Altimetry Chapter 5

CHAPTER FIVE

ALTIMETRY

CONTENTS
THE ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
ALTIMETER SUB-SCALE SETTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
HORI ONTAL PRESSURE ARIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
REGIONAL PRESSURE SETTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
QNE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
TEMPERATURE ERROR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
ALTIMETER PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
TRUE ALTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
CALCULATION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
ANSWERS TO CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
ANNE ES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

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THE ALTIMETER !
Because air pressure varies with altitude, a pilot is able directly to read his aircraft’s vertical
separation from the Earth’s surface, using an instrument called the altimeter.

The altimeter is a form of aneroid barometer. Any change in air pressure will cause the partially
evacuated metal capsule of the aneroid barometer, to expand or contract. In the altimeter, this
capsule is linked to a pointer which moves over a scale, calibrated in feet or metres, so that the
pilot can read his altitude or height.

Figure 5.1 A Simple Altimeter

As an aircraft climbs, the atmospheric pressure surrounding the aircraft decreases causing the
capsule within the altimeter to expand, and the altimeter pointer to move clockwise over the scale
to indicate an increase in height. Conversely, when the aircraft descends, atmospheric pressure
increases, compressing the capsule, causing the altimeter pointer to move anticlockwise, over
the scale to indicate a decrease in height.

The aircraft’s altimeter is basically an instrument which measures atmospheric pressure and,
in doing so, is calibrated so as to indicate the vertical separation of the aircraft from a defined
pressure datum level.

It is important to note that the altimeter is unable to measure vertical separation above any
datum level other than a pressure datum.

We must consider, therefore, where the altimeter reading is measured from, in other words,
where is the altimeter assuming the datum level to be?

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ALTIMETER SUB-SCALE SETTINGS

The datum with respect to which the altimeter’s scale is calibrated is neither a physical, nor
geographical level it is a pressure value. It follows, then, that the altimeter must be given a
pressure value to begin measuring from, before it can indicate a vertical separation of any use
to the pilot. This pressure value is selected by means of an adjustable sub-scale. The altimeter
sub-scale takes the form of a small window in the face of the altimeter which shows the selected
datum pressure value, either in millibars, hectopascals or inches of mercury. (See Figure 5.3.)

Figure 5.2 Sub Scale Setting

The pressure value set in the altimeter’s sub-scale window, is the pressure level that the altimeter
will start measuring from in other words, the pressure level that the altimeter will assume to be
ero feet. So, if a pilot wishes the altimeter to read height above mean sea level, the atmospheric
pressure at mean sea level must be determined and selected on the altimeter’s subscale.

Figure 5.3 Setting QNH

The altimeter now has its ero datum point set at a pressure which equates to the pressure at
mean sea level this pressure value is commonly referred to as the QNH. The QNH is passed
to a pilot by an Air Traffic Service Unit. If the aircraft were then to take-off and climb, the
altimeter would show the aircraft’s height above mean sea level.

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Elevation figures given for terrain, and obstacles, on aeronautical charts, are given in feet above
sea-level. So, if the altimeter is set to indicate vertical distance above sea-level, the task of
maintaining safe separation from the terrain becomes much simpler for the pilot he simply
subtracts the elevation of the terrain over which he is ying from his altitude above sea-level to
obtain his vertical separation from the ground beneath him.

With QNH set on the altimeter subscale, the indication on the altimeter is referred to as “altitude”.
Altitude is defined as vertical distance above mean sea-level. Figure 5.3 shows an aircraft, in
ight, with the altimeter indicating 1,450 feet above mean sea-level (AMSL), with a QNH of 85
millibars set on its sub-scale. The altimeter of the same aircraft, when on the ground, reads 300
feet AMSL, the airfields elevation.

QNH is determined by Air Traffic Control using a special barometer such as the one shown in
Figure 2.4 of Chapter 2.

If a pilot wishes to determine his height above an airfield, then he can set the airfield pressure
as a datum in the sub-scale window. This airfield pressure setting is defined as QFE.

The formal definition of QFE is:

The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected to the official elevation.

Figure 5.4 Setting QFE

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HORIZONTAL PRESSURE VARIATION

As explained in Chapter 4, atmospheric pressure varies hori ontally as well as vertically. This
phenomenon can lead to problems for the pilot, because the atmospheric pressure at any given
level in the atmosphere will rarely remain constant. So if a pilot ies at a constant indicated
altitude, his true altitude will usually vary over time and distance.

Figure 5.5 Constant QNH

However, if, as in Figure 5.5, the atmospheric pressure at both departure and destination airfields
were to be the same, the lines of equal pressure, or isobars, at all levels between the two airfields
would be hori ontal. In these circumstances, as the aircraft ew along the route between the
airfields, the indicated altitude, and the true altitude above sea-level would be the same.

Figure 5.6 High to Low QNH

In Figure 5.6, atmospheric pressure at the destination airfield is lower than at the departure
airfield. Notice that, now, the isobars slope downwards.

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Consequently, by ying at a constant indicated altitude, say at 3,000 feet, the aircraft would
be following the isobar marking the pressure which causes the altimeter to read 3,000 feet. In
reality, therefore, the aircraft would be descending.

So, when ying from a high pressure area to an area of lower pressure, true altitude is reducing
whilst the indicated altitude remains the same. You will doubtless realise immediately that this
is a potentially ha ardous situation. There is, however, a saying to help you remember this fact.
“From High to Low, Look out Below.”

In Figure 5.7, the situation is reversed, the QNH at the destination airfield being higher than at
the departure airfield. The isobars, therefore, now slope upwards. So, if an aircraft were to y
from the departure airfield to the destination airfield, while maintaining a constant indicated
altitude, the aircraft would climb, following the upwards-sloping isobars. This time true
altitude is increasing, while the indicated altitude remains constant. This situation is not as
dangerous as the former, since the aircraft’s true altitude is increasing, but, nevertheless, the
altitude indication is not accurate, so the altimeter subscale setting would not be suitable for
landing.

Figure 5.7 Low to High QNH

The above examples illustrate why pilots need to adjust the pressure setting on the altimeter
subscale in order to take into account hori ontal variation in pressure. Resetting the altimeter
subscale, when required, is, therefore, a vital part of aircraft operations. When taking off or
landing at an airfield with an Air Traffic Control Unit, the controller will normally give the pilot
the airfield QNH, which must be read back to confirm that it has been received correctly. The
pilot must then set QNH on the altimeter’s subscale. This essential practice ensures that the
altimeter is not only reading correctly, but is reading the same as the altimeters in other aircraft,
operating in the vicinity of the aerodrome.

The procedure of setting airfield QNH gives an appropriate altimeter subscale setting for
departure or arrival at an airfield, only. A different pressure setting will be required as the
aircraft progresses en-route.

Note: Most civilian Air Traffic Service Units at aerodromes operate exclusively on QNH. Controllers at
military aerodromes, however, will invariably pass the QFE to a pilot who is arriving at, taking off from
the aerodrome or transiting their Zone.

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REGIONAL PRESSURE SETTINGS

With an airfield QNH set on the altimeter, its indications may be inaccurate when the aircraft
is ying cross-country at considerable distances from the departure aerodrome. In the United
Kingdom, this problem is solved by the provision of Regional Pressure Settings. Regional
Pressure Settings (RPS) may be obtained from any Air Traffic Service Unit providing a Flight
Information Service.

Figure 5.8

Figure 5.8 shows the regions of the United Kingdom for which Regional Pressure Settings (RPS)
values are issued. These regions are known as Altimeter Setting Regions (ASRs). When ying
in these regions, below the transition altitude, the altimeter should be set to the appropriate
RPS which will be passed to pilots by the Air Traffic Service Unit with which they are in contact.
Selecting the correct RPS will ensure a reasonably accurate, but more importantly, safe, altimeter
reading.

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On the approach to an airfield, the Air Traffic Service Unit will pass pilots the airfield’s QNH.
Generally, the aerodrome QNH will differ only little from the RPS. The RPS value is based on
the lowest forecast pressure within the whole of the Altimeter Setting Region, and is valid for
one hour. An individual airfield may have a slightly higher value of pressure, but will certainly
be more up to date than the RPS value.

The Standard Pressure Setting of 1013.2 millibars

Flight below a set transition altitude is conducted with the altimeter sub-scale set to an aerodrome
QNH or RPS, as these sub-scale settings allow a pilot to determine the vertical separation of his
aircraft from the terrain beneath.

Figure 5.9 Transition Altitude

However, when the aircraft climbs through the transition altitude it is necessary to change to
the Standard Pressure Setting (SPS). For ight at these higher altitudes, where variations in
pressure are less likely to endanger the aircraft, ight at a constant altimeter pressure setting is
more convenient for the pilot, and for Air Traffic Control Units.

Above the Transition Altitude, vertical distance above the SPS of 1013.2 millibars is referred
to as a Flight Level or a Pressure Altitude. Air Traffic Control Units (ATCU) will always refer
to Flight Levels, above the Transition Altitude. With all aircraft which are ying above the
Transition Altitude having the SPS set on their altimeters, ATCUs are able to maintain vertical
separation between aircraft more easily.

Figure 5.10 Transition Altitude

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You should note that the Transition Altitude is not a constant altitude. For low-lying countries
the Transition Altitude will usually be 3,000ft, but in many countries the elevation of airfields
can be greater than 3,000 feet. In such cases, the Transition Altitude will be much higher. In the
United States, for instance, the Transition Altitude is 18,000 feet. Always be sure to check the
Transition Altitude at unfamiliar aerodromes.

When descending to an aerodrome, the pilot must re-set the altimeter to airfield QNH. The
level during the descent at which this adjustment take place is known as the Transition Level.
The Transition Level (which is the lowest Flight Level available for use by pilots) is not a fixed
level. The Transition Level depends on the prevailing atmospheric pressure.

Figure 5.11 Transition Layer

The Transition Level is always higher than the Transition Altitude. The layer between these
two levels is known as the Transition Layer. Air Traffic Control determine the Transition Level.
The relationship between Transition Altitude and Transition Level and the relevant altimeter
sub-scale settings, is covered in detail in Book 10 of this series - General Navigation.

QNE

Finally, we must mention a special use of the SPS which is referred to as QNE. QNE is seldom
used, and, then, only at high-altitude airfields, although it is theoretically possible for it to be
needed at low-altitude airfields with extremely low atmospheric pressures.

On rare occasions, QFE or QNH cannot be selected on the altimeter subscale when atmospheric
pressure values are outside the range of the subscale. At these times the pilot will be instructed
by the ATCU to set 1013.2 millibars on his altimeter subscale. The pilot will then be passed
the elevation of the airfield above the 1013.2 millibar pressure datum. QNE is defined as the
pressure altitude indicated on landing at an aerodrome, when the altimeter sub scale is set to
1013.2 millibars.

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TEMPERATURE ERROR

In Chapter 2, Pressure, you learnt how the temperature of the air affects the rate at which
pressure decreases with altitude. There is, however, no altimeter setting which will compensate
for temperature error. The altimeter is calibrated against the ISA temperature and pressure
lapse rate profile and is unable to compensate for the effect on its indications of any deviations
from ISA.

Figure 5.12 Warm to Cold Air

Figure 5.12 shows a typical horizontal pressure variation caused by temperature differences
within the atmosphere. If air cools, the isobars become closer together, causing an increase in
the pressure lapse rate; in other words, the pressure change with height is greater. However,
a rise in air temperature has the opposite effect, causing the pressure lapse rate with height to
decrease. If an aircraft were to fly from the area on the right of Figure 5.11 (warm air) to the area
on the left (cold air), at a constant indicated altitude, the aircraft would be following a pressure
level or isobar, and, as you can see from the diagram, would descend.

This is a potentially hazardous situation. To help the pilot remember the danger involved in
flying from an area of high temperature to an area of low temperature he should recall the
saying: “When flying from hot to cold, don’t be bold” or, even more dramatically, “cold kills”.
So, never forget that, in cold air, the altimeter will over-read.

Conversely, if an aircraft is flown from cold air into warm air, true altitude will increase while
indicated altitude remains constant, and, therefore, the aircraft will climb. In warm air, the
altimeter will under-read.

Figure 5.13 Cold to Warm Air

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