separately a5 two load systems. One system wi1l include only’ ‘those loads acting along the Line AB and the second load system Nill de Tenaining loads which act along line 0S. Since no bending manent can be resisted at joint 0, the external load along spar AE will be reacted at A and N entirely or in other words, the spare alone resists tne loads on line a. Fig. A249 chons 2 dlagram of this spar with its joint external loading. The axial. loads produced by this loading are written on ‘the truss monbers. these member loads.) (The student should check oo ‘ ‘ Lo Oo a9 Ne le y aie Pete] "eg Xe is 7 wae eR Fig. 02.49 TRINDULAR TRUSS SYSTEN ‘Tne load system along the trailing edge 0S causes stresses in both the spar truss and the Giagonal truss systen. The support fitting at point 0 provides a rection in the Z direction ‘but no reacting moment about the x axis. Since the loads on the trailing edge Lie on a y axis throuch 0, it 16 obvious that all these loads flow to point 0. Since the vending strength of the trailing edge aeuber is negligible, theAg32 load of 36 1b, at Jotat § in order to be trans- ferred to point O through the diagonal truss system must follow the yath SDRCCBPAQ. In Ltke uanner the load of 72 at R to reach O must take ‘the path ROJBPAO, ete. Calculation of Leads in Diagonal t fat |yt] we ‘Al Diagonal 45 }12 [36 )30.2| 118] .004] 043 ‘Truss Members Member z | 40, NO 45] 0/36 [s7.5| 120] 0 | 260 onsider Joint The triangular truss SEF cannot assist In transferring any portion of the 36 1b. lead at S because the reaction of this truss at SF would put torsion on 1 no appreciable torsional resistance, Considering Jotat § as a free body and writing ‘the equilibritm equations: whence, 0S = = GS BF, = 36+ 118 08 ~ .118 Gs = 0 Subt. 05 = = GS and solving for oS, gives 63 = 159 ip,(tenston), BS = 159 (compression) Consider Joint o Let Ty and Tz be reactions of dtagonal truss system on spar truss at Joint D. BPq = = 159 x .943 + 1943 DR = 0, hence DR = 159 1b. BF; = + 159 x .218 + 169 x 116-7, = 0 Whence Tz = 0, which aeans the dtagonal truss produces no Z reaction or sear load on spar truss at D. By =~ S14 x 169 ~ 514. x 159 - Ty = 0 whence Ty =~ 100 Ib. If Joint @ ts investigated in the same manner, the results will show that 7, = 0 and Ty © 100. Tue results at joint D shows that the rear diagonal truss systea produces no shear Load EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. reaction on the = force on the spar cuoes compression truss and tension ‘sop chord bottan chor R ‘The Load to be transferred to truss RGR 45 squal to the 72 1b, at R plus the 36 Ld. et S which comes to joint R frea truss DBC. Hence load in RC = (72 + 36)0.3 x (1/118) 5-457 Ib Whence RJ = 457, 09 = 487 and JQ = Jotnt 9 Load to be transterred to truss 2b. 72 + 36 = 180 1b. Hence load in 4B = (180 x 0.5}(1/.118) ~ 762, whence OL = 762, 8P = 762, LP =~ 762 Joint B Lead = 160 + 68 = 286 Lead in PA = (248 x 0,5)(1/.118) =~ 1040 Whence PN = 1040 Consider Joint (A} as a tree body. BF, = ~ 1060 x .943 + .960 40 20, 40 = 1022 1b. In like manner, considering Joint N, gives NO = = 2022 1, Couple Force Reactions on Sar AS pointed cut previously, the diagonal torsion truss produces a couplo reaction on the spar in the y direction. The megnitude of the force of this ccuple equals the y component of the load in the dlagonal truss members reeting ata spar joint. Let Ty equal this reaction load on tne spar. . At Joint Ty S = (457 + 457).514 = = 287 ID, Likewise at Joint J, Ty = 297 At Jotat 3:- Ty 5 - (762 + 762).814 = - are 479 Likewise st Joint L, Ty At Joint Ty = - (1040 x 324) 226 Likewtse at Joint x, Ty = 326ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES ‘These reactions of the torsicn truss apon the spar truss are shown in Fig, Az.50, The loads in the spar truss nembers due to this loading are written adjacent 79 each truss: member. Adding these member loads to the loads In Pig. 42.48, we obtain the final sper truss momber loads as show in Fig. A2.S2. A229 Ground Line ‘Level Landing with Inclined Reactions ae om 10 uot * sey Zo Fie A250 Level Landing ts Nooe Wino at : Gicr f Grows 3828+ Es ar + a) ke Sls anf a Fig. azst If We add the reactions in Figs. A2.S0 and AZ.51, ne obtain 3528 and $04 which check the reactions obtained in Fig, a2.a6. A213 Landing Gear Structure ‘The airplane ts both 2 lendborne and air borne venicls, and thus a means of operating the airplane on the ground mist be provided wich means wheels and trakes. Furthermore, provision must be made to control the impact forces fnvolved in landing or in taxiing over Fough ground. This requirement requires a speciai energy absorption unit in the landing gear beyond that anergy absorption provided ty the tires. The landing gear thus includes a So-called shock strut commonly referred to as an oleo strut, watch is a menber composed of byo telescoping cylinders. when the strut ts compressed, ofl inside the air tight cylinders is forced through an orifice from one cylinder to the other and the energy due to the landing {mpact is absorbed by she work done in forcing this of] through the orttice. The orifice cen be so designed as 0 srovide practically 2 uniZora resistance over the displacement or travel of the olec strut. An airplane can land safely with the aire plane in varfous attitudes at the tnstant of ground contact. Fig. A2.52 {llustrates the three altitudes of the airplane that ere Specified by the goverment aviation agenctes for destgn of landing gear. In addition to these symmetrical untraked loadings, special loadings, such as a braked condition, landing 9M one wheel condition, side load on wheel, etc. are required. In otter words, a landing gear can be subjected to a considerable mmber of aifterent loadings under the various landing conditions that are encountered in the normal (Ground Line ‘Tail Down Landing Fig. 2.52 Fig. AZ.S3 shows photographs of typical main gear units end Fig. A2.S4 for nose wheel, gear units. The successful design of landing gear for present day aircraft 1s no doubt one of the most atffteult problons which 1s encountered in the structural layout and strength design of atr~ craft. In general, the gear for aerodynamic efficiency must be retracted into the interior of the wing, nacelle or fuselage, thus a re- Lisble, safe retracting and lovering mechanisa system ts necessary. The wheals mist be traked and the nose wheel made steerable. Tue landing gear is subjected to relatively large loads, waose cagnttudes are several tines the gross weight of the airplane and these large loads must be carried into the supporting wing or fuselage structure, Since the welgnt of land~ ing gear may anount to around 6 percent of the wetght of the airplane tt 1s evident that nigh strength/wetgnt ratio ts a saramount design requirement of landing gear, as inefficient structural arrangement and Conservative strese analysis can add uany unnecessary pounds of woight to the airplane and thus decrease the pay or use¢ul load. 2.14 Example Problems of Calculating Reactions and Loads on Membera of Landing Gear Unite, In its simplest fom, a landing gear could constst of 2 single olee strut acting as a cantilever Sean with its tixed end betng the upper end which would be rigidly fastened to the supporting structure. The lower cylinder of the oleo strut carries an axle at its lover Operation of an airplane.Agta EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. ‘McDonnell Aircraft (Multary Airplane) Jet Aisliner Fig. A2.53 Main Landing Gear Illustrations (One side)Beechcraft Twin Bonanza Piper Tri-Pacer Navy Fé. North American Aviation Co, Douglas DC-1 Air Transport Fig, A2.54 Nose Wheel Gear Installations82.26 end for attaching the wheel and tire. This cantilever deam 1s subjected to bending in cKO Girections, torsion and also axial loads. Since the gear is usually made retractable, it ts difficult to design a single fitting unit at the upper end of the oleo strut that will resist this combination of forces and still permit movement for a simpls retracting mechan ism. Furthermore, 1t would be difficult to provide carry-through supporting wing or fuse~ lage structure for such large concentrated load systems. ‘Thus to decrease the magnitude of the vending moments ané also the bending flexibility of the cantilever strut and also to simplity the retracting problem and the carry-througn structural problem, it 1s customary to add one or two braces to the oleo strut. In general, effort is made to make the landing gear structure statically determinate by using specially designed fittings at member ends or at support points in order to establish the force characteristics of direction and point of application. ‘Two example problex solutions will be pre- sented, one dealing with a gear with a single wheel and the other with a gear involving two wheels. Sample Problem 13 Fig. A2.55 shows the projections of the landing gear configuration on the ¥S and VD planes. Fig. A2.86 1s @ space dimensional diagram, In landing gear analysis it 1s comon to use Y, D and 8 as reference axés instead of ‘the symbols Z, X and ¥. This gear unit is assumed as representing one side of the main gear on a tricycle type of landing gear system. The loading assumed corresponds to 2 condition of nose wheel up or tati dow. (See lower sketch of Fig. 42.52), The design load on the wheel 1s vertical and {ts magnitude for this, problem ts 15000 Ib. ‘The gear unit {3 attached to the supporting structure at points F, H and G, Retraction of the geer is obtained by rotating gear rearard and upward about axis through F and #. The fittings at F and Hare designed to resist no bending moment hence reactions at F and H are unkown in magnitude and direction, Instead of using the reaction and an angla as unknows, the resultant reaction 1s replaced by its Vand D components as chown in Fig. 42.56, The re~ action at ¢ 1s uniciown tn magnitude only since the pin fitting at each end of member GC fixes the direction and line of action of the reaction at G. For convenience in calculations, the reaction G ts replaced by its components Gy and Gp. for a side icad on the lending gear, the reaction in the $ direction 1s taken off at point F by a spectal designed unit. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. SOLUTION ‘The supporting reactions upon the 2 points F, H, and G will be calculated os nning step, Tnare re six unknowns, nanely FS, 7, Fo, Hy, Kp and G (See Fig, 42.58), Nite § equations of static equiltsriun availenie for 2 Space force eystem, the reactions oan be found dy statics. Referring to Fig. a2. To find 95 take IS = 0 Fg +050, hence Fg = 0 To find reaction Gy take moments about axis throug2 points F, . Big = S119 x 50 - 24 Gy = 0 \ihence, Gy = 6500 1b. with sense as assured. (tne wneet Load of 18000 ib, tas deen resolved into Y and D components as incicated tn Fiz. 42.65). With Gy know, the reaction @ equals (8800) (21,9/24) = 8610 15, and similarly the compon- ent Gp = (6500) (21/24) = 5690 1b Pe fen) Fig. A238 Hid ae J Ra15000 wb.” y= 15000 xc08 150 = 140721 2 ra 8H SLL Ye 0 a OR fi RE ea N yo oN | toss #90 » 4,-s004 b-ses0 sor g 5 oe ear Lo NY. 3 s ~ a ard Fig, 2.56 Fig. 42.97ANALYSIS_AND DESIGN OF PLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES FD te 3820 yp Fs—> op - SSe SF # Epeast ie ‘To find Fy, take moments about 2 D axis shrough point H. IMy(p) 2 18 Gy + 14672 x 8 - 22 FY =O Fig. 2.59 whence Fy = 10063 Lb. with sense as as— sued. To find Hp, take moments about ¥ axis ‘through Fy IMp(y) = - § Op - 22 Hp + Slle x 140 = +6 x 5690 - 22 Hp + Sli9 x 14 20 whence, Hp = 435 1. To find Fp, teke 2D = 0 ID - fp + Hp t Gp - 3g =0 = Fp + 433 + 5600 ~ SlI9 = 0 Wance, Fy = $004 1b. To tina Hy take av = 0 BY. - Py + Oy ~ Hy + 14672 = 0 = 10063 + 6500 - Hy + 14872 = 0 aiios 1b. maence, By g. A2.87 summarizes the reactions as found. The results will be checked for equilibrium of = 1s x 8500 + 14872 x 8 ~ 22 FY = 0 A227 the structure as a whole by taking moments about D and ¥ axes through point A. Ry (p} =~ 10063 x 14 + 6500 x B+ 11109 x 8 = 140882 + 52000 + se8e2 = O(check) Macy) = 5690 x 8 - 453 x 8 - BOOt x 14 48620 - S464 ~ 42086 = 0 (check) ‘The next step in the solution will be the calculation of the forces on the oleo strut unit. Fig. £2.58 shows a free body of the cleo~ Struteatle untt, The trace members BI and Co are two force members due to the pin at each end, and thus magnituce {s the only unknown re~ action characteristic at points Band C. ‘The fitting et point £ between the oleo strut and the top cross member FH is destgned in such a manner ag to restst torsional moments about tha oleo strut exis and to provide D, V and $ force reactions but no moment reactions about D and axas. The unknowns are therefore BI, CG, Bg, By, Ep and Tg or a total of 6 and therefore statically deterainte. The torsional moment ‘Tq 1s represented in Fig. 42.59 by a vector with a double arrow, The vector direction represents the moment axis and the sense of rotation of the moment fs given by the right nang rule, namely, with the thumb of the right and pointing in the same direction as the arrows, the curled fingers give the senge of rotation. To find the resisting torsional moment Tg take moments about V axis through E. Mg¢y) = = 3119 x 8 + Te =O, hence Te = 24952 tn.ib. To find OG take moments about $ axis through B. We(s) = Si19 x $0 = (24/51.8) co xs ~ 24 (21/81.8) CG 3 0 Waence, CO = 8610 Ib, This checks the velue previously obtained when the reaction at @ as found to be 2610. ‘The D and V conponants of Co thus equal, CGp = 9610 (2L/31.) = 5690 Lb. cay = 2610 (24/31.2) = 5500 1b. To find load in brece strut BI, take moments about D axis through point 2. Bea) = - 16672 x 8 + 3 (BI) 22/24.6 + 24 (BI) 12/24.8 = 0 \mance, BI = 8775 1b. and thus, aly = (6775) (22/24.6) = 7940 1. BIg = (8775) (11/24.6) = 3920 1b. To find Be take Is = 0 IS = Gg - 3920 = 0, hence Bs = 2920 bes is2.26 To tind By take 2D = 0 2D = 5690 = BLL9 ~ Bp = 0, hence Ep = 2571 To find By take v= 0 LV = ~ By + 14672 ~ 7240 + 6500 By = 19382 1b, 0, nence Fig. A2.59 snows a tree body of the top member FH, The unknowns are Fy, Fp, Fg) Hy and Hp. The loads or reactions as found trom the analysis of the oleo strut unit are also re. corded on the figure, The equations of equilibriun for this tree body ar: 2S = 0 = - Ge20 + S820 + Fg = 0, or Fg = 0 IMp(p) = 22 Hy - 3920 x 2 - 7840 x 20 - yssse x 6 = 0 woence, iy = 11110 1b, ‘This check value obtained previously, and therefore ts a check fon our Work. Bip(y) = 24952 - 2671 x 5 - 22 Hy 50 wience, Hp = 453 ab. BV = = Fy + sesee + 740 - 0 = 0 whence, Fy = 1006 8 ” = Fp + 2s7l + 453 50 whence, Fy = $004 1b, ‘Thus working through the ree bodies of the cleo strut and the top uember FH, ne come out with same reactions at F and H ag obtained when finding these reactions by equilibrium equation for the entire landing gear. The strength design of the oleo strut untt ‘nd the top member FH could mow be carried out because with all loads and reactions on each member kom, axial, bending and torsional, stresses could now be found, ‘The loads on the brace struts CG and BI are axial, namely, 8610 1b. tension anc 8775 1b. compression respectively, and thus need no further calculation to obtain design stresses. TORQUE LINE ‘The oleo strut consists of two telescoping ‘tubes and sone means aust be provided to trans~ mit torsional moment between the two tubes and still pernit the lower cylinder to move upward inte the oper cylinder, The most common way of providing this terque transfer ts to use a double-cantilever-nut cracker type of stracture.| Fig. A2.60 illustrates how such a torque Length could be applied to the oleo strut in our problea. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES. oper Z Gylindor iy wey @ Lower Cylinder Fig A2.60 Oe ae Torque oy axe Link ay — \ I OIG ees ber pany The torque to be transferred in cur srob~ lem is 24952 in.Id, ‘The reaction R, between the two units of the torque link at point (2), see Fig. 42.30, thus equals 24962/9 = 2773 1b. ‘The reactions R, at the dese of the Ink at point (3) = 2773 x 8.5/2.75 = 6560 1b. With these reactions known, the strength design of the Link untts and the connections could ve mace. Bample Probien 16 ‘The landing gear as illustrated in Fis. A2.61 is representative of 4 main lending gear waich could be attached to the undar side of a wing and retract forward and upward about line AB into a space provided by the lower portion of the péwer plant nacelle structure. The cleo strut O8 has 2 sliding attachment at 2, wnich prevents any vertical Load to be taken by Jomber AB at 8. However, the 7itting at @ does transfer shear and torque reactions between che oleo strut and member AB. The brace struts 9D, FO and CD are pinned at each end and will de assimed as 2 force members. an airplane level landing condition with unsymetrical wneel loadtug nas been assumed as shown in Fig. Ag.61, ‘SOLUTION ‘The gear is attached to supporting struc- ture at points 4, Band Cc, ‘The reactions at these points will ve calcllated first, treating the entire gear asa free body. Fig. A2.62ANALYSIS AND DESTGN OF Fig. A262 shows @ space clagrem with loads and reactions. Ths reactions at A, B and ¢ have Seen replaced by thelr V and D components. > find reaction Gy take monents about an S axis through points AB. Bigg * - (25000 + 10000) 64 + 24 cy = 0 linenee Cy = 8865 1B. aesumed In Fig. 42.82. uitth sense as ‘The reaction at O mist have a line of action along the line OD since uember CD ts pinned at each end, thus the crag compen ent and the Load In tae strut OD follow as 2 matter of geometry. Op = 66655 (24/28) = S7142 Ib. op = 86666 (36.95/28) = 27900 1b. tension Hence, To find By teke moments about 2 drag axis through point (a). PLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES A229 Diqqp) = - 60000 x 9 ~ 40000 x 20 - 66686 x 13 * 38 By =0 whence, By = 78070 1b. To find ay, take ZV = 0 BY = = 78070 + 60000 + 40000 + ss666 - Yg =0 ‘whence, ay 28896 1b. To tind Bp take moments about V axis through potnt (A). Bta(y) = S712 x 19 - 18000 x 9 - 10000 x 29 ~ 38 Bp =0 wnence, 8p = 17386 1b. To find ap take 2D = 0 2D = ~ S7142 + 15000 + 10000 + 17366 + Ap =o wanes Ap = 14755 1b. ‘To check the results take moments about ¥ and D axes Through point 0. Bo(y) = 5 x 10000 + 14756 x 19 = 17886 x 19 = 0 (check) 2Mo(D) = 20000 x 10 - ses96 x 19 + 78070 x 9 = 0 (check) REACPTONS ON OLEO STRUT 05 Fig. AZ.63 shons a free body of the oleo~ strut 08, “De loads applied to the wheels a ny IP 1 ge r re 4 seeped = % ® i * t we 055 i 100,000 tb, 2 ‘100,000 Ib. Secco'2s, ts0,000, the axle centerlines have been transferred to point (0). ‘Thus the total V load at (0) equals 60000 + 46000 = 106000 and the total D load equals 15000 + 10000 = 28000. The moment of these forces about ¥ and D axes through (0) are Macy) = (15000 = 16000) 10 = $0000 tn.1b. and No(p) = (60000 - 40000) 10 = 2oocoo 1.10. ‘These uonents are indicated in Pig. 2.63 by the vectors ith double arrows. ‘The sense of the moment 1s determined by the right hand trump a442,30 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. TRUSS STRUCTURES ant flager rite. to t 9s Tho fitting at potnt 5 18 destened to P Fett ventana saseetvabae texte ort sareional Lis zi 3 moment on the ol2o strut, It also can arovide | Shear reactions Hg and Ep tut no bending sola Tesistance about 3 or D axes. i aug vote F Aa Si ies, aT te ons \ | | mast ‘The unknowns are the forces Bg, Ep, DF, DG and the moment Ty. To find Tg take moments about axis OE, Fig. Aa. Blog = - 50000 + Tg = 0, mience Te 50000 tn.2b. = 39218 x 2 - 77461 x 36 ~ 38 By To tind Bg take aorents about D axis 20 through point Be whence, By = 78070 2b, BMp(p) = 200000 ~ 28 Bg = 0, whence 1 Bas to To find Ay take EY 50 2V = e925 + 77461 ~ 76070 - ay = 0 To find force OFy take moments about 2 whence, ay = 86595 15. axis through point G. igcp) = 200000 ~ 100000 x 17 = e6666 x To find Bp take aouents ¥ axis througd A. 17 + 84 DFy = 0 {p} = $0000 + $2143 x 19 - 39 By = 0 wnence, DFy = 77461 1b. whence, 5y = 17386 1b. Then Dfg = 77451 (17/28) rash 7 ‘To tind Ap take ED = 0 D = 17986 = 32143 + Ap = 0, or Ap = and DF = 77451 (32.72/28) 28 : 1D = 0, oF Ap 90503 1b. 14757 13. : Tnese four reactions check the reacztons To find Day take Zv = 0 obtained originally when gear was treated as 4 100000 = 7451 + 66666 - Dey = 0, free body, thus giving e mmericel check on the or Dey = 89235, caleulatians. Then, Dds = 99216 (17/88) = S4iée Ib. With the forces on each cert of the gear we 99215 (32.73/28) = 104190 1d. ‘own, the parts could be designee for strength and rigiaity. The oleo strut would need 2 To find fp take aonents about 8 axts torsion Link as discussed in example problen 15. tnrough point D. end Fig. 42.60. 2ip(g) = ~ 25000 x 35 + 28 By = 0, BP ety. ALIS Problems (1) For the structures rimbered 1 to 10 deter- The results will be checked for static dine whether structure is statically ceter- equilibriua of strut. Take nouents about D inate with respect to external reactions axis through point (0). and Internal stresses. . Bio(p) = 200000 + S464 x 36 - 47085 x 36 — 7143 x 64 = 200000 + Lsassce Bin_Pin ~ 1692828 ~ 487150 = 0 (check) ree i Bois) = S143 x 64 - $7142 x 36 = O(check) oo 8 2 ay w REACTIONS OW TOP MEMBER AB Fig. A2.64 shows @ tree body of member AB ce «) wien the ‘xno applied forces as found tron ‘the previous reactions on the oleo strut. o ‘The unknomns are Ap, Bp, Ay and By. To find By take moments about D’axts trrougn A.(2) Find the horizontal and vertical components of the reactions on the structures {1lus- tpated in Figs. 1I to 15. ofp 098, 204 Jon 2 * . nor Byod ts) apt } med (G) Find the axial loads 1m the members of the trussed structures shown in Figs, 16 to 18. 10 500 Pe «ay ° is mf 0 + an 3 10 - 204.20 Pao Tao 420, (4) Determine the axtal loads in the embers of the structurs in Pig. 18. The aembers are pinned to supports at A, Band c. est 8" 3 eee 4 a . iooe Fig. 19 | 2008 [ts (3) Fig. 20 shows a trt-pod treme for hoisting a propeller for assobly on engine. Find the loads in the frame for a load of 1000 1b. on notst. Fig. 20 (8) Pig, 21 shows the wing structure of an vernally braced uonoplane. Determine the axial loads im all members of the lirt and rag trusses for the following loads. Front beam lift load = 30 Ib./tn. (upward) Rear bean 1tft load = 24 1b./in. (upward) Wing drag load = 8 lb./in. acting att oo sBsegr BAA y tered 351 Pept tty ALP ft Him. T i Ae Tc 5 oo re fi \ te TEL ee IN * aie Pig. 22 shows a braced nonoplane wing. For the given atr loading, find axtal loads tn litt ana drag truss members. The drag reaction on drag truss ts taken off at point A.EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS. provides reststa to V, D and § re- actions and monents about D and V axes. Fing the reactions at A and B and the load in member CD for given wheel Loading. 10000 TRUSS STRUCTURES, th nembers 3 and BF ere sistance te v, Dand ‘ reactions but Ke 18000” 10000 Fig. 24 only moment resistance about V axis. Find reactions 2¢ 3 snd loads in zembers BF and BO under given wheel Loading. Cessna Aireratt Nose Wheel Installation (Model 182) Douglas DC-8 Jet Airliner Main Landing Gear UnitCHAPTER A3 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS - CENTROIDS MOMENTS OF INERTIA ETC. Agi Introduction ‘sd terms, center of gravity and moment of iner- tla, are Constantly deing used. Thus, a drief review of these terms ts in order. A3.2 Controtde, Center of Gravity, ‘The cen~ troid of @ line, area, volume, or mass is that point at which the whole line,area, volume, or ass may be conceived to be concentrated and have ‘the saue moment with respect to an axis ae when digeributed In {ts true or natural way. This general relationship can be expressed by the principle of moments, as follows Lings:- = Zi, hence % = 2x = fxaL t areas:~ Ta = Zax, hence & Yolunes:~ 2¥ = Z¥x, nence ¥ Masses: 3M = Zon, hence % =_am = Sect "Mt if e geometrical figure is symmetrical with re- spect to 2 line or plane, the centroid of the Iigure lies in the given line or plane. This is ‘obvious from the fact that the moments of the parts of the figure om the opposite sides of the Line or plane are numerically equal but of op- posite sign. Ifa figure is symmetrical to two Lines or planes, the centroid of the figure Lies at the intersection of the two lines or the two planes, 2nd likewise, if the figure has 3 planes of symmetry, che centroid lies at the intersec~ tion of the 3 planes. 43.3 Moavat of Inertia ‘The term moment of tn~ ertia 1s applied in uechenics to a mmber of mathematical expressions which represents sec- ond goments of areas, volumes and masses, such a Syren, frtav, freee eve. Ad 4 Moweat of Inertia of an Area, As applied coan area, the term moment of inertia nas no physical significance, but represents a quantity entering inte a large number of engineering problems or caloulations. However, it may be Sonsidered as 2 factor which indicates the In~ rluence of tue area {tself in determining the total rotating moment of uniformly varying for— ces applied over an area. Let Fig. AS.1 be any plane area referred to Saree coordinate axes, ox, oy and 92; ox and oy being the plane of area. ‘Let GA represent an elenentary area, with coordinates x, y, and r as shown, In engineering calculattons,| sea tele, ty Sst2h, Te where Ty, 1, ares about Ss48 and Iz are nenonts of inertia of the ine axes 3x, yy and 22 respectively. Aa,5 polar Moment of taertig «In Pig. AS.2, the moment of inertia Iz =/r ‘dA about the Z axis is Teferred to as the polar soaent of inertia and Gan be defined az the xonent of inertia of an area with respect toa poine in its surface. Since r4=x*+ y* (Fig. A3.1) Iz =S{y* + x+) da = Ty + ly oF} the polar monent of inertia 1a equal tothe dum of the coments of tnertia with respect to any to axes In the plane of the area, az right angles to each other and passing thri the point of intersection of the po Tar exis with the plane. A3.6 Radius of Gyration The radius of gyration of a solid is the distance from the inertia axis to that point in the solid at which, if its ene tire mass could be concentrated, its aoment of Inertia would remain the same. thus, fred =@*H, where @ is the radius of gyration 1, then £ =@at or @2\ Vix since, Jraat = the case of an area, T a By analogy, in tChore AacT_ Parallel Axis Theres In Pig. 43-2 let Ty ‘be tne moment of Inertia of the area referred to the centroidal axis y-y, and let the moment of Inertia about axis yxy: be required. vay. ts parallel to yy. Consider the elenentary area dA with distance x +4 from yy. then, ty, =f(e + x)" Sara + cara + a San asa43.2 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA Fig. A3.2 1 | I I ty y The first term, /x7dA, represents the no- nent of inertia of the body about its centroidal axis y-y and Wi11 be given tne symbol 7. The second term 1s zero decause/'xdA ts tero since yy 1s the controtdal axis of the body. The last tern, 44/ dA = Ad? or, area of dody tines the square of the distance Detween axes yy and HaYae ‘Thus_in general, retest This expression staves that the amount of inertia of an area with respect to any axis tn the plane of the area {s equal to the aouent of thertia of the area with respect to a peraliel centrotdal axis plus the product of the area and| the square of the distance between che two axes. Parallel gxts Theorem For Yasses. If instead of area the mass of the body is considered, the parallel axis can be written: 1=T+Ma*, wnere M{ refers to the mass of the body. AS.7a Masa Mosents of Inertia ‘The product of ‘the mass of 2 particle and the square of its distance from a line or plane is referred to as, the moment of inertia of the aass of the parti- ele with respect to the line or plane, Hence, I= aMrs, If the sumation can de express- ed by 2 definite integral, the expression may be written T=/r* a Moments of Inertis of Airplanes, In both ‘lying’ and landing conditions the airplane aay be sub- jected to angular accelerations, To determine the magnitude of the accelerations as well as the distribution and magnitude of the aass iner- ta resisting forces, the aoment of inertia of the airplane about the three coordinate axes 1s generally required in making a stress analysis of @ particular airplane. ‘The mass monents of inertia of the airplane: about the coordinate X, Y and Z axes through the center of gravity of the airplane can be expres- sed ag follows: Ty = Daya + aaa * ZAly, ly = Dana + Daze + 2aly Rectangle area = ba Fog TABLE 2 Section Properties of Areas 4(2b + d.) a Ta, = 49 (024400, +, 4) “Bp tot area = t(D + 6) Raptect Fs a% ear Bes ay bee) Fede 2 {Hew Sty" -aty-294] ‘ y= Leb x)8 + axe (are) | tana =2 ter, where ty = abe tpi ate 4 Sint + fy 0008 = sin 20 v ae LaeP Ty C088 + Ly stn? B~ Lay sin 20 Ig = 2mm? + gw + BatyANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ‘TABLE 1 - Continued FLIGRT VEHICLE STRUCTURES aaa area =n (aids aad4] Area = t(d + 2a) F = ade Ty = ba* = ala ~ 20)? — a Ty = a(d +a}? ~2a%¢ - Gabe van 29 = (at t*) (b*~ dt) x Ty Pot For I,_, and Ty, $88 oqua~ ‘ions as given’for angle. Be = 8 (0%, = a4") Serasecircte Se a ait, a 4 tao Sta a 5 (TORE, ne me ae mat 3 wea nT nee Ream cine et : 7. sgn nr 2 TABLE 2 Properties of Solise Tas een Dw (ego Fe wuscrgn Wh RPL (r= radius) (Potal we.) za Ys sear Ty = 1098 re Ox = 264r m[ee + ysl he oliow Cize. Gr eS - ‘C rrouatie A Vol. =n L(ry*- r4 Rhea tMryt+ rye Tyna = MQ? + ye LE /BVE For thin hollow cire. cyl. Semi-circular Ring area =a (R*- Pr) zg ( in Re? Tx=.1098(R*=r+). ye Ror Ig(approx)=,St(r +2) * when x! MAP eH) approx. F=2r T emt Bor) radius T,-, 7 HE? Rect.Prism 3 Vol. = abl, MW Z & eo, Tay = M (at + pe . AY Ses mene oe eee 2s los 2S : F Soltd Sphere Veh. = (4 nF9/5) Spore Tapout axis * ary: Thin doltow sphere “91+ * 3% (a=?) 71 = radius of aphere 1 ‘about dia. ~aoe GENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA = cont (ores a) _ TABLE 2 - conttaued tg Fate = ESE. Gawls TRG ay « mass por une volume mae ER & of beay. ass 4 ® x Tx tantaat( + (Se */4)) centroids of Traptzoidei areas Iyy=lan*Re* (4R*+ at) y wee L [r > a ‘TABLE S toa section Properties of Lines (e ts sual] in comperison to radtus) Distanse = Bistace 7 Circular are Area > 2m rt Tha saree rey par 2 Mt Ox = .707F Opolar Aznrt 6366 x Ganersicuar Are area = Be : + at : 5 = 5006 5 pT? ays arse Oral ay aor Teng = 149 590 COROMLAR ARS Area = are a tn Radiane ESL oy sa Fs rev sina) gin 20 z tn 2a 7 Moe = AF = ret (1-cos a} ad = FE to - 1528) esse eH] a8 8aseeRs: sayANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VERICLE STRUCTURES 43.3 ‘rote ¢ a a Sipe gee T Fropelier we) es 3h 8 E feelge treme | He | ue “S| aps] 8 3 Ribeltee’ tie | foo 282 | ttese| i fing Sfowe'"” | too [38s | *hes00| aa 5 seth Ee ‘so [jee | T¥te0| 78 : BSS | ies) at $ Sig | iio) is : yoo His | a0 | 30 joo jies | 3508) “Ye 3 40136 | Hoss] 7 en “are where Ix, fy, and ig are generally referred to | gxample Problem 2, Determine the moment of tner- as the Tolling, pitching and yawing moments of |tia about tne norizontal centroidal axis for the inertia of the dirptane. w= weight of the items tn the airplane xX, ¥ and z equal the distances from the axes thru the center of gravity of the sirplene and the Wefgnts w. The last tora in each equa tion 1s the sumation of the moments of inertia of the various items about their own X, Y and Z centrotdal axes. If w ts expressed in pounds and ces in inches, the uoment of inertia is express~ ed in untts of pound-tnches squared, which can be converted into slug feet squared by multiply~ ing by 1/S2.16 x 144. Bxample Problea 1. Determine the gross weight Sunes or Gravicy of the airplane Seow In S16. 43.3. The airplane wetgnt has been oroken down into"ths 10 itens or weight groups, with their individual c.g. locations denoted ty the symbol Solution. The airplane center of gravity will be located with respect to tno rectangular axes. In| this example, 2 vertical axts thru the center- Ling of the propeller will be selected as a ref erence axis for horizontal distances, and the thrust line as a reference axis for vertical dis-| the dtstan~ tances. The general expressions to be solved are! = Bue = distance to atrplane c.g, trom ‘Gr ref. axis 8-3 ¥ = Dy = distance to atrplane c.g. from IN oraf. axis X-X Table 4 gives the necessary calculations, whanae = 427180 = 183.3" art of f propeller ‘sis 5480 = -1.74" (below thrust Line) Fig. A2.2 area show in Fig. Ad4 Solution, e first find the moment of inertia about a Horizontal reference axis. In this so- lution, this arbitrary axis hes been taken 25 axis x'x’ thru the base as shown. Having this moment of inertia, a transfer to the centroidal axis can be made. Table 5 gives the detailed calculations for the moment of inertia about axis x'x'. For simplicity, the cross-section has been divided into the five parts, namely, A, B,C,D, and 5. Iox 18 moment of inertia about centrotéal X axis Of the particular part being considered. Distance from axis x’x' to centroidal nortzontal axis = y = Zav = 17.97 = 2.91" TA by peraliel axte thooren, wo tranator the nocent of Inertia from aris sx" to control axis x. , Tee tyrgt ] aes, co wes | - | 37 | as.rsy] 2,082] 2,908, 50 saiass eeaalies |= | 35 | 2a,sa] sea] 2,064,n7 695,388 zeo[s00 | =| 53 | a.ee0] .288/ rig.s09 2. 880 Sutte paaen sosel aoe-3|i08 [28s] $3 | .2;2ea| 5:70n) 2.1355 503 myses Sutee Faset Sousl 35:3 {199 |ige| 43 | lacey! apiite) 1240!s40! 1 gisieee Gutee ganet Fase| “eeig(i32 [igs] $4 | lacegal *Sc24H) 1038953 ae eet iitetoas SUS fis a |i) 230 30855 eralser | = |,99-7] stegee] geagzlta.zm2.ana 93h. SEUSS | 2 [abs°7] THSSS) 3:588)45: 250589 28h S53 siecle |= | or | 55,284) 25,436) 9,706,486) |a,ceo,284 2,870,000) 4,476,286 s9.3| 99 2.39 258,300 sss] 136,400 Bast 358 = | Berkeg Sah) Be n9}_79 zal - 19,499) 91.520 3398 exol 803 B38 waco, coms ol 0 = | 49.000 Fabia ee) 3) a48 2) H8883| so] a,203| : a Fusco} 384) ERS he Boon $3 - s,ago| € 3,568;800 suse. 3 20,3 Be sBxe 2 Fou SESE, je BE eee xsl 0,702 353,08 759,369 Bei09 eel Hei iro 23. ee (Table 64 Prom X.A.C.A. Teck. Rate #575)ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES ‘The principal moments of tnertia are gtven oy following equation. Iyp7 ty cos? 3+ Igsin’d - Iyz sin 2. (see art. A311) Typ= ly Ig = ly sin? S+1, cost + 1, sin2 do Substituting 5061 x (0.9998)* + $086 x (0.0800)* - 161 x 10509 = 3056 Tap * 2062 x (0,0500)* + $096 x (0.9996 + 1eLx 10599 = 9102 tp Typ = 6680 43.7 _Problens gies [* z Fo, Tt x T r Ie | i | | at pot ae ———on Fig. A3.6 Fig. 3.7 (1) Determine the monent of inertia about ‘the horizontal centrotdal exis for the beam Section shorm in Fig. A3.6. (2) For the section as shown in Pig. 43.7 calculate the moment of inertia about the cen— ‘roidal 2 and X axes. ity \ , - eo } Tae 5 5 2 * gon ole ara ft ah Fig. 3.9 Say reas (3) Determine the moment of inertia about ‘the horizontal centroidal axis for the section shown in Pig. AS. (4) In the beam cross-section of Pig. 43.9 agsuze that the four corner members are the only effective saterial. Calculate the centrotcal gonents of inertia about the vertical and nort~ zontal axes. A3.8 Product of Inoreta Tn various engineering problems, particu larly those Involving the calculation of the nonente of inertia of unsymmetrical sections, ‘the expression / xy dA 1s used. This sxpresston ig referrad to as the product of inertia of the area with respect to the rectangular axes x and y. The term, product of tnertia of an area, ane wil be given the symbol Tay, hence er ‘the unit, like thet of morent of inertia, ts ex- pressed 4s inches or feet to the 4ch poner. Since x and y may be either positive or negative, the tora Igy may be zero or either positive or negative. Product of Inertia of a Solid. The product of inertia of a solid is the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the weight of each sualL portion in whicn it say be sssumed to be divided by the product of its distances trom two of the ‘three cooreinate planes through a given point. ‘Thus with respect to planes X end T yy * J xy OH Tyg = x2 lye ove a 3.9. Product of inertia for Azes of Symmetry. If an area ts symetrical about two ree— tangular axes, the product of inertia about these axes is zero, Thts follows from the fact that symmetrical axes are centrotdal x and y axes. If an area 1s symotrical about only one of two rectangular axes, the product of inertia, (feyds, 18 zero because for each product xydk for an element on one side of the axis of symetry, there 1s an equal product of opposite sign for ‘the corresponding element dA on the opposite stde of the axis, thus making the expression /yda equal to zero. 89,20. Parallel Axis Theoren ‘the theorem states that, "the product of tnertia of an area with respect to any pair of co-planar rectangular axes 13 equal to the prad- uct of (nertia of the area with respect to a pair of parallel centroldal exes plus the product of ‘the area and the distances of the centrota of the total area from the given pair.of axes". Or, ax- pressed a3 an equation, ++ -@) ‘This equation is readily dertvadie by re~ forring to Pig, Ad.10. 1¥ and Xf ere centroidal axes fora given area. YY and XX are parallel axes passing tarough point 0. The product of inertia about axes YY and xr 18 Igy = Je eG ED ae = fla GF oR SE Sy as Tf xen The last to tntegrais are each equal to zero, since /yaa and /xdk refer to centroidal axes. Hence, Ixy = /xyda + 37 dA, which can be written in the form of equation (2).43.20 | | yf 3.11 wonents of Inertia with Reapect of Taclined bes Fig. 8.10, Unsymetrical Dean sections are very com~ mon in atrcraft structura, because the airfoil shape 15 generally unsymmetrical. Thus, the general procedure with such sections 1s to first fing the moment of inertia about sone set of rectangular axes and then transfer to other in clined axes. Tus, in Fig. A3.11 the zoment of inertia of the area with respect to axis X,%, is| Tg, =/¥,2 th = /ly cos B~x sin g)*ea = cosa a / yaar sin®d /x*dn- 21nd cos 8 f xysk = Iz cos" B+ Ty sia" 6 ~ 2 Ixy sing cos 6 (3) end Likewise in a similar manner, the following equation can te derivad: ty, “Tgsin" + ty cos*8 + 2 Igy sin 8 cos a-- +4) vy CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA or the sum of the moments of inertia of an with respect to all pairs of rectangular axes, Thru a common point of intersection, ts constant. A312 Location of Axes for which Product of Inertia i Zero. In Pig. aS11 yy fey, oa=/(xcosd+y sind) (y cos d- OY ysl ada (cos*g=sint 8 / xyca+ cos asin of (ewe) ca why oo8 29+ 1 (xs ty) sin 2 Therefore, Iy,y, ts nero when tan 20 = 2lyy Tyaig 43.13. Principal axes. In problems involving wnsymetrical bending, ‘the moment of an area is frequently used with re spect tc 4 certain axts called the principal axis. A principal axis of an area ts an axis about which the moment of snartia of the area ts either greater or less then for any other xis passing thru the centroid of the area, axes for which the product of inertia ts zero are principal axes. Since the product of inertia 1s zero about symetrical axes, 10 follows thet symetricel axes are principal axes. ‘Tae angle between 2 set of rectangular centroidal axes and the principal axes ts given by equation (6). Example Problem 4 Determine the moment of tnertia of the ang- le as show in Fig. 43.12 about the principal axes passing through the centroid, Solution: Reference axes X and Y are assured as shown in Pig. AB.12 and the moment of inertia ts first calculated about these axes, Table 6 gives the calculations. The angle ts divided into the two portions (1) and (2). Pig ana aaa 1 me fuer | wt Ded oe | | Tia ts pues [rows [ann wse [oa [aos yan ma | aoe [sierra raat ae ore ar 2a oe a = ror toes {tome iss err}ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF, Log and 1 = noment of inertia of each portion about their own X and Y centrota~ al axes, Location of centrateal axes:~ 3 = zay = .o719 = 757" TA SS ax = SASS = 392" KES ‘qranster aonent of inertia and product of tner— tia tron reference X and Y axes to parallel neroldal axes:~ 1 CAI? = 985.075 « TET? = 40 1281 ~ 878 x .SBE* = 4187 sIS2 ~ 1278 x .767 x 302 = Ix Zynty oak? Ty sty -AR Tay = hay - “fs0 calculate angle between centraidal x and f exes and princtpal axes through centrotdal as fol- lows: van 2 9=2 fey = 1.06 Ty- ix 20246 - 40" d=25? ~ 20" falculate somente of inertia about centroidel principal axes as Tgp = Ty cos? 6+ Ty sin® 0-2iyy stagcosd = 44x STG" + 187 « S5S*-2(-.150) x 19968 x .918 = 604 11) Type iy sta’ O+Fy cos? 8+ 2igy sind cosd 44x 5965 + 187 x .5TS* + 2(-.160) x follows :~ & , ro, ‘ ae rile # Tet jitter alt ye Bxample Problem Fig. A5.15 Shows a typical distributed flange ~ 2 cell ~ wing beaa section, The upper and lover surface 1s stiffened by Zand buld angle sections. Determine the coment of inertia of the section about the principal axes. Solution: ‘The properties of the cross-section depend upon the effective material wnich can develop resisting axial stresses. ‘The question of ef- fective material is taken up in later chapter. ‘Table 9 shows the calculations for the moment of inertia about the assumed rectangular referent axes 1 and YY (see Fig. 43.13). The cross- LIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES sect as 1 the 1 the ¢ consi: the s 28 thicknesses Aaa on has been broken down into 18 stringers sted in column 1, For the top surface, 2 width of 20 thicknesses of the .CS2 skin 1s as~ sumed to act with he stringers and a sldth of ne .04 sin (sae Col. 3). on ower surface, the skin hal? way to adjacent stringers 1s assumed acting with each strtaser, or the entire skin ts effactive. Column 4 gives ombined area of each stringer uit and Is dered as concentrated at the centroid of stringer and effective skin. Ail distances, x and y, colums 5 end 8, have been scaled from a large drawing. Fig. Ada sisteaices*t axes, Location of centrofdsl axes with respect to ref. = 166.5 ins iy 7 1548.56 - 30) 70x I5.727= 431.7 ins ty=as, 58 - (5.70 .396 x 18.74) =36.41 Ins 2 Tyy=2 (235.41) = - 28686 Eph, Bi-ties 2 O=i6%-52.5', O= 8-16.25" Typ tx cos d+ Ty sin? 6-2 Ixy sind cosa = 185.46 x 9886" + 431.7 x .figs* -2 2 ye1.2 ine Ese6.dix 19898 x (~.1488]AgI2 CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA ix sine B+ Ty cost d+2 Try in AB. 14 Seetion Properties of Typical Atrerait Structural eos + eve cease Jectione, 186 45 x. LEEEZ® FASL.7 x 2895) Table AS.i0 throush A3.15 and zive me section properties of a few si Shapes comen to aircrazt, Use of these tal MALL be sade in later chapters of this Sook.ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES Aus arr Table Aa. 12 bat oe Nee Properties of Extruded Aluminum Sear USS Sess yous aa. GSS ‘cow Handbosk) ee Dea re SET. ati eee en Pe ep ‘sva] sae] va | 211 | 0.004] 0.293] o. 202 J .cors] 0, x17 aval vie] iva | “aap | 0°04] 0°20| 0299 | “cora| o! Lez sya] aaa | a | “ise | 0/08] a°ata| 224 | ooee| 0: tat Sa] ie | ia | csty | o:o0a| o:ain| oa? | ooea] 0: tat yas oan 9.198 va oat pared va 2.8 Oi we 3B Oise waa oca8 om va oar on vis H om ane eH om 338 co 230 Sas “3 0 38 3S ote [ou fo ans fej ante [ost | olde 3/32 ss | ale [ose | 0.35 ant 3 | oler [050 | 036 is sr jose [om | ose a8 2 | orse [ons | 0.36 va BL fost f98 | 0.10 vs at jose un [oa va eo forse [ie | o39 wa solos: bir [oie nF Tale =a este P= LeeAgu CENTROIDS, CENTER OF GRAVITY. MOMENTS OF INERTIA ‘Table A218 SECTION PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL AIRCRAFT EXTRUDED SECTIONS Sseces| Dinensio | n2eq | properties about 1-r! propersies about 12 ee a ey ee { ri (Lh wae) tie las [eo | oso] ite [ose | woosse sivas ois tes | | TP [rae | .080 80] 080 | | oat gees a0 aos | 7 | nna Yaa | Wa Tae [ie [eas] a2 | toes] 0100 | ata ane one | a8) ne | [_9ns| we [3718 [000 ].080] _o/a2 .t0ar .olaa [mia _.9e9 | oats | nia | -as0 {9ns| va [sne|.oso|.o7s| 2/22 | toe! .o120 | 320 | 248 | 00202 | 6s | .209| [3a [ia [ae|ors| ors] aie | iste) ons [267,408 oosso | 00 | 1a [icsae [ore [57a [arse] evea | aa oso ai | ate Toone [at] a Loe ee pe Sie oss aS ORT oe oe We | we) saa [aia| ae | avs | osetia) eats oom | oe ere) waa [eae] asians amo ,ank a0, -onae | ta | a! wave) ure] [aaa |svan] ayaa | 35am, osa6 1 aa0 as -o0een | 206 | 210 i [iaame[i | -‘[aAe|sas] aaa [seas | asso | ar? a0 ons [aos] ate peia [fa fe | ae ost sas | aso | ome | a ae T Wis | a ee ee | OTE | SET Wari ine ane is eats ne sae aaa Rese we [oat [vs |iae]—_a/ae (400 | .00de0 tee And 0088 [as | ala [rsa aa [san lis | svae] 3764 ane, 00ses | 1a ase | ae te [2 [tate [ave Savon arse) 2/2 | -one ons | ze” 201, ov [son 0 pe [hia eae [ue joe) asa sas) ours [an 300 eat | aoe pa ew IA [sae ae oa owe ow a | 2eAe La sas [sian isan’ 5/2080 | 2078 | so) .988 2826 | 590 hie! naa ewe) [ie [vas] ae aot ose | ones oe] a0 a | Rwe le T we — 17a .304 i882 | 6a —~6S% | 0848 | 902 5 750) M [han [@ 1 [aa [ive |e Teo ats [maa 757 | 0800 | amt sa8| 21a [Ree WA [sae | 97s [te 1.00 | wees oso ae] a | we? inva) saa 57aa.a0s aso tse | te (2.00 7080, 080 wena | 40a —-300 | -o1es | -m4m | «6828 tas [_aarae [aire [aris [000 [080 | 088 a | woa7s | 486.562, 0205 | 405 _| « nas) | 3/8_[mue late | d30 [17s | Wie "7a | oes | sas Twist | m8 | 800) 30 | 34s lia [ase [Ae |e ase visez | 792 1,00, or0t | ase | 725) mam [2 a fine [aaae aie _o7aa | wae | 773 1,00, ona |r| to) x 1s | a/a2 | 9/52 9/32 120 785 _1,00_| .0768_| 388 | 78 | E “as; | 0086 |. 208 | | wa | ve | ieae lie) aie [tts | .o1ss oes | .ooase | 07 | -s00 | 3 | ee [a [ 1s | .080 | 3/98 [aoase } .ae7__.500 [ooze | ase [532 | ae | eae (tua) _[.ovs| ors, 2/32 |.a70| .oa04 | 47s, 628 | -o0ete| 237” | 525] a | ae hia |e | t00) aaa sa | -oss0 | sos _.o78 | ote | .s09 | .008 t i I i wees eve vise | __a/a2 902 | ano soa, 700 | oak | 360 | tar aA iP vom) we jes | ied | 157 Loo fone [.367| 7] ea iF aaa] [aa ates | 7 1.00] i wee [368] 700 |‘TaKNvo 40 JuoraH = A313 ove sso ane “Snare, seca wd weld ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES ‘uHaNt 40 INEHON = wee) SNOLLOUS TANNYHO CANOE JO SALLIGAONA L'eY AIH.ASS CENTROIDS, A.15 Problems Fig. A218 (1) Por the section of Fiz. the moment of inertia about =: pal axes Xp and Zp. (2) Ciculate the aonent of inertia of the section in Fiz. 43.15 about the principal axes. ch of the arts 1 Fig. 3.16 Fig. ASAT (3) Pig. AS.16 tllustrates a box type bean section with etx longitudinal stringers. De- termine the monent of Inertia of the beam sec~ tion about the principal axes for the follon= tng assumptions:— (a) Assume the beam {s bending upward putting the top portion in compression and the lower portion in tens{on, Therefore, neglect sheet on the top side sthee it has very little resistance to compressive stresses. The sheet on the bottom side is effective since it ts in tension, For simplicity neglect the vertical weds in the calculations. (b) Reverse the conditions in (a) thus placing top side in tension and lower side in compression. (4) For the three stringar single cell box beam section in Fig. 48.17, calculate the mo- ments of {nertia about the prineipal axes. As sume all weo or all material ineffective. Fig. A028 AB.L4 determing CENTER OF GRAVITY, MOMENTS OF INERTIA Fig. A019 (6) Fig. 43.19 shows a wine beam sect with 2 cut-out on the loner surface. the aoments of Inertia apout th assuming the eight stringers are the only 2: tive material. (7) Ftg, 43,20 shows 2 3 flanze bean, The 7 flange members on the uocer face of beans have an ares of .3 sq. In. eacn and those on the bottom skin 0.2 sq. in. eacn, The bottom skin is .0S inches in thickness. Compute the moments of inertia about th principle axes assuming that the flange members and the bottom skin comprise the ezfestive aaterial. \—curout for door Fig. A221 (3) Pig. 43.21 shows the crass-section of a small fuselage. The dasied line represents a cut-out in the structure due 1 oT. AB sume each of the 18 stringers seve an area of 0.2 sq. in, Consider fuselage skin Ineft20" Calculate the moment o¢ inertia of the effective Section about the principal axes.CHAPTER A4 GENERAL LOADS ON AIRCRAFT Ad.1 Introduction. Before the structural design of an airplane can bo gade, the external loads acting on the airplane in flight, landing and take-off con— ditions mist be known. The complete determin ation of the air Loads on an airplane requires a ‘thorough theoretical Imowladge of aerodynamics, since modern aircraft fly in sub-sonic, trans= sonic and super-sonte speed ranges. Aurther- more, there is a wide range of wing conftgur~ ations, such as the straignt tapered wing, the swept wing and the delta wing, and many of these wings often include leading and trailing edge devices tor promoting better 11ft or con- trol characteristics. ‘The presence of power plant nacelle units, external fuel tanks, otc. are units that effect the airflow around’ the wing and thas effect the magnitude and distri- bution of the air forces on the wing. Likewise, ‘the fuselage or airplane body itself influences ‘the airflow over-the wing. The theoretical cal- culation of the airloads on the airplane is too large 4 subject to be covered in a Structures book and it {s customary in college aeronautical curricula to provide a separate course for this, subject. Tn gost airplane companies the loads on ‘the airplane are determined by a group of en- Gineors assigned to the Structures analysis Section and this group is often refarred to as the Aircraft Load Calculation group. While the work of this group 1s primarily based on the uso of aerodynamics, {t is that phase of aaro~ dynamics which is conserved with determining the magnitude end distribution of the air loads on the airplane so that the airplane structure can be properly designed to support these air forces safely and efficiently, The engineering department of an airplane company has a distinct or separate aerodynamics section, but in general their responsibility 1s the use of the subject of aerodynamics to insure or guarantee the per formance, stability and control of the airplane. A basic general over-all imowledge of the loads on aircraft 15 desirable tn the study of aireraft structural theory, and hence this chapter attempts to give this informtion. in a later chapter dealing with wing design, this subject will be further expanded, AM Limit or Applied Loads. Design Loads, Because an airplane 1s designed to carry out a definite Job, there result many types of aircraft relative to size, conziguration and performance. for exanple, ¢ comercial trans- port Like the Douglas O08 is dasimed to do a Job of transporting 8 certain mumber of pass- engers safely, sffictently and comfortably over various distances between airports. On the other hand the Air Force Fignter type of air~ craft has a Job of shooting dow eneny aireratt or protecting slower friendly aircraft. To do this job efficiently requires a far different configuration as comparad to the DC-2 transport. Furthermore the Fighter type airplane aust be maneuvered far more sharply to do its required fob as compared to the J0-8 in doing its re~ quired joo. In general the aagnitude of the air forces on an airplane depend on the velocity of the airplane and the rate at whicn this velocity ts changed in magnitude and direction (acceleration), The menitude of the flight acceleration factor may be governed by the capacity of the mnman body to withstand these acceleration inertia forces without injury which {s the situation in a fighter type of airplane. On the other hand the maneuvering accelerations for the DC-8 are not dictated by what the human body can with- stand, but are determined by what 19 necessary to safely transport passengers from one airport So another. Designing the airplane structure for loads greater than the airplanes suffers in the par- formance of tts raquired Jod, obviously will add considerable weight to the airplane and decrease its performance or over-all effictency relative to the Job it 1s designed to do. To particularly insure safety in the air ‘transportation, along with uniformity and ef— fictency of desten, the government aeronautical agencies (civil and atlitary) nave definite re- quirements for the vartous types of aircraft relative to the menitude of loads to be used tn the structural design of aircraft. In referring in general to these specified aircraft loads two terms are used a8 follows: Limit or Applied Loads. MENTHO terms lini? Gnd applied refer to tho same loads with the civil agenctes (C.A.4.) using the term limit and the military agenctes using the term applied. Limtt loads are the maxtmum loads antict- pated-on the airplane during its lifetime of service. ‘Tho airplane structure shall be capable of supporting the limit loads without suffering detrimental permanent deformations. At all loads up to the limit icads the deformtion of the structure shall be such as not to interfere mith the Saze operation of the airplane. Ultimate or Design Loads. GETisie Ure Tenis SPS used im general to mean Aa4.2 GENERAL LOADS ON AIRCRAFT the same thing. Ultinate or Design Loads are ogiel to the Lintt ‘cade sultisiied by a factor of safety (F.S.) or Design Loads = Limtt or Applied Loads times F.S. In general the over-all factor of safety ts 3.5, The government requirenents also spect?: that these design loads be carried by the structure without re. Although afreraft are undergo greater loacs than the specified Litt loads, @ certain amount of reserve strength against complete structural failure of a unit ts Recessary in the design of practically any na~ chine or structure. This {s due to nany factors such as:- (1) The approximations involved in aercdynante theory and also structural stress analysis theory; (2) Variation tn physical Properties of materials; (3) Vartation in fab- Tioation and inspection standards. Possibly the most important reason for the factors of safety for airplanes 1s due to the fact that practically every airplane 1s limited to the uaximum velocity it can be flown and the maxt- mum acceleration {t can be subjected to in flight or lending. Since thesa ara under the control of the pflot it is possible in energ- ency conditions that the limit loads may be slightly exceeded but with a reserve factor of safety against fatlure this excesding of Limit load should not prove serious from an airplane safety standpoint, although it mich cause permanent structural deformations thet might require repair or replacements of small units or portions of the structure, ‘Load3 due to airplane gusts, are aro{trery in that the gust velocity 1s assumed. Al- though this gust velocity is based on years of experience in measuring and recording gust forces in flignt all over the world, tt 1s quite possible that during the lifetime of an alr- Plane, turoulent conditions near stera areas or over mountains or water areas aight produce air gust velocities slightly greater than that Specified tn the load requirements, taus the factor of safety insures safety against failure 1f this situation would arise. Rot supposed to ‘The broad general category of external Joads on conventional aircrart can te broken down into such classifications as follows: Dus to Airplane Maneuvers. (under the control of the pilot), Due to Air Gusts, (not under contro? of pilot). (1) Air Loads Landing on Land. ski type). Landing on Water. Arresting, (Landing on Air- crart Carriers), (wheel or (2) Landing Loads (4) Take off Loads auxtitary enor shrust «nits. Hoisting Airplane. ‘Towing Atrclane. Beaching of ull type Fuselage Pressurtains. (5) Special Loads anplai (s) Netent and Inertia Loads. In resolving external loads for 5} analysis purposes, 1t 1s convenient vo seve a Set of reference axes. The reference axes XZ passing through the center of gravity of the airplane as tllustrated in Fig. Ag. normally used in stress anslysis wore as well 2s for aaradymanic celouletions. Fer the reference axes are orten re: Fig. M40. AG4 Weight and Inertia Forces. ‘The term weight {s thet constant force, pro- portional to 188 qass, woich tends ta draw every Physical bedy toward the center of the earth. an airplane fn steady flight (uniform veloetty) is acted upon by 2 system of forces in squilid- Tium, namely, the weight of the airplane, che air forces on the complete airplane, and the poner plant forees. The pilot can change this bal- anced steady fiight condition by changing the ongine power or by operating the surface controls to change the direction of the airplane velocity. ‘These unbalanced forces thus cause the 2irplane to accelerate or de-acceierave, Inertia Forces For Tend Bodies Ir the unbalanced forces acting on a rigid body cause only a change in the magnitude of the velocity of the bedy, dut not its direction, the notion ts called translation, and from basi¢ Physics, the accelerating scrce F = Ma, wnere 4 tS the ass of the body or w/g. In Fiz. 44.1. the unbalanced force system causes the rigid dedy to accelerate to tne right. Fig. A4.2 shows the effect of this unbalanced fores ta sroducingANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES F = unbalanced Etlective Force ‘external force ‘e2mas Ma ma Bat Motion 3 ; = t = w = Assume Friction tw zr maa Fig. Ad. Fig. A6.2 a force on each mss particle of ma, maa, ete, ‘thus the total affective force is Ina = Ma. If these effactive forces are reversed they are re- ferred to as inertia forces. The external forces and the inertia forces therefore form a force systen in equilibrium. Frog basic Physics, wo have the following relationships for a motion of pure translation Lf the acceleration is constant:~ ave sat------- @ Ss = vot + hat! @) vioewt=ms -------------- (3) where, 8 = distance moved in time t. initial velocity final velocity after time t. ve ve Inertia Forces on Rotating Rtgid Bodies. ‘A common airplane manouver ts a motion along a curved path ina plane parallel to the XZ plane of the airplane, and generally referred to as the pitching plane. A pull up from steady flight or 4 pull out from a dive causes an air~ Plane to follow a curved path. Fig. Ad.3 shows an airplane following e curved path. If at point A the velocity ts increasing along its path, the airplane 1s being subjected to two Aocalerations, nazely, a,, tangential to the curve at point A and aquél in magnitude to Center of Curvature 0 ME ite Mv4/E Fig. A4.3 ast a, = Fa, and a, = Fo an acceleration normal to the flight path at A and directed toward the center of retation (o}. From Newton’s Law the effective forces due to these accelerations are:= Ryo Mfat = tits 22 eee a Fpetfe ---------+-------- where @ = angular velocity at the point A. a = angular acceleration at potnt A. F = radius of curvature of flight rach at point A. ‘The imertia forces are equal ané opposite to these eftactive forces as indicated in Fig. 44.3. These inertia forces can then be con sidered as part of the total force system on the airplane which {3 tn equilibrium, Tf the vatoctty of the airplane along the path is constant, then a, = zero and thus the inertia force Fy inertia tore F,. If the angular acceleration ts constant, the following relationships nold. 9, leaving only the normal ora @ = ust + dott ot = 9" = 208 where @ = anglo of rotation in time t. @ = initial angular velocity in rad/sec. @ = angular velocity after time t. Tn Fig, 44.3 the moment T. of the inertia forces abgut the center of rotation (o) equals We(F)2 wea, The tera MF 41s the mass moment of inertia of the airplane about point {0}. Since an airplane has considerable pitching Goment of inertia about its own center of gravity axis, it should be included. parallel axis ‘Tus by the (2) g 7 Roment of inertia of airplane about ¥ axis through c.g. of airplane, Inertia Forces for Pitching Rotation of Airplane ‘about Y Ais Through c.g. airplane. In flight, an air gust may strike the hori- zontal tail producing a tai force which has a aonent about the airplane c.g. In some lending conditions the ground or water forces do not pase through the airplane c.g., thus producing 2 moment about the airplane c.g. These moments cause the airplane to rotate avout the T axis through the c.g. ‘Therafore for this effect alone the center of rotation in Fig. a4.3 ts net at (o} but atfew the c.g. of airplane, or F = 0. Thus F, and F, equal zero and thus the only inertia force for ‘the pure rotation is I, a, (a coupe) and ‘thus the moment of this inertia couple about the t As explained before if the inertia forces are included with all other applied forces on the airplane, then the airplane ts in static equilieriug and the problem is handled by the static equations for squilivrim. Ad.5 Air Forces on Wing ‘The wing of an airplane carries the major portion of the air forces. in level steady flight the vertical upward force of the air on the wing, practically equals the weteht of the airplane. The term atrfo{l 1s used when re~ ferring to the shape of the cross-section of a wing. Pigs. A¢.4 and 44.5 illustrate the air pressure intensity diagram due to an air— Angle of Attack = 89 Fig. AGS stream flowing around an airfotl shape for both @ positive and negative angle of attack. The ghape and intensity of this diagram is in- fluenced by many factors, such as the snape of the airfoti itself, as the thicimess to chord Tatio, the camber of the top and bottem sur- faces ete. A normal wing is attached to a fuselage and tt may support external poner plants, wing tip tanks ete. Furthermore the normal wing 1s usually tapered in planform and thickness and may possess leading and trailing slots and flaps to produce Aizn Litt or control effects. The airflow around the wing 19 affected by such factors as listed above and thus wind tunnel tests are usually necessary to obtain a true picture of the air forces on a wing relative to their chordwise spanwise distribution. Regultant Air Force, Center of Preseure It {8 conventent when dealing with the balancing or equilibrium of the airplane 2s 2 whole, to deal with the resultant of the total GENERAL LOADS ON AIRCRAFT sir forecs on the wing. For example, consider the two air pressure intensity diagrams in Figs. a4.6 and A4.7, These distributed force systems can be replaced by their resultant (R), which of course must be kncwn in magnitude, direction and location. The location 1s specified by a ‘erm called the center of pressure waich is She point where the resultant R intersects the a. foil chord line. As the angle of attack ts changed the resultant air force changes in mag- nitude, direction and center of pressure Location. Fig. A468 Fig, AGT Litt and Drag Components of Resultant Air Force. Instead of dealing with the resultant tore R, it 4s convenient for both aerodynamic and stress analysts considerations to replace th resultant by {ts two coaponents perpendicular and parallel to the airstream. Fig. 44.3 11+ lustrates this resolution into 1{7t ang drag components. y Fig. Ad. Fig. Ad. 9 Agrodymantc Canter (a.c.}. Since an atr- plane flies at miny different angles of attack, At means that the center of pressure changes f¢r the many flight destan conditions. It so nap~ pens, that there ts one point on the airfoil ‘that the moment due to the Litt and Drag forces is constant for any angle of attack. This point {s called the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and its approximate Location ts at the 26 percent of chord measured fron the leading edge. Thus the resultant A can be replaced by 2 lift and drag force at the aerodynamic center plus a wing Roment %q.c, a8 {llustrated in Fig. as.3. AM.& Forces on Atrplaiie in Flight. Fig. A4.10 tllustrates tn general the min forces on the airplane in an accelerated fltgnt condition,