CPL Instruments Manual

CPL
INSTRUMENTS
CPL Instruments FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001 Version 5
INDEX
CPL INSTRUMENTS
1. Air Data Instruments 1

2. Gyroscopes 33
3. Other Instruments 57
4. Magnetism 71
5. Compasses 97
Annex A Sample Exams 117

Annex B Answers to Questions 143
Copyright © 2001, Flight Training College of Africa

All Rights Reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any manner
whatsoever including electronic, photographic, photocopying, facsimile, or stored in a
retrieval system, without the prior permission of Flight Training College of Africa.
CPL Instruments FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL DOC 5
CHAPTER 1
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS
The pressure instruments are : ASI

MACHMETER
ALTIMETER
VSI
Pitot and Static Sources
The pressure instruments which require consideration for this syllabus are the altimeter, the vertical
speed indicator (VSI), the airspeed indicator (ASI), the machmeter, the combined ASI/machmeter
and the central air data computer (CADC). As a first step it is necessary to look briefly at the
devices which are used to measure the static pressure which is fed to all of the above, and the pitot
pressure which is fed to the ASI, the machmeter, the combined ASI/machmeter and the CADC.
Static Pressure
Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given

point in the atmosphere. Considering an aircraft at rest
in still air conditions, this ambient pressure acts
equally on all points of the aircraft. Above shows one
method of measuring static pressure, using a static
head. The head consists of a tube with its forward end
sealed and holes or slots cut into the side. The ideal
situation is that the head always lies in line with the
direction of relative air flow and therefore the pressure
sensed is independent of any increase of pressure
caused by the aircraft’s speed through the air. A
static head may be incorporated with the pitot head as
shown further on.
Static vents are more commonly used in modern

aircraft to detect static pressure. A static vent consists of a
smooth plate with a small hole in the middle. The
plate is mounted flush with the aircraft skin at a point
where the air flow is relatively undisturbed by the
airframe structure itself. This is to ensure that, as far as
possible, the static pressure sensed at the vent will be
pure ambient pressure, which is free of errors caused by
the presence of the aircraft or the speed of the aircraft
through the air. It is normal to mount two static vents, one
on each side of the aircraft, thereby cancelling errors in
the sensed pressure caused by aircraft yaw.
CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

CPL DOC 5
Page 1
It is normal to incorporate an emergency static source into the static line plumbing. In the event that
the static head or the static vents become blocked the emergency static source can be selected by
the pilot. This alternate source is located at some sheltered position outside the pressure hull. The
pressure sensed at this source is unlikely to represent accurately the ambient air pressure, since it
will almost certainly be influenced by the aircraft structure.
In some unpressurised aircraft an alternate static source is provided inside the cockpit.
It should be noted that, unless it is otherwise stated in the flight manual for the aircraft, the static
pressure sensed within the cockpit will be lower than the true static pressure due to aerodynamic
suction. The effect of this artificially low static pressure is that both the pressure altimeter and the
airspeed indicator will overread with the emergency static source selected.
Pitot Pressure
The composition of pitot pressure, and the use made of it, is fully discussed in the chapters dealing
with the airspeed indicator and the machmeter. If the aircraft is at rest in still air conditions the
pressure sensed at the pitot tube will be the static pressure already discussed. A pitot tube like the
static head, faces forward into the airflow. In flight the pressure sensed at the pitot tube will be
increased due to the aircraft’s forward speed. The two elements of the pitot pressure will therefore
be:
a. the static pressure, and

b. the dynamic pressure, or pitot excess pressure.
It is the dynamic pressure which is proportional to the aircraft’s forward speed.
Since an emergency pitot tube cannot be fitted at a sheltered point of the aircraft, with any hope of
success, it is normal to incorporate a heating element into the tube to prevent blockage due to ice
formation. Any water ingested by the system is allowed to drain from the tube through drain holes
and is prevented from travelling downstream through the plumbing by means of traps and valves.
The incorrect measurement of static pressure is known as position or pressure error. The static
head and the combined pitot/static head are more prone to this error than are static vents. The
magnitude of the error depends on the airspeed and the aircraft attitude. The error is likely to be
largest at high angles of attack when some dynamic pressure is generated at the static sensor.
Flight manuals will normally provide correction values for this error for different flap settings.
Manoeuvre errors are the result of temporary fluctuations in static pressure which occur when the
angle of attack of the aircraft is changing, principally when flaps and landing gear are raised or
lowered. Manoeuvre errors normally cause lag in pressure instruments (including air data
computers) and may persist for several seconds after the change of configuration/movement of a
control surface has been completed, the higher the aircraft altitude the longer the error will persist.
Although changes in pitch attitude are the primary source of manoeuvre errors, rolling and yawing
manoeuvres can also give rise to this problem.

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THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
White arc stall full flap to max flap speed

Green arc from clean stall to normal operating speed
Yellow arc from normal operating speed to never exceed speed
The principle of operation of the ASI is the measurement of two pressures: PITOT and STATIC.
P = D + S
∴ D = P - S
The ASI continually subtracts the static pressure from the pitot pressure giving the Aircraft's
airspeed.
DYNAMIC PRESSURE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO AIRSPEED.
The ASI is calibrated according to ISA conditions. Therefore any departure from ISA will cause an
incorrect IAS. Most of the time, the atmosphere does not conform to ISA. This is the reason why the
IAS and TAS are very often different.

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ERRORS
a. Instrument Error
This is due to small manufacturing imperfections and the fact that a small capsule movement
gives a large pointer deflection. A correction card is supplied.
b. Pressure / Position Error
Approximately 95 % of this error can be eliminated by placing 2 static vents (one on either
side of the A/C). The location of the pitot tube on the A/C will affect the reading and the type
of manoeuvre that is being flown. A correction card is also supplied for this error.
c. Density Error
The ASI as stated before, is calibrated for ISA. Most of the time, the density will not reduce
according to ISA. Therefore an error will be present. This can be corrected for by the
ARISTO or the PATHFINDER. The pathfinder will do it automatically for you.
PATHFINDER: use the ACTUAL TAS function.
P.A. 12000' IOAT. - 8º C RAS 183 KTS TAS = 220ish KTS

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d. Compressibility Error
At speeds above 300 Kts, the air will be compressed. It will cause the dynamic pressure at
the pitot head to be greater than it should, resulting in an OVERREAD of IAS. The error is
small at sea level (dense air), but increases with altitude.
The temperature of compressed air is higher so a correction will have to be made.
It can be done automatically for you on the PATHFINDER
SUMMARY OF ERRORS
INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS) ± POSITION/INSTRUMENT ERROR = RAS/CAS
RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS) - COMPRESSIBILITY = EAS
EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS) + DENSITY = TAS

(TRUE AIRSPEED)

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LEAKS
If the pitot tube develops a leak, the ASI will UNDERREAD, because the pitot pressure is too low.
BLOCKAGES
CLIMBING DESCENDING
Pitot Blocked - ASI Pitot Blocked - ASI
OVERREADS UNDERREADS
Static Blocked - ASI Static Blocked - ASI
UNDERREADS OVERREADS
A good way to put this to memory is to use the following diagram:
OVER READ
UNDER READ

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THE MACHMETER
As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, it experiences severe adverse aerodynamic effects.
Thus a pilot needs warning that he is approaching the speed of sound. However, the speed of
sound varies with temperature therefore it is different at various altitudes.
The MACHMETER solves this problem because it indicates the ratio of the airspeed to the local
speed of sound (LSS) at that altitude (TEMPERATURE).
The result is that the pointer movement is proportional to the ratio of the movements of the two
capsules – that is, (P-S)÷S, or Mach number.
TAS
MACH N ° =
LSS
LSS = 38.945 COAT + 273

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ERRORS
The only errors are Position/Pressure errors.
Density Error
The density factor appears above and below the equation so it is cancelled out.
Temperature Error
Is eliminated with the density error.
Compressibility Error
This depends on the ratio of Dynamic pressure and static pressure and is catered for in the
equation.
LEAKS AND BLOCKAGES
Exactly the same as the ASI.
THE MACHMETER INDICATOR
The machmeter indicator incorporates:
A normal ASI needle.
A machmeter of the rotating drum type.
A Vmo (Max Operating Speed) needle. BARBERS POLE. The Vmo needle (Barbers Pole)
adjusts itself to the changing altitude thus giving the correct Vmo for that altitude.
RAS - TAS - MACH Nº RELATIONSHIP FOR CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
Bear in mind:
LSS always decreases with altitude.
TAS
MACH N ° =
LSS
ASI UNDERREADS with altitude.
For descending, the results are reversed.

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Constant Mach Climb:
LSS decreases
TAS decreases
RAS decreases
Constant TAS Climb:
LSS decreases
MACH Nº increases
RAS decreases
Constant RAS Climb:
LSS decreases
TAS increases
MACH Nº increases
CALCULATIONS
Flight Computer
Mach index against temperature on the airspeed window.

Mach number on the inner scale.
TAS on the outer scale.
LOOK RIGHT TO ME

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PATHFINDER
Use the PLAN MACH# function if you have OAT (SAT).
Use the ACTUAL MACH# function if you have IOAT (TAT).
FORMULA
TAS
MACH# =
LSS
LSS = 38.945 COAT + 273
Example 1
LSS = 600 nm/hour
TAS = 450 Kts
M# = ?
TAS 450
M# = M# = M# = 0.75
LSS 600
Example 2
LSS = 1100 feet/sec
M# = 0.73
TAS = ?
TAS = M# x LSS
0.73 × (1100 × 60 × 60)

TAS =
6080
TAS = 476 Kts

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Example 3
A/c A = M# 0.815 TAS 500 Kts
A/c B = M# 0.76
a) What is the flight level under ISA conditions?
b) What is the TAS of A/c B?
c) Use the Flight Computer to find the Temperature (-25º C) and TAS (466 Kts) of
ACFT B.
d) Then: Sea level = + 15º C

Flight level = - 25º C
Temp Change = 40º C at 1.98º C per 1000' = FL 202
Example 4
An A/c flying at a constant FL, reduces power that results in a reduction of TAS by 60 Kts and M# by
0.1. What is the FL?
TAS
M# =
LSS
60
0.1 =
LSS
LSS = 600 nm/hour
600 Kts = 38.945 x √ COAT +273

2
600 -273 = COAT
38.945
= - 35º C
Sea Level = + 15º C

Flight Level = - 35º C
Temp Change = 50º C at 1.98º C/1000'
= FL252

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Example 5
A/c at FL 330 COAT - 40º C M# 0.82
The A/c RAS?
(a) RAS 253

(b) RAS 276
(c) RAS 292
First use PLAN M# to get TAS 488 (because it is COAT).
Then use REQ CAS with TAS = 488 CAS = ?.
Example 6
An A/c flies from a warm airmass to a cold airmass at a constant FL and RAS.
The M# will:
(a) Increase
(b) Decrease
(c) Remain Constant
Answer :
TAS so as the temperature drops, the TAS and LSS will drop at the same
M# =
LSS ratio thus keeping the M# constant

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THE ALTIMETER
The Altimeter is actually just a simple barometer that has been calibrated at ISA to indicate altitude
instead of pressure.
Note the bi-metallic strip to cater for changes in temperature.
A sensitive altimeter is just the same as above, but incorporates a few more capsules to give a
greater movement for a given pressure change. A barometer setting facility enables height above
any pressure datum to be set.
ERRORS
a. Instrument Error
Because the rate of pressure drop with altitude is not constant, the instrument error is
magnified at higher levels. Hence the greater separation at higher Flight Levels (2000' above
FL290).
b. Pressure / Position Error
The errors are caused in the same way as the ASI and a correction card is supplied.
c. Barometric Error
This error is catered for by providing a facility to set the QNH on the 'millibar subscale'.
d. Time Lag Error
Gears and linkages cause the altimeter pointer to lag. It takes time for a pressure Change to
be registered.

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DURING A RAPID CLIMB THE ALTIMETER LAGS - UNDERREADS.
DURING A RAPID DESCENT THE ALTIMETER LAGS - OVERREADS.
ALTITUDE / PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP
FROM HIGH TO LOW - CAREFUL GO
If going from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure - the altimeter will OVERREAD
and you will be lower than indicated.
TEMPERATURE / PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP
FROM WARM TO COLD - DON'T BE BOLD
If going from an area of warm air to an area of cold air - the altimeter will OVERREAD and you will
be lower than indicated.
Altimeter Over
reads
Indicated Altitude
920mb
True Height
3000ft
1020mb 1020mb
Standard Cold Air

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BLOCKAGES
If the static vent blocks, old static will remain trapped and no change in altitude will shown.
PRESSURE SETTINGS AND DEFINITIONS
QNH: Mean Sea level pressure. Airfield pressure reduced to sea level pressure by ISA. 1hPa =
30'.
QFE: Pressure at airfield. QFE set - Altimeter reads HEIGHT above airfield elevation. QFE set on
the ground - Altimeter reads zero.
QNE: Pressure according to 1013.25 hPa level. QNE set - Altimeter reads PRESSURE
ALTITUDE (Flight level).
NB The Altimeter always reads ALTITUDE/HEIGHT/LEVEL above the datum which you have set
on the subscale.
TRANSITION ALTITUDE:
Altitude at which you set 1013.25 hPa in the vicinity of an airfield.
TRANSITION LEVEL:
Obtained from ATC. At transition level, set QNH.
TRANSITION LAYER:
The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.
TRUE ALTITUDE
The temperature being different to ISA, will cause the QNH altitude and the True Altitude to be
different. ( Use the wiz-wheel to calculate the corrected altitude for mean sea level. )

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ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE (OR HEIGHT)
The height of an A/c above the surface immediately below it.
Can be read directly off a RADIO ALTIMETER
OR
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE = TRUE ALTITUDE - GROUND ELEVATION.
DENSITY ALTITUDE
Is the height in the ISA where the prevailing density will occur. It is a function of temperature and is
used for A/c performance.
FOR EVERY 1º C ABOVE ISA

D.A. = 120' HIGHER THAN P.A.
D.A. = PA + (120 X DEV from ISA)
ALTIMETER TOLERANCE
+ 50' at Sea Level.
+ 12' per 1000' of airfield elevation above sea level.
e.g. J.S. ELEVATION = 5500'

= 50 + (5.5 x 12)
= 116' PLUS OR MINUS
ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM
It is coupled to the Altimeter and provides audio and visual warning.
During climb or descent, the warning goes off 800' before the selected level.
In level flight, the warning will go off when 200' either side of the selected level.
ALTIMETER / TRANSPONDER LINK
The transponder will relay the A/c P.A. regardless of the subscale setting.
RANGE is -1000' PA to 127000' PA.

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THE SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETER
Principle of Operation
1. Pressure sensing capsules are coupled mechanically to an electrical E and I pick-off

assembly.
2. Movement of the aneroid capsules is transmitted through a linkage to the "I" bar of the E and
I inductive pick-up.
3. The amplitude of the AC voltage output from the secondary windings depends on the degree
of deflection of the "I" bar, which is a function of pressure change. Polarity of the output
signal will depend on whether the capsules expand or contract.
4. The output signal is amplified and used to drive a motor whose speed and direction of
rotation will depend on the amplitude and phase of the signal. The motor drives the gear
train, which rotates the height digital counters and the pointer. The motor also drives,
through gearing, a cam that imparts an angular movement to a cam follower.
5. The "E" bar of the inductive pick-off is attached to the follower. Sense of movement is such
that the "E" bar is driven until it reaches a position where the air gaps between "E" and "I"
bars are again equal, thus completing the servo-loop.

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SUB-SCALE SETTING
1) Sub-scale setting moves worm - displaces E Bar.
2) Current at E Bar goes to Amp/motor - drives pointers.
3) Motor also drives cam - restores E Bar to null position.
4) Needle now indicates new height above sub-scale datum.

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THE VSI
The VSI uses the principle of differential pressure to indicate a rate of climb or descent.
During climb or descent, current static pressure goes to the capsule. But it has to go through the
metering unit (choke) to get into the VSI chamber. Thus the static outside the capsule is slightly
older - causing a pressure differential. The pressure differential causes expansion or contraction of
the capsule. This is fed via a suitable system of linkages and levers to the indicator needle.
ERRORS
(a) Time Lag Error
Is caused by delay of differential pressures being registered.
(b) Pressure / Position Error
During certain manoeuvres, turbulence may reach static vent causing

inaccurate readings.
(c) Blockages
Any blockage - VSI reads ZERO.
BEFORE TAKE-OFF
VFR - the VSI may show an error.
IFR - the VSI must be corrected before T/O.

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ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE
This is for use if the main static source becomes blocked. Usually the source is located in the cabin,
but the pressure in the cabin can be up to 10 hPa lower than the true static.
Therefore: - Altimeter will overread by 300 ft.

- ASI will overread (reduced static).
- VSI will show a momentary rate of climb then return to zero.
THE IVSI (INSTANTANEOUS VSI)
The main function of the IVSI is to overcome the time lag error at the beginning of a climb or
descent. The IVSI utilises 2 plungers or accelerometers. These are connected to the static
pressure line.
When a climb or descent is initiated, the pistons are displaced by the inertia of the vertical
acceleration force and create an immediate pressure change inside the capsule and an immediate
indication by the IVSI pointer. The effect is only temporary and the actual static pressure from the
metering unit takes over after a few seconds.
Machmeter Questions
1. At flight level 330 the RAS of an aircraft is 285kt. The temperature deviation from the
standard is -12°C (JSA). Use your computer to determine:
1. The TAS
a) 564 kts
b) 454 kts
c) 530 kts
d) 480 kts
2. The local speed of sound
a) 480 kts
b) 530 kts
c) 564 kts
d) 629 kts

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3. The mach number
a) .75
b) .80
c) 1.02
d) .85
2. Calculate , without using the computer , the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which
470kt TAS corresponds to Mach 0.82.
a) FL283
b) FL207
c) FL360
d) FL310
3 If a decrease of 0.13 in the Mach number results in a decrease of 77kt in the TAS what is the
real speed of sound?
a) 650 kts
b) 394 kts
c) 875 kts
d) 592 kts
4 An aircraft is at FL350, TAS 463kt at Mach 0.79 when the temperature deviation from
standard is +9°C . Without using the computer give the temperature deviation at FL 310
which at Mach 0.79 would give a TAS of 463kt.
a) +1º
b) -46º
c) -24º
d) -15º
5 If an aircraft climbs from sea level to 30 000ft in the standard atmosphere at a constant mach
number, what would the TAS do?
a) increase
b) decrease
c) stay constant
d) none of the above
6 When climbing in the standard atmosphere at a constant RAS, state whether the Mach
number would:
a) increase
b) remain constant
c) decrease
d) non of the above

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Air Data Computer (ADC)
Although pilots have been provided with information on the instrument panel on the aircraft’s speed,
altitude, engine performance, etc. by individual instrument dials since the earliest days of flying, from
World War Two onwards the outputs of the sensors for these instruments (e.g. the pitot head) have
also been tapped for other purposes associated with the conduct of the flight.
The Air data Computer (ADC) is a dedicated item of equipment used specifically to collect and
distribute such in-flight measurements. The analogue Air Data Computers introduced into civil
aircraft over thirty years ago are now being phased out to be replaced by digital ADC’s. The block
schematic diagram shows the general input to and output from an ADC.
Pressure sensing is accomplished by two pressure transducers, one sensing static pressure and the
other sensing both pitot and static pressures within the computed air speed module. The Mach
speed module and true air speed (TAS) module are pure signal generating devices, which are
supplied with air speed and altitude data from the respective modules. Static air temperature data
required for computing TAS is sensed by a temperature probe and is routed to the TAS module
through the Mach speed module.
There is also a facility for a configuration module to be plugged into the circuit to provide information
on the specific aircraft type such as VMO, etc. and a switch interlock to isolate control of the ADC’s
self test feature (see BIT below) unless the aircraft is on the ground. The outputs are to flight deck
displays as described later in Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS), Flight Management
Systems (FMS), etc.
Primarily, the equipment is installed in the aircraft’s electronic bay where it is cooled by natural
convection, but the Built-in-Test (BIT) facility can be operated from a switch on the flight deck when
the aircraft is on the ground (sometimes effectively at below a set airspeed) usually protected by a
strut switch.

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Although Air Data Computers have a high degree of reliability, the function of the BIT facility is to
check for the correct performance of the equipment both before and during flight.
Power-up BIT
When power is re-applied to the unit after an interval, this test makes a comprehensive check of the
microprocessor, its memory store and the air data functions.
Continuous BIT:
The check is carried out automatically, without interfering with the operation of the ADC, and it does
so at very short intervals (e.g. once every second) for all stages of the process, from input to output.
Maintenance BIT
The same BIT facility enables a maintenance check to be made when the aircraft is on the ground
by the selection on the equipment of a TEST or a TEST/HISTORY switch, to show both current
failures and any which may have occurred on the preceding flight(s).
Apart from the BIT facility, used by the maintenance crew on the ground, an Air Data Computer has
no user controls or adjustments. It may have a remote flight deck ADC WARN lamp to alert pilots to
the appearance of a malfunction flag on the instrument panel.

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General Questions
1. If the Pitot Head and Static Vent were blocked by ice, which instruments would be affected?
a) ASI, Altimeter and Slip indicator.
b) Altimeter, VSI and ASI would give inaccurate readings.
c) The ASI would under read.
2. If the Pitot head is blocked, what airspeed indication can he expected?
a) No change of IAS in level flight, even with large power changes.

b) A decrease of IAS during a climb.
c) Constant IAS during a descent.
3. If the static vent became blocked during a descent the ASI would read:
a) Zero
b) High
c) Low
4. If the Pitot opening is blocked, which instruments would be affected (separate static vent)?
a) ASI, Altimeter and VSI.
b) ASI and VSI.
c) ASI only.
5. Rectified Airspeed is:

a) IAS corrected for instrument and pressure error.
b) IAS corrected for density error.
c) IAS corrected for density and compressibility errors.
6. An aircraft is maintaining FL 120 in cloud. The ASI reading falls to zero. The most probable
cause is:
a) Static vent blocked by ice.

b) Pitot head and static vent blocked by ice.
c) ASI malfunction.
7. An aircraft is flying from a cold air mass into a warm air mass. The TAS and true altitude will:
a) TAS increases, true altitude decreases.

b) TAS decreases, true altitude increases.
c) Both increases.

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8. An aircraft flying from warm air to cold air at a constant TAS. The RAS would:
a) Remain constant
b) Increase
c) Decrease
9. Pressure altitude 10000 feet OAT + 3° C. What is Density Altitude?
a) 11000 ft
b) 12300 ft
c) 9200 ft
10. Pressure Altitude 15000 ft

QNH Altitude 15600 ft
OAT + 10° C
What is true altitude?
a) 15900 ft
b) 16450 ft
c) 17100 ft

OAT + 30° C
Terrain elevation 5700 ft
The approximate absolute altitude is:
a) 500 ft
b) 1800 ft
c) 2650 ft
12. Airfield Elevation 4000 ft OAT+15°C QNH995hPa
What is Density Altitude?
a) 5000 ft
b) 5600 ft
c) 6200 ft
13. An aircraft leaves FL 160 for an approach and landing at an airfield. The pilot will set QNH at
the:
a) Transition Layer.
b) Transition level.
c) Transition Altitude.

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14. Transition altitude is obtained from:
a) ATC or VOR ATIS.

b) Jeppesen or Aerad flight guides.
c) 1500 feet above airfield elevation.
15. Transition level is obtained from:
a) ATC or VOR ATIS.

b) Jeppesen or Aerad flight guides.
c) 1500 feet above airfield elevation.
16. The location of the static vent which could provide the most accurate measurement of
static pressure under variable flight conditions is:
a) At the Pitot head which encounters relatively undisturbed air.

b) In the cockpit where it is not influenced by a variable angle of attack.
c) One on each side of the aircraft where the system will compensate for variation of
aircraft attitude.
17. Pressure Altitude at an airfield is indicated by an altimeter when the barometric sub-scale is
set to:
a) QNH
b) QFE
c) 1013.25 hPa
18. If while in level flight, it becomes necessary to use an alternate source of static pressure
vented inside the aircraft, with the cabin pressure being lower than static, the following
variations in instrument indication would be expected:
a) the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed will not change and the vertical-
speed indicator will momentarily show a descent;
b) the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed greater than normal and the
vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb;
c) the altimeter will read lower than normal, airspeed greater than normal and the
vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb and then a descent.
19. Assume that an aeroplane at 17000 FT AMSL has a cabin pressure equal to an altitude of
7000 FT. If the pitot static tubes break at a point within the cockpit, the altimeter would read:
a) 10000 FT (7000 ft + 3000 ft) which is the allowance for pressure differential;
b) 17000 ft;
c) The cabin pressure altitude, i.e. 7000 ft.

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20. If an altimeter indicates 3500 feet with QNH 1004.7 hPa set, what is the pressure altitude?
a) 3755 ft
b) 3500 ft
c) 3160 ft
21. An altimeter is set to 1010.9 hPa. The aircraft lands at an airfield (elevation 772 feet AMSL,
QNH 1016.1 hPa). What will the altimeter read on landing?
a) 932 ft
b) 160 ft
c) 612 ft
22. En route at FL 270, the altimeter is set correctly. On the descent the pilot fails to reset the
altimeter to QNH 1026.1. If the airfield elevation is 1300 feet, what will the altimeter indicate
after landing?
a) 1700 ft
b) 900 ft
c) 400 ft
23. An aircraft flies from Johannesburg (QNH 1020) to Durban (QNH 995) at FL 100. In the
cruise the aircraft is:
a) Descending
b) Climbing
c) Maintaining altitude
24. An aircraft levels out after a rapid descent. The altimeter would:
a) Read correctly.
b) Overread for a brief period.
c) Underread for a brief period.
25. An airfield, elevation 3000 feet, has a pressure altitude of 3500 feet. What is the QNH?
a) 1029.9 hPa
b) 1013.2 hPa
c) 996.5 hPa
What is the QFE?
a) 896.5 hPa
b) 913.s hPa
c) 879.8 hPa

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26. An aircraft is flying at FL 120, the QNH is 995 hPa. What clearance has the aircraft over high
ground 1982 metres AMSL?
a) 4950 feet
b) 6050 feet
c) 6250 feet
27. An aircraft heading 003 (M), drift 10 left, has to pass over high ground that is 2200 metres
AMSL. Minimum clearance over the high ground is 2000 feet, QNH 1025 hPa. What is the
lowest IFR flight level?
a) FL090
b) FL100
c) FL105
28. An aircraft maintains a constant TAS of 350 kts in the climb:
a) Local Speed of sound decreases and the RAS decreases.

b) Local Speed of sound decreases and the Mach No. decreases.
c) Local Speed of sound increases and the Mach No. increases.
29. An aircraft flying at FL 330, Mach 0.82 flies into a colder airmass. The TAS will:
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain constant.
30. An aircraft descends from FL 410 to FL 200 at a constant Mach number. The TAS will:
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain constant.
31. Climbing at a constant Mach number, the RAS will:
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain constant.
32. As air density increases, the ASI compressibility error will:
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain constant.

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33. The local speed of sound is 1050 ft/sec. What is the TAS of an aircraft flying at Mach 0.84?
a) TAS 502
b) TAS 512
c) TAS 522
34. Calculate the altitude in the ISA where a TAS of 480 kts equals Mach 0.82.
a) 29000 ft
b) 31500 ft
c) 34000 ft
35. An aircraft is flying at a constant Flight Level. An increase in power results in the Mach
number increasing by 0.15 and the TAS by 87 knots, the aircraft is flying at:
a) FL290
b) FL310
c) FL330
36. An aircraft flies from a cold air mass into a warm air mass at a constant FL and RAS. The
mach number will:
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remain Constant
37. For an aircraft flying at Mach 0.82 at FL 350, COAT - 35° C, the RAS would be:
a) 251 kts
b) 264 kts
c) 279 kts
38. If the static vent becomes blocked during a climb the machmeter will:
a) overread;
b) read correctly;
c) underread.
39. Ambient static pressure is fed to the ASI in flight to:
a) Cancel dynamic pressure in the pitot tube.

b) Subtract the static pressure from the dynamic pressure.
c) Cancel static pressure entering the instrument diaphragm through the pitot tube.
40. The static vent is blocked. If the glass covering the VSI is broken, the instrument will:
a) Read correctly.
b) Read zero under all conditions.
c) Readings will be reversed.

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41. During a pre-flight check the VSI shows 100 ft/min climb. You may:
a) Fly in IFR conditions and allow for the error.

b) Have the VSI adjusted before flight.
c) Fly in IFR conditions and ignore the error.
42. The ASI has a pressure error of + 5 knots at IAS 130 kts. At this airspeed the VSI would:
a) Over read
b) Read correctly
c) Under read
43. The reported QNH of a given station is the:
a) actual barometric pressure measured at the station;

b) actual barometric pressure measured at sea level;
c) Station's barometric pressure corrected to mean sea level pressure.
44. When ambient temperature is warmer than standard at a particular altitude, the altimeter will
indicate:
a) higher than true altitude;
b) lower than true altitude;
c) the same as true altitude.
45. ASI compressibility error will increase with increase of TAS and:
a) Increase with altitude.

b) Decrease with altitude.
c) Increase with increase of density.
46. The Principle and Operation of the Machmeter precludes the following errors:
a) Density, compressibility and pressure errors.

b) Position, density and barometric errors.
c) Temperature, compressibility and density errors.
47. An aircraft leaves airfield X (elevation 510 feet) with the QFE 999 hPa set on the altimeter,
enroute to Y (510 nm from X) where the QNH is 1025 hPa. A spot height (450 metres AMSL)
114 nm from X is cleared by 2000 feet. What was the altimeter reading over the spot height?
a) 2906 feet
b) 3476 feet
c) 4046 feet
48. Airfield A Elevation 2100 feet QFE930hPa

Airfield B Elevation 1200 feet
A pilot sets airfield elevation on his altimeter prior to take-off from A. On landing at B the
altimeter reads 1500 feet. What is the QNH at B?
a) QNH 990
b) QNH 1010
c) 1013.2

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49. An aircraft leaves A (elevation 540 feet) with QFE 1008 set on the altimeter, enroute to B
(1000 nm from A, QNH 1000 hPa). A spot height 232 metres AMSL, 250 nm from A is
cleared by 1500 feet. What was the altimeter reading over the spot height?
a) 1916 feet
b) 2261 feet
c) 2606 feet
50. An aircraft leaves Y, airfield pressure 960 hPa, and the altimeter reads airfield elevation of
1860 feet. The aircraft lands at Z (elevation 1000 feet) where the altimeter reads 1270 feet.
What is the QNH at Z?
a) QNH 1013
b) QNH 1022
c) QNH 1031
51. During a pre-flight check the following details were noted:

Airfield Elevation 5000 feet
Apron Elevation 4980 feet
Height of static vent above ground 25 feet
Altimeter reading (QFE set) 45 feet
What is the instrument error?
a) 40 ft under read
b) 05 ft under read
c) 40 ft over read
52. The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator incorporates an accelerometer unit. The pistons
of the accelerometer unit are connected:
a) directly to the VSI needle to give an instantaneous deflection when a climb or a

descent is initiated;
b) directly to the capsule by a leaf spring which exerts or relieves pressure on the
capsule when a climb or a descent is initiated;
c) to the static pressure tube leading to the capsule and their movement creates an
immediate pressure change inside the capsule when a climb or descent is initiated.
53. In the servo altimeter the servo motor drives the:
a) amplifier and the induction pick-off;

b) the counters and the cam;
c) the I-bar.
54. By changing from QNH to QNE on a servo assisted Altimeter:
a) The motor drives the "E" bar sensing an error, then amplified and fed to the counter.
b) The anvil moves the worm gear, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars.
c) The "I" bar moves, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars.

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55. If the static pressure ports iced over while descending from altitude, the airspeed indicator
would read:
a) High
b) Low
c) Correctly.

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CHAPTER 2
GYROSCOPES
A spinning gyro has 2 properties: RIGIDITY
PRECESSION
RIGIDITY
The ability of a gyro to maintain its axis aligned with a fixed point in space.
SI
R ∝
F
S - Rotational Speed (Greater speed - greater rigidity).

I - Moment of Inertia (Greater mass - greater rigidity).
F - Force (Greater force applied - less rigidity).
PRECESSION
If a force is applied to a spinning gyro, it acts at 90º to the point of application in the direction of spin.
PRECESSION TRIES TO OVERCOME RIGIDITY AND

RIGIDITY TRIES TO OVERCOME PRECESSION.

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TYPES OF GYROS
Gyro types depend on the number of planes of freedom of movement. Freedom of movement is
achieved by mounting the gyro in gimbal rings.
Space Gyro
Freedom of movement in all 3 planes.(Fore/aft-athwarthships and vertical). This type of gyro

is of no use in aviation. We need a gyro that is fixed in at least one plane to give a reference
datum.
Tied Gyro (DI)
A space gyro with freedom of movement in 3 planes, but tied to a reference point.
Earth Gyro (AH)
A gyro controlled by the earth's gravity.
Rate Gyro (T & S)
A gyro having freedom of movement in 1 plane only.
Gyroscopic Wander
Due to its rigidity, the spin axis of a perfect gyro should continue to point in a fixed direction. Any
movement of the spin axis away from this fixed direction is known as gyro wander. Depending on
the direction in which the spin axis moves, the gyro may be said to be drifting or toppling.
Gyro drift occurs whenever the spin axis moves in a horizontal plane,

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Gyro topple occurs whenever the spin axis moves in a vertical plane,
A gyro whose spin axis is vertically mounted cannot drift, but can only topple.
Real Wander
Whenever the spin axis actually moves relative to a fixed point in space, the gyro is said to be
suffering real wander, that is to say real drift, real topple or a composite of both.
Such real wander may be deliberately induced or may be due to mechanical imperfections in the
gyro assembly, for example:
a) An imperfectly balanced gyro wheel.
b) Imperfectly balanced gimbals.
c) Uneven friction loadings at the bearings.
Apparent Wander
Whenever the spin axis of a perfect gyro (with no real wander) appears to an Earth bound observer
to be changing direction, the gyro is said to be suffering from apparent wander.
The diagram on the next page shows apparent drift. The spin axis of a perfect gyro is aligned with
true north at time A. The gyro continues to remain perfectly rigid relative to a fixed point in space,
however with the passage of time (A2, A3, A4) the spin axis appears to an Earth bound observer to
be drifting away from true north. Appreciate that the gyro is stationary on the Earth, it is the Earth
which is moving about its own spin axis.

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Apparent drift does not occur at the equator, since the meridians are parallel. At the poles the rate
of apparent drift is equal to the rate of Earth rotation (15º per hour),
The formula for the apparent drift (due to Earth rotation) is:
RATE OF APPARENT DRIFT = 15° x THE SINE OF THE LATITUDE °/HOUR
Conversely apparent topple is calculated using the formula:
RATE OF APPARENT TOPPLE = 15° x THE COSINE OF THE LATITUDE °/HOUR

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Since it is zero at the poles, but occurs at the maximum rate of 15° per hour at the
equator,
Apparent wander (either drift or topple) also occurs whenever the gyro is transported east or west
across the surface of the Earth. This apparent wander is specifically termed transport wander.
Gyros can be air driven but electrically driven gyros are more advantageous due to:
More efficient - higher speeds at all altitudes.
Operational speed is attained much quicker.
Case can be sealed so no impurities to clog gyro.
Heat generated by the motor, maintains a stable operating temperature, thus increasing the
useful life of the bearings.

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THE DIRECTION GYRO (DGI)
TIED GYRO
Tied to North
HORIZONTAL AXIS N/S
The gyro has freedom of movement of 360º in the horizontal plane, but is restricted to 55º freedom
of movement either side of the vertical plane. This is to prevent damage to the gimbal rings.
HIGH RPM
The gyro spins at + 12000 RPM because:
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION = RIGIDITY
The A/c turns in the horizontal plane. The gyro assembly and gimbals remain directed at a fixed
point in space. So the A/c turns about the rigid gyro and heading is indicated.

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PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL = PRECESSION
To give a reference for change of heading, the gyro must always be maintained in the A/c horizontal
axis. (not true horizontal). Therefore, to indicate a change of heading in a banked turn, the gyro
must be precesses back into the A/c horizontal axis. Also if the A/c flies from the equator to the
pole, its horizontal axis changes by 90º, so the gyro will have to be precessed by 90º.
GYRO WANDER
The DGI suffers from 4 factors that cause TOTAL DRIFT.
REAL WANDER
EARTH ROTATION WANDER
LATITUDE NUT CORRECTION
TRANSPORT WANDER
TOTAL DRIFT
Real Wander
Nothing can be done about this because it is due to asymmetric friction etc.

CPL DOC 5
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Earth Rotation Wander
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
DGI READING DECREASE AT DGI READING INCREASE AT

15º Sin Lat/HR 15º Sin Lat/HR
-
+

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Page 40
Latitude Nut Correction
To counteract the effect of EARTH ROTATION WANDER, we use a LATITUDE RIDER NUT. It
imposes a precessional force on the DGI which is equal and opposite to ERW at that latitude. This
continually lines up the fixed point in space with magnetic North, effectively making the Earth stand
still.
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE : NUT SCREWED INWARDS

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE : NUT SCREWED OUTWARDS
It must be remembered that because APPARENT WANDER changes with latitude, the latitude rider
nut is set for a specific latitude only. Any departure from this latitude and precession will not equal
wander and headings will increase or decrease.
TRANSPORT WANDER
The latitude rider nut has cancelled out ERW and basically stopped the earth from turning.
However, if an A/c flies from one meridian to another, (TRANSPORT), the fixed point in space will
not coincide with the Magnetic North and the result will be TRANSPORT WANDER.
The magnitude of Transport Wander will equal the magnitude of Convergency.
Therefore an A/c flying along the equator will experience zero transport wander.
Dgi headings Dgi headings

increase + - decrease
Dgi headings Dgi headings

decrease - + increase

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Page 41
If travelling EXACTLY east or west:
Transport wander = Groundspeed Kt x tan latitude °/hr

60
Any other track:
Transport wander = d long° x Sin mean lat

Flight time
TOTAL DRIFT = REAL DRIFT + APPARENT DRIFT
* These factors are all calculated in DRIFT PER HOUR.
* If a problem is over several hours, remember to multiply the degrees of drift by the
number of hours.
RING LASER GYRO
The ring laser gyro (RLG) is just about as different from a conventional gyro as it is possible to get.
The RLG operates on the principle of the relative movement of two beams of laser light, whereas a
conventional gyro operates on the principle of stored mechanical energy (inertia). RLGs are a solid
state alternative to the conventional rate integrating gyro.

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ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
The (AH) is an EARTH GYRO
VERTICAL AXIS
HIGH RPM
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - RIGIDITY
PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL - PRECESSION
EARTH GYRO
It is controlled by earth's gravity.
VERTICAL AXIS
And has freedom of movement in all 3 planes
HIGH RPM
+ 15000 RPM for air models.

It has this high RPM because: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION IS RIGIDITY
The A/c pitches and rolls around the gyro system which is rigid, giving instantaneous reference to
pitch and bank.

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PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL IN PRECESSION
The gyro axis is kept in the vertical (true vertical) plane by the PENDULOUS VANE UNIT which
provides the necessary precessional force if the gyro has toppled.
The pendulous unit has 4 exhaust ports. Air exits here after spinning the gyro. Each port is half
closed by a vane which lies to the left as you look at the port. After the gyro topples, the vanes
remain in the vertical. One of the vanes will cover its port, and no air escapes here. There is a
pressure force here which is precessed through 90º and erects the gyro. The rate of precession is
kept low so that when the vanes are disturbed by turbulence, the precessional force on the gyro is
negligible.

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AH INDICATOR
The miniature A/c is fixed to the outer gimbal. The horizon bar, through the guide pin is linked
directly to the gyro (inner gimbal). If the A/c descends, the horizon bar moves up causing our little
A/c to appear below the horizon and vice versa for climbing. A similar thing occurs when the A/c
banks and the horizon bar, linked to the gyro, rotates around the little A/c.
GYRO ERRORS
The Gyro suffers from 2 errors:
(a) Acceleration Error.

(b) Turning Error.
The causes of these errors are:
(a) PENDULOSITY. (bottom of unit heavy)

(b) ERECTION (precession by vanes)
PENDULOSITY
In acceleration (and deceleration). The pendulous unit makes the rotor bottom heavy, and the
bottom of the unit is subject to inertial forces generated by acceleration and deceleration.
In a turn, the pendulous unit suffers from centrifugal force which provides a processional force to
the gyro.

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Page 45
ERECTION
In acceleration (and deceleration), The vanes should remain in the true vertical and keep the gyro
axis vertical. During acceleration both longitudinal side vanes are thrown back, with the result that
the right side opens and the left side closes. Reaction is a force which provides an erectional force
which precesses the gyro.
In a turn, the vanes suffer from centrifugal force which causes an erectional force, which precesses
the gyro.
ACCELERATION ERROR - CLIMBING RIGHT BANK
DECELERATION ERROR - DESCENDING LEFT BANK
TURNING ERROR TO LEFT - REDUCTION IN LEFT BANK
TURNING ERROR TO RIGHT - REDUCTION IN RIGHT BANK
NOTE: The effect of pendulosity and erection increases the error to a maximum at 180º turn,
thereafter reducing to zero.
The reason is because the effect of pendulosity opens and closes the opposite two vanes
which erection error opens and closes. This causes an erectional force which is correct and
nullifies the 2 errors after a while.
THE ELECTRICAL ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

CPL DOC 5
Page 46
Once again, the gyro is controlled through precession. This precessional force is achieved by
levelling switches and a torque motor.
The levelling switches are at 90º to their respective axis and the torque motor applies a correcting
torque at 90º to the respective axis.
e.g. GYRO DISPLACEMENT IN PITCH
Levelling switch on roll axis (90º to Pitch Axis).

Torque motor on roll axis (90º to Pitch Axis).
The opposite applies to gyro displacement in roll.
Mercury switches and their placements and use

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Page 47
THE STANDBY AH
Major airlines today do not use the conventional AH, but instead, they all have Flight Directors. It is
controlled by a remote gyro or inputs from the INS. Now in case of an electrical failure, a
STANDBY AH is employed.
It is an electrically driven gyro that is powered by 115 volt - 3 phase AC from a static invertor. It is
guaranteed of electrical power because it is linked to the 28 Volt DC Battery Busbar (Hot Bus).

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TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR
The Turn and slip indicator are 2 separate instruments:
Turn Indicator - Gyroscope

Slip Indicator - Mechanical
Turn Indicator is a : RATE GYRO
HORIZONTAL AXIS
LOW RPM
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - PRECESSION
RATE GYRO:
Freedom of movement is in one plane only - Rolling Plane.
Some books say it has freedom of movement in a second plane - plane of rotation. The instrument
measures the rate of turn in the 3rd plane at right angles to the other 2.
HORIZONTAL AXIS:
The axis of the gyro is mounted athwartships.

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Page 49
LOW RPM:
The gyro spins at 9000 RPM. This low RPM because:
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION IS PRECESSION
The instrument measures the precessional rate of the gyro and indicates it as a turn.
OPERATION
As the A/c turns, the gyro wants to remain in the horizontal, but is forced to remain in the A/c
athwarthsips axis. This force is precessed and causes the gyro to tilt.
GYRO TILT IS DUE TO PRIMARY PRECESSION CAUSED BY THE A/C TURNING. The
gyro now experiences a secondary precessional force from the springs. When primary and
secondary precessional forces are equal, a steady turn is indicated.
The secondary precessional force returns the gyro to its original position once the turn is stopped.
The turn indicator is usually electrically driven to provide a back up in case of AH and DGI failure
resulting from loss of suction.

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Page 50
TURN INDICATOR ERRORS
Springs
The springs are adjusted to a rate one turn. Any other rate will provide inaccuracies.
Rotor Speed
The turn indicator is calibrated for a given rotor speed only.
ROTOR SPEED TOO LOW
Primary precession less than secondary precession - LESSER RATE OF TURN

INDICATED.
ROTOR SPEED TOO HIGH
Primary precession greater than secondary precession - GREATER RATE OF TURN

INDICATED.
TO CALCULATE THE RADIUS AND ANGLE OF BANK OF A TURN
TAS 240 Kts

RATE 1 TURN
RATE 1 TURN = 2 mins.
a) What is the radius of the turn?
b) What is the bank angle required?
Answers
2
a) Circ = 240 x 6080' x
60
Circ = 48640'
Circ = 2πr
circ
r =
2π
48640
r =
2 × π
r = 7741'

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Page 51
b. V2 or 10 % of TAS + 7
Tan θ =
gr
TAS
θ = + 7
Tan θ = 405.33² (ft/sec) 10
32.2 x 7741
θ = 24 + 7
Tan θ = 0.66
θ = 31°
θ = 33.39°
V = speed
G = gravity 32.2 ft/sec²
r = radius
THE TURN INDICATOR IS THE ONLY INSTRUMENT THAT CAN ACCOMMODATE

UNLIMITED PITCH WITHOUT TOPPLING.
SERVICEABILITY CHECK:
While taxing, check: Needle in direction of turn.

Ball out of turn.

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Questions
1. The rigidity of a spinning wheel is directly proportional to:
a) the speed of rotation and indirectly proportional to the mass of the rotor; CAA
b) the moment of inertia and inversely proportional to the speed of rotation;

c) the speed of rotation and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia.
2. Errors in both pitch and bank indication on an attitude indicator are usually at a maximum as
the aircraft rolls out of a:
a) 90 degree turn;
b) 180 degree turn;
c) 270 degree turn.
3. When an aircraft is rapidly accelerated in straight and level flight, or at take-off, what inherent
precession characteristic will be displayed on the attitude indicator?
a) The miniature aircraft would indicate a descent.

b) The miniature aircraft would indicate a climb.
c) The miniature aircraft would indicate a climb and bank.
4. What is the approximate angle of bank for a rate one turn at 110 knots?
a) 18 degrees
b) 25 degrees
c) 30 degrees
5. The Turn and Slip indicator pre-flight check consists of:
a) Aircraft level, ball central, turn needle central.

b) Aircraft level, turn needle central, ball central, fluid in tube.
c) Aircraft not level, turn needle and ball displaced.
6. What indications should you get from the Turn and Slip indicator during taxi?
a) The needle and ball should move freely in the direction of the turn.
b) The ball moves opposite to the turn and the needle deflects in the direction of the
turn.
c) The ball deflects opposite to the turn and the needle remains central.
7. The effect of decreasing rotor speed in the turn and slip indicator will cause:
a) the turn indicator to over-read and the slip indicator to under-read;

b) the turn indicator to under-indicate the angle of bank but will not effect the slip
indicator;
c) the turn indicator to under-read the rate of turn.

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8. The angle of tilt of the rate gyro in a turn indicator is due to:
a) the force in the horizontal plane generated by secondary precession balancing the tilt
caused by primary precession;
b) the tension of the control spring opposing the angular tilt of the gyro;
c) primary precession which is generated by an aeroplanes rate of turn.
9. To complete a 360° turn using the Turn Co-ordinator, takes 131 seconds. The rotor speed
is:
a) High
b) Low
c) Correct
10. The rigidity of a gyro is directly proportional to:
a) Rotor speed and inversely proportional to rotor mass.

b) Gyro inertia and inversely proportional to rotor speed.
c) Gyro inertia and rotor speed.
11. If the rotational speed of the Turn and Slip gyro rotor is below the calibrated speed the:
a) Turn indicator overreads.
b) Turn indicator and Slip underreads.
c) Turn indicator underreads, slip not affected.
12. A warning flag appears on an electrical Turn and Slip indicator, this means:
a) Total instrument failure.

b) Turn indicator failure. Slip indicator serviceable.
c) Turn indicator underreads, slip not affected.
13. The principle of rigidity is used for the operation of the following gyroscopic instruments:
a) Directional Gyro and Artificial Horizon.
b) Directional Gyro and Turn indicator.
c) Artificial Horizon and Turn indicator.
14. An Artificial Horizon employs a;
a) Tied gyro
b) Earth gyro
c) Rate gyro
15. One characteristic that a properly functioning gyro depends upon for operation is the:
a) Resistance to deflection of the gyro rotor.

b) Ability to resist precession at 90 degrees to an applied force.
c) Position of the gyro axis relative to the Earth's axis.

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Page 54
16. The Latitude Rider nut of a DGI compensates for:
a) Real wander.
b) Earth rotation wander.
c) Transport wander.
17. The Latitude Rider nut of a DGI is set to give zero drift due to the Earth's rotation at 30ºS.
The gyro readings will:
a) Increase when flying North from 30 S.

b) Increase when flying South from 30 S.
c) Remain correct when flying East or West along the 30 S parallel.
18. The rotor of the DGI spins up and away from the pilot when 090 is indicated. The latitude
compensation nut situated on the near right hand side of the inner gimbal from the gyro axis,
has been set to give zero drift on the ground at the equator. To compensate for earth rotation
at 30 S the latitude compensating nut:
a) must be adjusted outwards;

b) must be adjusted inwards;
c) is not adjusted since the latitude nut can only be used to correct for apparent wander
in the northern hemisphere.
19. What is earth rotation wander at 30 degrees S?
a) +7.5 degrees per hour.

b) +7.5 degrees per minute.
c) -7.5 degrees per hour.
20. If a vacuum gauge indicates the pressure to be lower than the minimum limit, the air-
operated instruments that would be affected, are:
a) pressure altimeter;
b) heading indicator (DGI);
c) vertical-speed indicator.
21. The air driven Artificial Horizon erection error is due to:
a) Centrifugal Force acting at the bottom of the pendulous unit.
b) Centrifugal Force displacing the vanes.
c) Wear and tear of the gimbal bearings.
22. The DGI, Artificial Horizon and Turn indicator are:
a) Rate, Earth and Tied gyros respectively.

b) Tied, Rate and Earth gyros respectively.
c) Tied, Earth and Rate gyros respectively.

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23. Erection errors in an air driven Gyro Horizon Indicator are due to:
a) Loss of gyro rigidity due to the reduction in rotor speed at high altitudes.
b) The movement of the pendulous vanes during aircraft accelerations and manoeuvres.
c) The displacement of the pendulous gyro casing during acceleration or a turn.
24. In an electrically driven artificial horizon, the axis wander about the pitch axis is controlled by:
a) A mercury switch at right angles to the pitch axis inducing torque about the roll axis.
b) A mercury switch parallel to the pitch axis inducing torque about the pitch axis.
c) A mercury switch at right angles to the roll axis inducing torque about the pitch axis.
25. During a stabilised climbing turn at a constant rate, the instruments which indicate the correct
pitch and bank are the:
a) vertical-speed indicator and turn-and-slip indicator;

b) altimeter and turn-and-slip indicator;
c) attitude indicator and turn-and-slip indicator.
26. A RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) displays a warning flag which indicates a compass failure.
The radio bearing pointers:
a) are not to be used;

b) can be used to home to an NDB;
c) can be used to home to an NDB and a VOR station.

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Page 56
CHAPTER 3
OTHER INSTRUMENTS
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATOR
An angle of attack indicator is mainly used with high performance aircraft.
A wing will stall at a given angle of attack, regardless of A/C altitude, gross weight or airspeed.
Angle of attack indicators may be of the Vane Type (stall warning or of a Slotted Probe Type.
FLIGHT DATA RECORDERS
Flight Data Recorders have to measure at least the following 7 Mandatory parameters:
1) Time (UTC or elapsed time).

2) Pressure Altitude.
3) Airspeed (RAS).
4) Vertical Acceleration.
5) Magnetic Heading.
6) Pitch Attitude.
7) Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR).

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TEMPERATURE
It would appear at first glance that measuring the temperature outside the aircraft is a simple matter
of introducing a thermometer bulb into the air and noting the reading on a suitable indicator.
However as aircraft speeds increase and air compressibility become significant, the situation
becomes complicated by the fact that the temperature sensed at the bulb bears no resemblance to
the free air temperature.
Low Speed Thermometers
For aircraft flying at true airspeeds below about 150 kt, relatively simple thermometers are sufficient
to measure the outside air temperature.
The bimetallic thermometer is probably the simplest of aircraft thermometers. A helical bimetallic
element which twists with temperature changes is encased in a tube.
The twisting of the helix drives a pointer over a scale. The thermometer is mounted on the
windscreen or fuselage with the tube protruding into the airstream and the dial visible to the pilot. A
bimetallic thermometer is shown below.
Where it is not feasible to use a bimetallic thermometer, remote bulb thermometers may be used,
and these can be either liquid or vapour filled.

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A remote bulb system is illustrated schematically :
With a liquid filled system the bulb, capillary and Bourdon tube are completely filled with liquid. The
expansion of the liquid with increasing temperature causes the Bourdon tube to straighten. This
action is transferred to a pointer by a mechanical linkage. A decrease of temperature will have the
reverse effect. The bulb is located at a suitable position in the free air stream.
With a vapour filled system the bulb is filled with a small quantity of volatile liquid and the capillary
and Bourdon tube with vapour. As the fluid in the bulb expands and contracts with change of
temperature, the pressure of the vapour in the capillary tube and in the Bourdon tube changes,
again modifying the shape of the Bourdon tube. With this system atmospheric pressure changes will
cause indicator errors since the Bourdon tube will suffer from a changing inside/outside pressure
ratio.
At true airspeeds above 150 kt the systems described above are not sufficiently accurate, and it is
now necessary to use electrical thermometers. These fall into two categories, depending on the type
of sensing element which is employed.
With a coil resistance sensor, the resistance of a nickel or platinum coil, which changes at a rate
which is proportional to the change in absolute temperature, is measured. The change in resistance
is small but stable.

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With a semiconductor (thermistor) sensor, the change in resistance for a given temperature change
is greater than with a coil sensor, but unfortunately it is difficult to obtain constant
resistance/temperature characteristics from one thermistor to another.
A simple method of converting resistance change to an indication of temperature is to include the

coil or thermistor in a circuit with a fixed voltage of known value. The current flowing in the circuit will
change as the resistance of the sensor changes, and this current is measured by a milli-ammeter.
Changing temperature causes changing resistance which causes changing current flow, and
therefore the face of the milli-ammeter can be calibrated in °C rather than milli-amps.
A more accurate method than that described in the previous paragraph employs a servo indicator. In
this system, the resistance of the sensing element is included in a self-balancing (Wheatstone)
bridge. The principle of operation is that of balancing resistances. The resistance of the sensor is
matched by a variable resistance (a potentiometer) in which the wiper arm is positioned by a servo
loop. The amount of movement of the wiper arm is consequently a measure of the temperature
change, and it is the movement of the wiper arm which is used to position the needle on the
temperature gauge. The advantage of this system is that changes in the sensor circuit voltage will
not affect the accuracy of the system.
Regardless of whichever of the two systems described above is used, it is important that the current
flow through the sensor is minimal, since a current flowing through a circuit within which there is
resistance will itself cause a temperature rise.
A Rosemount probe (or total air temperature probe).

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The probe has a small resistance coil surrounded by concentric cylinders and is mounted on a
streamlined strut 50 mm or so off the aircraft skin. Being small, the element reacts quickly to
temperature changes and being at some distance from the aircraft skin, the coil is not unduly
affected by skin temperature. The probe is open at the front end while a smaller orifice at the rear
allows the probe to continuously sample new air, although the airflow through the probe is quite slow
because of the restrictions within it.
The probe has an integral heating element fitted to it to prevent icing. The heater is of the self—
compensating type in that, as the temperature rises, so does the element resistance and therefore
the heater current is reduced. The heater obviously affects the temperature sensed by the sensor,
however the resultant error is small enough to be acceptable, being in the order of 1°C at Mach 0.1
and 0.15°C at Mach 1.0.
True and Measured Temperature
Static air temperature (SAT) is the correct temperature of the ambient air and is sometimes
referred to as the corrected or true outside air temperature.
Unfortunately, especially at high speeds, the effect of compressibility means that the temperature
which is sensed will be considerably higher (warmer) than the static air temperature.
Total air temperature (TAT) is the temperature of air which has been brought virtually to rest, and
which has suffered the full effect of heating due to compressibility. The difference between the static
air temperature and the total air temperature is sometimes referred to as the stagnation rise. The
proportion of the stagnation temperature which is sensed is known as the recovery factor or K value.
The type of thermometer employed will govern the percentage of the stagnation temperature rise
which is sensed. With a Rosemount probe the K factor is normally assumed to be 1.0, which is why
the device is sometimes called the total air temperature probe.
With bimetallic or liquid/vapour filled thermometers (and electrical thermometers of a more basic
type than the Rosemount probe) the K value is normally in the order of 0.75 to 0.85. In this case the
measured temperature is the temperature of air which has been brought only partially to rest. Now
the measured temperature is known as the ram air temperature (RAT), and the difference between
the static air temperature and the measured temperature (RAT) as the ram rise.
RAT Sensor
The majority of temperature sensors are however, of the platinum wire element type, the element
being contained either in a probe mounted in what is termed a “flush bulb configuration”. In this type
of sensor, a probe is used for SAT measurement with the probe protruding through a hole in the
aircraft skin. The sensing element is mounted flush with the aircraft skin (flush bulb) and senses
RAT. The recovery factor for this type of sensor varies from 0.75 to 0.90, depending on aircraft
geometry and location of the bulb.

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Static air temperature can be derived from the measured temperature using the formula given
below:
Ts= Tm
1 + (0.2 x K x M2)
where Ts = SAT in degrees absolute

Tm = measured temperature in degrees absolute
M = Mach number
K = recovery factor
The table below gives an easier way of converting Rosemount probe readings to SAT. Similar tables
can be produced for other types of thermometers, however they must take account of the lower K
value.

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As the speed of the aircraft increases, the effect of kinetic heating of the sensing element by the
airflow over it will tend to increase. Further complications occur when a sensing bulb is mounted
flush with the aircraft skin, as the sensor will tend to register a combination of skin temperature and
air temperature.
Additionally, unless the bulb is shrouded, direct sunlight will give rise to an artificially high reading.
Finally, on flying from cloud to clear air, the temperature which is sensed will be artificially low for the
period taken for the moisture to evaporate from the bulb or the sensing element within the
Rosemount probe. The probe of the bimetallic thermometer cannot be shrouded and is necessarily
mounted adjacent to the fuselage skin, this type of thermometer will therefore suffer from all of these
errors. The liquid/vapour filled thermometer bulb must again be mounted on the aircraft skin,
however the bulb can be shrouded to prevent direct sunlight reaching the bulb. The effect of kinetic
heating which is suffered at the low speeds associated with aircraft using bimetallic or liquid/vapour
filled thermometers will be small. The Rosemount probe is both shrouded and mounted remotely
from the aircraft skin. The effect of kinetic heating within the Rosemount probe is minimised by
virtue of the fact that the airflow through the probe is slowed by virtue of the restrictions within it.
RECOVERY FACTOR
If the thermometer has a recovery factor of 0.8, then it is measuring SAT + 80% of the RAM RISE.
If the recovery factor is ZERO, it is measuring SAT only.
If the recovery factor is 1.0, it is measuring TAT (Rosemount Probe).
TAT (Total Air Temperature)
This is SAT + 100 % RAM RISE.
EXAMPLE:
SAT = -20º C
RECOVERY FACTOR = 80 %
RAM RISE = 10º C
What is the Ram Air Temperature (RAT)?
RAT = SAT + % of RAM RISE

= (-20) + (80 % of 10º)
= -20 + 8
= - 12º C
2
A useful formula SAT = RAT – TAS
100

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FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS
A typical system consists of:
Flight Director Computer
This is the heart of the system. Information is received from various sources before being displayed.
Flight Director Indicator
Presents a forward looking view of the A/c in pitch and roll (similar to an AH). It is electrically driven
by signals from a remote vertical gyro.
Horizontal Situation Indicator
Presents a planform view on the navigational situation, such as heading radial and glide path
(similar to an RMI)

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FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (FMS)
In a light aircraft on an early solo cross-country flight exercise, flight management means much
careful preliminary studying of maps of the route, the facilities available, the weather forecast, ATC
limitations and the aircraft’s performance before the pilot compiles the fight plan and seeks
clearance. On the modern airliner, operating on a scheduled or a non-scheduled flight, to a strict
timetable and often in marginal weather conditions, the airmanship decisions required for a safe,
comfortable and efficiently-conducted flight have been significantly eased for far more complex
conditions by Electronic Flight management Systems (FMS). Such FMS embrace all the parameters
that concern the solo student together with the greater sophistication of a modern larger passenger
transport aircraft. FMS has been described as ‘pilot-interactive navigational computing and display
systems designed to assist in flying an aircraft with maximum economy and safety to a previously
planned route defined both laterally and vertically.’
The increased use in airborne applications of compact, high-speed computers enables FMS to
provide fuel-efficient aircraft operation together with navigational guidance reducing flight-crew
workloads especially in terminal airport areas.
Flight Management Systems basically consist of two units – the flight management computer unit
(FMC) and the control/display unit (CDU). The computer unit is the store for the navigational data
base and performs the functions of:
4 flight planning
4 optimum performance computation
4 navigation and position determination
4 air data and navigation sensor selection
4 guidance and steering, laterally and vertically
4 self testing
The data base of an FMC is very comprehensive, typically including information relating mainly to
the navigational features in the aircraft’s field of operations, tailored to the particular operator’s
company procedures. the operator usually updates the information every 28 days by means of a
cassette loader. The data base for example would include:
Airports (identified by their ICAO 4-letter code):

latitude and longitude, runways, approach aid frequencies and idents, decision heights, SID’s
and STAR’s;
Waypoints (identified by name):

latitude and longitude, magnetic variation, associated holding procedures;
Navaids (identified by name):

type, latitude and longitude, frequency, elevation, associated holding procedures;
Airways (identified by name);
Routes;
MORA (minimum off-route altitudes);
Performance;
aircraft type including lift, drag, engine fuel flows, engine thrusts, performance factors.

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In large airlines, twin (or 3) flight management systems are fitted. They will accept and compare
information such that data entered into No. 1 FMS will be passed to the No. 2 FMS and data entered
into the No. 2 FMS will be passed to the No. 1 FMS.
Control / Display Unit (CDU)
A typical CDU is shown with the cathode ray tube presenting the information above the keyboard.
For simplicity, apart from its control outputs, the FMS computer may be looked upon as a book.
The chapters and pages of the book are selected by the keys on the CDU and the contents
displayed on the CRT. In most cases, the displayed information can be changed by the pilots in
terms of modifying existing data or inserting new data.
Above the CRT are light sensors controlling an automatic brilliance circuit which maintains the
brightness of the display relative to the ambient light. (The keyboard also has a manual brightness
control. This control has another function too in that when it is switched to ‘OFF’, all of the keys are
inhibited.) The Flight Management System itself has no ON/OFF switch becoming live as soon as
power is applied to the bus bar serving it. Typically, this part of the CDU has the enunciators for the
main flight phases: climb (CLB), cruise (CRZ), descent (DES) and approach (APP) while below the
CRT there are enunciators giving additional system status information.

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Annunciators
These are lights which alert the crew when a charge of FMS conditions occur, typically being: MSG
(Message), DSPY (Display), FAIL, OFST (Offset).
Message (MSG)
The FMS can generate advisory are alert messages which are displayed on the scratch pad
and illuminate the MSG light. Any information that was in the scratch pad is temporarily
suppressed. When the MSG is cleared by the crew, the data returns and the MSG light
goes out. A typical ALERT message would be NO SIGNAL FROM ***** meaning that a
particular procedure specified Navaid is not valid, while an ADVISORY message would be for
example, NOT IN DATA BASE meaning that the computer has searched the data base and
cannot find the entered ident.
Display (DSPY)
This light illuminates white if the page displayed is not related to the active (current) flight
plan leg or to the current operational performance mode.
Fail
This illuminates as an AMBER light if certain FMS functions fail.
Offset (OFST)
Illuminates as a white light when a parallel of-set is in use (i.e. the aeroplane is flying parallel
to, but a fixed distance from, the pre-programmed FMS track).
Clear and Delete keys (CLR/DEL)
The CLR key only clears data in the scratch pad. Momentarily pressed, it clears the
characters one at a time from the right. Held down for a second or so, it will clear the whole
entry. The same key will also clear any system-generated messages and extinguish the
MSG annunciator.
The DEL key will only operate on certain pages and certain lines and for which a particular
drill has to be followed.
Function keys
EXEC (Execute) used when a change is made to an active V-NAV or L-NAV mode. To
make the change effective, the EXEC key must be pressed. The light bar in the key
illuminates while the proposed change is being made and by pressing the key the change is
incorporated and the light extinguished.
NEXT PAGE and PREV PAGE.
Used so that the CDU displays respectively, the next higher page number or next lower page
number of the selected chapter.

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Mode Keys
The purpose of these keys is to enable direct selection of certain pages to be made, as
opposed to using line select keys. they will probably include:
INIT REF (Initialisation / Reference) - for setting up pre-flight;
RTE (Route) - to display the current segment of route being flown;
CLB (Climb) - to display the page for the active climb mode;
CRZ (Cruise) - to display the page for the active cruise mode;
DES (Descent) - to display the page for the active descent mode;
DIR/INTC (Direct / Intercept) - to display the page(s) so the route can be changed to fly
direct to a position or intercept facility;
LEGS - to display the details of each leg of the flight plan;
DEP ARR (Departure / Arrival) - to display SID’s etc., depending upon the current phase of
the flight;
HOLD - to display a page for establishing a holding point;
PROG (Progress) - to display how the flight is progressing, for example distance to and
ETA next way point, fuel remaining, etc.;
FIX - to display pages which enable the crew to obtain a fix by the interception of the
present route with a selected radial from a navigation aid.

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AUTOPILOTS
Modem auto pilots use a RATE-RATE system.

This means that: THE RATE OF CHANGE = THE RATE OF CORRECTION.
The advantages of the rate gyros are:
a) Rapid detection of small attitude changes is possible, as the rate of change is sensed
and not the amount of change.
b) Smooth corrective action is possible without over correcting because signals to the
correcting servos are at a rate proportional to the rate of change.

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CHAPTER 4
MAGNETISM
Terrestrial Magnetism
The Earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field which culminates at two magnetic poles lying
beneath the surface, at points fairly close to the true north and south poles.
Presently, the north magnetic pole is situated near Hudson Bay (Canada), and the south magnetic
pole near Victoria Land (Antarctica). These poles are not in fact stationary, but rotate very slowly
about the true poles in a clockwise direction once every 960 years. This gives rise to the annual
change in variation which is termed the secular change.
The reasons for the existence of the Earth’s magnetic field are still under investigation. It is believed
that the field is produced electrically within the Earth’s core. It is sufficient to accept that the effect is
as if an extremely large bar magnet were located within the Earth with its extremities at the magnetic
poles, as shown below.

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Because of the irregularity of the terrestrial magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force are of varying
direction and strength. Above you can see diagrammatically the Earth’s magnetic field. Note that at
the magnetic poles the lines of force are vertical, whilst at points equidistant from the magnetic poles
the lines of force are horizontal. A line drawn through points where the lines of force are horizontal
is known as the magnetic equator. It is normally acceptable to consider the magnetic equator to be
co-incident with the geographic equator.
The north magnetic pole is, by convention, normally shown as a blue pole, and the south magnetic
pole as a red pole. Remember that unlike poles attract, therefore a freely suspended magnet will
come to rest with its red (north—seeking end) pointing towards the north magnetic pole.
A problem arises because a freely suspended magnet will lie in the plane of the terrestrial magnetic
lines of force and, as is already known, the magnetic force field approaches the vertical at high
magnetic latitudes. Consequently, in the northern hemisphere, the north—seeking end of a freely
suspended magnet will dip below the horizontal. Conversely, in the southern hemisphere the south
seeking end will dip below the horizontal. Only at the magnetic equator will the compass needle be
horizontal. Another way of defining the magnetic equator is, therefore, as a line joining points of
zero dip. This line is other-wise known as the aclinal line. A line joining points of equal dip is called
an isoclinal line.
It is the strength of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field which governs the
compass needle’s ability to point positively towards the magnetic poles.
At any given magnetic latitude the Earth’s magnetic field may be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components.
Obviously at the magnetic equator a compass needle will be highly directive, since the horizontal
component (H) is equal to the total force (T). As the magnetic latitude is increased the horizontal
component decreases in magnitude, and the compass becomes unreliable. In fact, the magnets
used in aircraft compasses are induced to lie close to the horizontal rather than in the plane of the
total magnetic force field, as discussed shortly.
However, except at low latitudes, a residual angle of dip still remains, and it is for this reason that
aircraft magnetic compasses are not generally considered to be usable at latitudes in excess of 70°.

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Variation
The magnets of a perfect compass will point to magnetic north rather than true north unless the
aircraft, the true poles and the magnetic poles all lie on the same meridian. In all other cases there
will be an angle subtended at the aircraft between true north and magnetic north, and this angle is
termed variation.
If magnetic north lies to the west of true north, the variation is westerly, as illustrated below.
Conversely, if magnetic north lies to the east of true north, the variation is easterly.
Variation is shown on aeronautical maps and charts by isogonals, which join points of equal
variation. Since the magnetic poles are moving, the value of the variation at a point on the Earth will
change slowly with the passage of time. The isogonals on all charts should therefore be updated as
instructed on the chart. In general isogonals tend to converge at the north and south magnetic poles.
A line joining points of zero variation is known as an agonic line.
Note that variation will change with change of geographic position but not with change of aircraft
heading. The maximum possible value of variation is 180°, which would be experienced when the
aircraft is between the true and magnetic poles.
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Deviation
It is unlikely that the magnets in an aircraft compass will point exactly towards magnetic north. The
aircraft and its equipment will produce a separate magnetic field which will tend to deflect the
magnets by, hopefully, only a few degrees at most.
The direction in which the magnets point under the influence of the combined terrestrial and aircraft
magnetic fields is termed compass north, and the angle between magnetic north and compass north
is termed compass deviation.
If compass north lies to the west of magnetic north the deviation is westerly (or negative) as shown
below on the left. If the compass north lies to the east of magnetic north the deviation is easterly (or
positive) as shown below on the right.
Note that, unlike variation, deviation changes with change of aircraft heading. Deviation in an
aircraft compass is reduced to a minimum by conducting a compass swing. Residual deviations are
then recorded on a compass deviation card, which is mounted in the aircraft. The compass swing is
discussed at a later stage.
Example 1
Draw a diagram to illustrate an aircraft on a heading of 046°(T), variation 15°E, deviation –2°.

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Solution:
Aircraft Magnetism
Up to this point we have discussed compass deviation and its effects without examining its origin.
Deviation of a compass occurs because an aircraft has its own magnetic field which of course
distorts the Earth’s magnetic field in the vicinity of the compass magnets or detector unit.
Compensating for this deviating influence (as much as possible) is the function of the compass
swing. Before looking at compass swinging procedures we will consider the factors involved in
aircraft magnetism.
Sources of Aircraft Magnetism
Permeability is expressed as the ratio between the strength (or flux density) of the magnetised
material and the field strength of the magnetising influence. In other words, any material with a high
permeability is easily magnetised. Iron (ferrous) based materials have a high permeability and
therefore magnetism is easily induced into them. Materials such as aluminium, brass, copper,
plastic, rubber and carbon fibre are non—magnetic and cannot be magnetised. Unfortunately it
would be extremely expensive if not impossible to produce an aeroplane that did not contain any
magnetic material.
Magnetic material can be classed as either hard or soft iron.
Hard iron components can be considered to be permanently magnetised. If a hard iron element is
magnetised, the magnetic field, which has been induced into it, will decay only very slowly.
Soft iron elements suffer only from temporary magnetism, they act as magnets only when an
external magnetic force is present. Soft iron elements behave in this way because they offer a lower
resistance (termed reluctance when considering magnetic flux) to the external magnetic field than
does the surrounding air. The external magnetic force field therefore prefers to flow through the soft
iron component and this produces an enhanced magnetic force field within the component.
An aircraft structure will invariably contain both hard and soft iron materials and will therefore exhibit
both hard and soft iron magnetic characteristics.

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Hard iron magnetism makes up the permanent magnetic field of the aircraft. It is created during the
manufacture and the subsequent life of the aircraft through various means, for example a lightning
strike is likely to increase hard iron magnetism and its effect will decay only slowly over months or
years. Since hard iron exists in its own right (independently of the Earth’s magnetic field) its strength
is not affected by the aircraft’s heading or latitude changes.
Soft iron magnetism is temporary and present only when an external magnetic field (primarily the
Earth’s own magnetic field) is present. Obviously the Earth’s magnetic field is always there,
however the relative magnitudes of the two components of the Earth’s field (the horizontal H
component and the vertical Z component) will vary as the latitude at which the aircraft is operating
changes.
Like the Earth’s magnetic field, the aircraft’s soft iron field is considered in terms of two separate
components; horizontal and vertical soft iron. The strength of each is dependant on the relative
strengths of the Earth’s H and Z components. It is the aircraft’s vertical soft iron (VSI) component
that is primarily responsible for causing soft iron deviation in the compass and therefore the higher
the magnetic latitude the greater the strength of the VSI component. As with hard iron, the strength
of the soft iron components is independent of the aircraft’s heading.
Deviating Effects of Hard and Soft Iron
A compass magnet system or flux detector relies on the strength of the horizontal component of the
Earth’s magnetic field to provide the “directionality” of the compass.
Regardless of any other influences this directionality is strongest at the magnetic equator and
becomes weaker as the H component of the Earth’s magnetic field diminishes with increasing
latitude.
If aircraft hard iron is superimposed on this pattern, we now have two competing influences on the
compass magnets or detector unit. The H component of the Earth’s field (which gives the compass
its directionality) is diminishing with latitude but the strength of any deviating hard iron component
remains constant. The deviation (on any given heading) caused by hard iron will therefore increase
with an increase of operating latitude.
Now forget the hard iron influence and consider the interrelationship between a vertical soft iron
component and the Earth’s H field (remember that it is the Earth’s H field which gives the compass
its directionality and the VSI component which is trying to deviate the compass). Now the deviating
influence of this VSI component will increase with increase in magnetic latitude on two counts.
Firstly the strength of the Earth’s H component is decreasing with increasing latitude and secondly
the strength of the aircraft’s VSI component is increasing (under the influence of the increasing
strength of the Earth’s Z field component).
Obviously this discussion of hard iron and soft iron is very much abbreviated, however the points
that have been covered appear to satisfy the present syllabus.

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Aircraft Magnetism — Components
It is convenient to consider the effect of the aircraft’s magnetic field by imagining that the complex
fields have been replaced by bar magnets of appropriate strength and polarity, one lying along the
fore and aft (longitudinal) axis and the other lying along the athwartships (lateral) axis of the aircraft.
A mythical bar magnet lying in the fore and aft axis is known as hard iron component P (+P north or
blue pole in the nose). This in turn is influenced by the vertical soft iron component cZ. The
combination of these two-give rise to the deviating force which is known as co-efficient B.
Similarly it is the mythical bar magnet lying athwart ships axis is known as hard iron component Q
(+Q north or blue pole in the right wing). This in turn is influenced by the vertical soft iron
component fZ. The combination of these two give rise to the deviating force which is known as co-
efficient C.
Hard iron vertical component R has a negligible effect on a compass in straight and level flight.
Co-efficient A is caused by any misalignment of the direct reading compass lubber line or the gyro
compass detector unit with the aircraft’s fore and aft axis.

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The Compass Swing
Before we venture further into compass swings, a reminder on some important points:
a) Deviation is the angular difference between magnetic heading and compass heading.
b) Deviation is caused by the effect of the magnetic or magnetised elements of the aircraft itself
upon the compass magnets (in a direct reading compass) or upon the detector unit (in a gyro
magnetic compass). Deviation may also be caused by mis-alignment of the direct reading
compass lubber line or of the gyro compass detector with the aircraft’s fore and aft axis.
c) Deviation is not constant. It changes with change of heading and with change of magnetic
latitude.
d) Deviation is said to be westerly (or negative) if compass north lies to the west of magnetic
north. In this event the compass heading will be greater than the magnetic heading (deviation
west compass heading best). Alternatively deviation is said to be easterly (or positive) if
compass north lies to the east of magnetic north. In this event the compass heading will be
less than the magnetic heading (deviation east compass heading least).
e) Deviation is mathematically expressed as the correction that is required to convert the

compass reading to the correct magnetic value (with easterly deviation the compass reading
is less than the magnetic heading and therefore the deviation is given a positive value).
In the notes which follow the first step will be to consider the way in which the deviating forces within
the aircraft are quantified. The next step will be to learn how to minimise these deviating forces by
means of the compass swing.

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Co—efficient A
For a direct reading compass to correctly indicate magnetic heading two criteria must be realised:
a) The aircraft must exert no magnetic influence on the compass magnets.
b) The lubber line of the compass must be correctly aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis.
With a gyro magnetic compass again the aircraft must exert no magnetic influence on the sensing
element (the detector unit), and now the detector unit (rather than the lubber line) must be correctly
aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis.
In the diagram below the aircraft is heading 360° (M). The aircraft is assumed to have no deviating
magnetic fields to affect the compass, and therefore the magnets within the compass are pointing to
magnetic north and are aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis. Unfortunately the lubber line is
misaligned with respect to the aircraft fore and aft axis and so the compass, in this case, is reading
350°
On the diagram on the left hand side above it shows the same aircraft on a heading of 270°(M), and
the compass is now reading 260°. The compass is still in error by 10° and is still under reading. In

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this case a constant deviation of 10° east (+) exists on all headings and at all latitudes because of
the misalignment of the lubber line.
The deviation caused by co-efficient A in the above example may be graphically illustrated as shown
below.
Co—efficient B (Hard iron P and Soft Iron cZ)
Assume for the moment that a single bar magnet lying along the aircraft fore and aft axis represents
the sum of all the magnetic influences within the aircraft. The deviating influence of this mythical bar
magnet would depend upon the aircraft’s heading.
Below you can see such a bar magnet with its south seeking end in the nose of the aircraft. The
aircraft is heading 360°(M) and all other deviating factors (co-efficients A and C) are ignored. The
bar magnet which represents the aircraft’s own magnetic field is lying parallel to the sensing
magnets within the direct reading compass and therefore no deviation is evident on this heading.

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On part (b) above you can see the same aircraft on a heading of 090°(M). Remembering that unlike
poles attract whilst like poles repel it should be a simple matter to appreciate why the compass
sensing magnets have aligned themselves with a compass north which lies to the right of magnetic
north.

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Part (c) of the above shows the aircraft on a heading of 180°(M) and again the bar magnet
representing the aircraft’s magnetic field causes no deviation at the compass.
Part (d) shows the aircraft on a heading of 270°(M), and now compass north lies to the left of
magnetic north.
Finally the bottom diagram shows the graphical representation of the deviation due to a co-efficient
+B on all headings. The maximum deviation in this case is assumed to be 10°.
Deviation due to co-efficient B varies as a function of the sine of the aircraft’s magnetic
heading.
Because it is co-efficient +B which is considered the sine relationship means that the value of
deviation is maximum and positive on east and maximum but negative on west. Were we to repeat
the process for a co-efficient B (with the north—seeking end of our mythical bar magnet in the nose
of the aircraft) the deviation would be maximum but negative on east and maximum and positive on
west.
Fortunately you are now permitted the use of basic scientific calculators in the examination and
these smart machines will supply the correct sign (+ or -) for the sine of the heading.
The formula which equates the deviation due to a co—efficient B to the value (and sign) of that co—
efficient is:
The deviation due to co—efficient B = Co-efficient B x sine heading
Co—efficient C (Hard iron Q and Soft Iron fZ)
Assume for the moment that the sum of all the magnetic influences within the aircraft is represented
by a single bar magnet lying along the aircraft lateral axis. The deviating influence of this mythical
bar magnet would again depend upon the aircraft’s heading.
In the diagram part (a) shows such a bar magnet with its south—seeking end in the starboard wing
of the aircraft. The aircraft is heading 360°(M) and all other deviating factors (co-efficients A and B)
are ignored. The bar magnet which represents the aircraft’s own magnetic field is lying at 90° to the
Earth’s field and therefore deviation is at a maximum.
Part (b) shows the same aircraft on a heading of 090°(M). Now the aircraft’s magnetic field lies
parallel to the Earth’s magnetic field and there is no deviation.
Part (c) shows that the deviation on 180°(M) the deviation is again at a maximum but now in the
opposite direction to that suffered on north.
Part (d) shows that the deviation on 270°(M) is again zero.

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And finally part (e) shows the graphical representation of the deviation due to a co-efficient +C on
all headings. The maximum deviation in this case is assumed to be 10°.
Deviation due to co-efficient C varies as a function of the cosine of the aircraft’s magnetic heading.

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Because it is co—efficient +C which is considered the cosine relationship means that the value of
deviation is maximum and positive on north and maximum but negative on south. Were we to
repeat the process for a co-efficient - C (with the north—seeking end of our mythical bar magnet in
the starboard wing of the aircraft) the deviation would be negative on north and positive on south.
The formula which equates the deviation due to a co—efficient C to the value (and sign) of that co-
efficient is:
The deviation due to co-efficient C = Co-efficient C x cosine heading
Deviation on Any Heading
From the foregoing it is evident that the total deviation on any heading is a combination of co—
efficients A, B and C. The formula for calculating the total deviation on any heading is:
Deviation on any heading = A + (B x sin heading) + (C x cos heading)
Another useful formula is:
Dev on N + Dev on S = Dev on E + Dev on W
Use your calculator to solve the following examples.
Example 1
Given that co-efficient A is -0.5°, co-efficient B is – 1.5° and co-efficient C is +0.5°, determine the
total deviation on a heading of 253°(C).
Deviation on 253° = A + (B.sin 253°) + (C.cos 253°)

Sin 253° = -0.956
Cos 253° = -0.292
Deviation on 253° = -0.5 + (-1.5 x-0.956) + (+0.5 x -0.292)

= -0.5 + (+1.43) + (-0.14)
= +0.79
Example 2
Given that co-efficient A is +1°, co-efficient B is –1° and co-efficient C is +2°,

determine the total deviation on a heading of 240° (c).
Deviation on 240° = A + (B.sin 240° + (C.cos 240°)

Sin 240° = -0.866
Cos 240° = -0.5
Deviation on 240° = +1 + (-1 x -0.866) + (+2 x -0.5)
= +1 + (+0.866) + (-1)
= + 0.866

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Example 3
Given that co-efficient A is –2°, what would be the signs of co-efficients B and C, given that the
heading on which the maximum deviation occurs is 330° (C)?
Solution:
Deviation on any heading = A + (B x sin heading) + (C cos heading)
The maximum deviation will occur on a heading where the signs of the deviations caused by co-
efficients A, B and C are all the same. Co-efficient A is –2° and therefore the deviation caused by
co-efficient A is negative on all headings.
The deviation caused by co-efficient B must be negative on 330°. In order to achieve this, co-
efficient B must be a positive value (sin 330° = -0.5).
The deviation caused by co-efficient C must also be negative on 330°. In order to achieve this, co-
efficient C must be a negative value (cos 330° = +0.866).
Example 4
Deviation on 130 (C) = 4W

Deviation on 230 (C) = 8E
What is deviation on 315 (C)
a) - 1,2
b) +3,3
c) - 4,7
Knowing that deviation on 130° is 4W and 230° is 8E, draw the problem as a sine curve, starting at 0
at Nth, draw to a pretty good scale and presto magic you have the answer (yes I know the diagram
doesn’t start at 0, so just ignore that little error!)
So the answer is around 315°

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Compass Swinging
In order to minimise the compass deviation it is necessary to keep the aircraft’s own magnetic field
as small as possible. This is considered at the design stage and influences the choice of materials
used, and the design and location of electrical equipment.
Having minimised the deviating effect of the aircraft on the compass at the design stage, it is
periodically necessary to compass swing the aircraft. During this procedure the magnitude and
direction of the remaining deviations are measured on various headings. These deviations are then
reduced by producing magnetic fields within the compass which are hopefully equal in magnitude
but opposite in polarity to the aircraft’s own magnetic fields.
Compass swings are carried out in a surveyed area which is relatively clear of external magnetic
influences such as might be caused by underground electric cables. During the compass swing,
normal flying conditions are simulated as far as possible, with the engines running and all electrical
services switched on.
Compass swings should be carried out on the following occasions:
a) On installation of the compass.
b) Periodically as specified in the relevant CAR
c) Whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.
d) When the compass has been subjected to shock (such as a heavy landing).
e) Following a lightning strike.
f) If the aircraft has been left standing on one heading for a long period of time.
g) Following a move to a new magnetic latitude.
h) Following any significant modification, repair or replacement of a component

containing significant amounts of magnetic materials (such as an engine change).
i) Following any significant addition of, or modification to, electrical or radio/navigation

systems.
j) Prior to flight, following the loading or off-loading of a cargo containing significant

amounts of ferro-magnetic materials.
There are many procedures for measuring the magnitude of the co-efficients affecting an aircraft
compass. Most of these techniques involve an accurate datum compass, the reading of which is
compared with the reading of the aircraft compass on various headings.
If the datum compass is to give an accurate reading with reference to magnetic north it must itself be
free from any deviating magnetic fields. The person who is aligning the datum compass and taking
the readings should therefore remove all metal objects from his person before the swing. If you are
so involved, and normally wear a trouser belt with a metal buckle, think ahead!
In order to compare the reading of the datum compass with that of the aircraft compass(es) the
datum compass is sighted along the aircraft’s fore and aft axis. With larger aircraft this is normally
achieved by suspending sighting rods vertically beneath the aircraft. At a distance of a least 50

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metres from the aircraft the hair lines of the datum compass are aligned with the sighting rods. The
reading of the datum compass is then noted.
There are many ways of completing a compass swing, for the purpose of this syllabus we need to
consider only a simple four point swing.
The Correcting Swing
The swing is commenced on a cardinal heading, it does not matter which cardinal.
We will start on a heading of east, that is to say a compass heading which is fairly close to 090°, it
does not have to be exact. In this case the next comparison between aircraft and datum compass
would be made on south, and the next on west. It is then necessary to stop, calculate the value of
co-efficient B, and adjust the aircraft compass if necessary.
Returning to co-efficient B description it should convince the reader that deviation caused solely by
co-efficient B is a maximum on headings of east and west, and is of equal magnitude and opposite
sign on these headings.
Co—efficient C will not affect the readings on headings of east and west. Co-efficient A is effectively
eliminated from the formulae for co-efficient B and C since it will cause equal deviation or all
headings.
The formula for calculating co-efficient B is:
Co-efficient B = Deviation on east - Deviation on west

2
Let us now put figures to this swing and see just how simple the procedure really is:
A/c Compass Landing Compass

089° 091°
182° 179°
272° 268°
358° 359°
From the above figures the deviation is calculated. Appreciate that the aircraft compass readings
are in effect compass headings (subject to deviation) and that the datum compass readings are in
effect magnetic headings (the datum compass is remote from the aircraft and is therefore free from
deviation).
NB Remember that, if the aircraft compass heading is least deviation is east (+) and that, if the
aircraft compass heading is best deviation is west (-).
A/c Compass Landing Compass Deviation

089° 091° +2°
182° 179° - 3°
272° 268° - 4°
358° 359° +1°

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Using the formula:
Co-efficient B = Deviation on east - Deviation on west

2
= +2 - -4
2
= +3°
It may be necessary to correct for co-efficient B at this stage (if it is outside limits), and this
procedure will be covered shortly.
Continuing with the swing the aircraft compass and datum compass readings are now taken on a
heading which is close to north.
The logic which gave us our simple formula for co-efficient B will also give the following simple
formula for co-efficient C:
Co-efficient C = Deviation on north - Deviation on south

2
Continuing with the swing:

089° 091° +2°
182° 179° - 3°
272° 268° - 4°
358° 359° +1°
Using the formula:
Co-efficient C = Deviation on north - Deviation on south

2
= +1° - -3°
2
= +2°
Again a correction for co-efficient C could be made here if required.
The formula for calculating co—efficient A is:
Co-efficient A = Sum of observed deviations

The number of observations
in this case the sum of the deviations [(+2) + (-3) + (—4) + (+1)] is –4°
Co—efficient A = -4°
4
= -1°
If necessary, co-efficient A can be removed at this stage, the method will be discussed shortly.
In the event that any of the three co-efficients are outside limits and have been removed, a further
four point correcting swing will be required and hopefully the co-efficients will now be within limits.
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Example 2
Using the following readings which were obtained during the swing of a direct reading compass,
determine the values of co—efficients A, B and C.
A/c Compass Landing Compass

359° 000°
090° 086°
180° 175°
269° 273°
Solution:

359° 000° +1°
090° 086° - 4°
180° 175° - 5°
269° 273° +4°
Co—efficient A = Sum of observed deviations

The number of observations
In this case the sum of the deviations [(+1) + (-4) + (-5) + (+4)] is -4°
Co—efficient A = -4°
4
= -1º
Co-efficient B = Dev E – Dev W

2
= -8
2
= -4°
Co-efficient C = Dev N – Dev S

2
= +6
2
= +3°
Removing Co-efficients A, B and C
The principles for removing co-efficients are the same, regardless of whether it is a direct reading
compass or a gyro magnetic compass which is considered.
Co-efficient A results from misalignment. Co-efficient A errors are therefore removed by re-
alignment of the lubber line in the direct reading compass, or the detector unit in the gyro magnetic
system.

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Errors due to co-efficients B and C are minimised by deliberately introducing magnetic fields which
have an equal but opposite effect to that of the aircraft’s own magnetic fields. This is achieved by
means of scissor magnets in direct reading compasses and electro magnets in gyro slaved
compasses.
Adjusting Direct Reading Compasses
It is the E type compass that is discussed in the following paragraphs. The compass is fitted to its
mountings using slotted channels that enable the entire compass to be rotated once the retaining
screws are loosened (using a non-magnetic screwdriver).
Co-efficient A can be removed on any heading, since it has the same deviating effect on all
headings.
If it is necessary to remove a positive (easterly) co-efficient A the compass is physically rotated in a

clockwise direction by the required number of degrees. This will cause the compass reading to
increase.
Example
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient A of +2°, and this is to be removed on a
compass heading of 329°. What should the compass read after compensation, and how is
compensation achieved?
Solution
Co-efficient A = +2°(east), the compass is therefore under-reading before compensation. It is

necessary to increase the compass reading to 331° (329° + 2°) and this is achieved by loosening
the retaining screws (using non-magnetic tools) and rotating the body of the compass in a clockwise
direction until 331° appears under the lubber line. The retaining screws are then secured without
disturbing the reading.
Conversely, to remove a negative (westerly) co-efficient A the compass is rotated in an anti-

clockwise direction, and this causes the compass reading to decrease.
To remove co-efficients B and C scissor magnets are adjusted using grub screws located under a
cover on the instrument face. These scissor magnets are attached to the compass casing and
therefore change position relative to the sensing magnets as the aircraft alters heading. Their effect
upon the compass reading will therefore depend on the aircraft heading, in much the same way as
the aircraft magnetic fields causing deviations B and C.
In the diagram below you can see an aircraft with co-efficient +C represented by a magnet with its
south seeking end in the starboard wing. In the bottom half of the diagram you can see the scissor
magnets used to compensate for co-efficient C are in their neutral position.

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These two small scissor magnets have equal pole strengths and when set in the neutral position
they exert no influence on the pendulously suspended sensing magnets of the compass.
As you have seen above the same aircraft, but now the scissor magnets have been adjusted to
compensate for deviations caused by the co-efficient +C.

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Example 2
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient B of +4°, and this is to be removed on a
westerly heading. Before compensation the compass is reading 272°.
What should the compass read after compensation, and how is this compensation achieved?
Solution:
The compass should be made to read 268° (272° - 4°) and this is achieved by turning the B grub
screw in an anti-clockwise direction. When removing co-efficient B on a easterly heading obey the
sign of the co-efficient to calculate heading after compensation. When removing co-efficient B on a
westerly heading reverse the sign of the co-efficient.
Note that the grub screw is turned in an anti-clockwise direction since, although the correction is
subtractive, the deviation being compensated is itself positive. The same logic applies to
compensation for co-efficient C, but now it is the C grub screw which is turned in the appropriate
direction. When removing co-efficient C on a northerly heading obey the sign of the co-efficient to
calculate heading after compensation. When removing co-efficient C on a southerly heading
reverse the sign of the co-efficient.
You are not now required to know how to adjust gyro slaved compasses.
Residual Deviation
Unfortunately, since neither the original assessment of co-efficients, nor the compensation, will be
totally accurate, small residual deviations will persist after compensation. It is necessary to
determine the values of these remaining deviations, and to tabulate them on the compass deviation
card that is then attached to the aircraft adjacent to the compass. It is an airworthiness requirement
that the residual deviation is stated at no more than 45° intervals on a deviation card which is to be
located close to the compass in the case of a direct reading compass (and close to the master
compass indicator and to each remote compass indicator, in the case of a gyro slaved compass).
There are two options available to determine the magnitude and sign of the residual deviations in
order to complete the deviation card. The first method is to conduct a calibration swing.
The Calibration Swing
Having completed the correcting swing(s) and ensured that the residual values of the Co-efficients
are (now) within limits, a calibration swing is completed. This normally requires that the deviations
are observed on twelve headings 30° apart, which may include the four cardinal heading
observations from the final correcting swing. The observed deviations on these twelve heading may
be used in their raw state to complete the deviation card.
Mathematically Derived Residual Deviations
Unfortunately, when the raw data from a calibrating swing is used to determine the residual
deviations for the deviation card, these observed values may themselves be subject to error. CARs
may therefore dictate that a mathematical approach is used to determine the residual deviations.
For the sake of simplicity, the mathematics of residual deviation is considered only on the cardinal
headings in the following paragraphs. We will tackle the problem by working step by step through
the following example.
Example

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The following readings were obtained during the swing of a direct reading magnetic compass:
Aircraft Compass Landing Compass

(compass heading) (magnetic heading)
359° 004°
092° 091°
181° 184°
268° 273°
a) Determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.
b) Having compensated for co-efficients A, B and C determine the values of the residual
deviations remaining on the magnetic headings 004°, 091°, 184° and 273°.
Solution
a) The first step is to determine the values of the three co-efficients.
Aircraft Compass Landing Compass Deviation

359° 004° +5°
092° 091° - 1°
181° 184° +3°
268° 273° +5°
Co-efficient A = Sum of deviations

4
= +3°
Co-efficient B = - 3°
Co-efficient C = +1°
b) Now we need to step carefully through the calculation of the residual deviations, assuming
that the co-efficients determined above have been removed

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All that has happened in the table below is that the aircraft compass headings, datum compass
readings and the consequent deviations have been transferred to the first three columns.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation B4 Deviations Sum of Residual
hdg hdg compensation dev deviations
removed
removed (3-7)
A B C (4+5+6)
359 004 +5
092 091 -1
181 184 +3
268 273 +5
The next step is to consider the sign and the magnitude of the deviations which would have been
caused by the co-efficients A, B and C on the four headings, had they not been removed.
Completing column 4 presents no problem, since the co-efficient A of +3° would have resulted in a
deviation of +3° on each heading.
When completing column 5 we need to consider the deviating influence that a co-efficient B of 3°
would have had on the four cardinal headings, had it not been removed. On north and south this co-
efficient would have exerted no deviating influence (the sine of 0° and 180° is zero). On east the
deviation caused by this co-efficient would have been maximum and negative and on west
maximum and positive.
When completing column 6 we need to consider the deviating influence that a co-efficient C of +1°
would have had on the four cardinal headings, had it not been removed. On east and west this co-
efficient would have exerted no deviating influence (the cosine of 090° and 270° is zero). On north
the deviation caused by this co-efficient would have maximum and positive and on south maximum
and negative.
Please note that, since all of the headings considered are very close to the cardinal points, it is
acceptable to take the sine of small angles as zero, the cosine of the same angles as unity (1), the
sine of angles close to 90° as unity (1), and the cosine of the same angles as zero.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Comp Mag Deviation B4 Deviations Sum of dev Residual
hdg hdg compensation removed removed deviations
(4+5+6) (3-7)
A B C
359 004 +5 +3 0 +1
092 091 -1 +3 -3 0
181 184 +3 +3 0 -1
268 273 +5 +3 +3 0
The next step is to add algebraically the values given in columns 4, 5 and 6 for each of the headings
and to enter the sum of these deviations in column 7. The values in column 7 therefore represent
the total deviation which would have been suffered on each of the headings, due to co-efficients A,
B and C, had these co-efficients not been removed.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
hdg hdg compensation removed deviations
removed
(4+5+6) (3-7)
A B C
359 004 +5 +3 0 +1 +4
092 091 -1 +3 -3 0 0
181 184 +3 +3 0 -1 +2
268 273 +5 +3 +3 0 +6
Finally, by subtracting algebraically the values in column 7 from the values for the same heading in
column 3, the residual deviation is established for that heading. Column 3 gives the deviation which
was observed before the co-efficients were removed. Column 7 gives the mathematical summation
of the deviating effects of these co-efficients. By correcting for these co-efficients we have reduced
the original deviations (column 3) by the values in column 7 to give the residual deviations in column
8.

hdg hdg compensation removed deviations
removed
(4+5+6) (3-7)
A B C
359 004 +5 +3 0 +1 +4 +1º
092 091 -1 +3 -3 0 0 - 1º
181 184 +3 +3 0 -1 +2 +1º
268 273 +5 +3 +3 0 +6 - 1º
One final example to consider before we leave the problems of residual deviation behind us.
Example (yes another)
The following readings were obtained during the swing of a direct reading magnetic compass:
Compass Heading Magnetic Heading

359° 000°
090° 086°
180° 175°
269° 273°
a) Determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.
b) Determine the compass heading required, after compensation for co efficients A, B and C, to
obtain a true heading of 288° in a position where the local magnetic variation is 15°E.

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Solution
a) Co-efficient A = - 1°
Co-efficient B = - 4°
Co-efficient C = +3°
b) The second part of this question is capable of inducing panic into some candidates when
encountered in the examination (normally the navigators, not the steely eyed pilots with
nerves of steel) because the heading given isn’t a cardinal. By adjusting the given true
heading for variation the magnetic heading which was used in the correcting swing is
achieved Æ end of panic.
Heading true = 288°

Variation = 15°E
Heading magnetic = 273°
Comp Mag Deviation B4 Deviations Sum of Residual

hdg hdg compensation dev deviations
removed
removed (3-7)
A B C (4+5+6)
269 273 +4 -1 +4 0 +3 +1º
Heading magnetic = 273°

Deviation = +1°
Heading compass = 272°

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CHAPTER 5
COMPASSES
THE DIRECT READING MAGNETIC COMPASS
An aircraft compass must satisfy 3 basic requirements:
4 Must lie horizontal.

4 Must be sensitive.
4 Must be Aperiodic.
Must Lie Horizontal
The directional force of the Earth's Total Field is H. Therefore, the needle must lie horizontal for
maximum efficiency.
In an actual case, the magnet still dips slightly towards the nearer pole. This is called residual Dip.
Residual Dip = + 3º at mid Latitudes.

Max Residual Dip = 30º.
Sensitivity
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This is achieved by:
Using more than one magnet.
Using an iradium pivot and sapphire cup to reduce pivot friction.
Immersing the compass in a suitable liquid (silicon) to reduce friction and increase buoyancy.
Aperiodicity
An aperiodic compass is one which takes up its direction immediately without oscillation. This is
achieved by:
Immersing the compass in a suitable liquid (Damping effect).
Damping Wires.
Magnets are made light as possible, and as short as possible to reduce their moment of
inertia.
OCCASIONS WHEN A COMPASS SHOULD BE SWUNG
Upon installation.
Every 12 months.
Newly registered a/c
After lightning strike.
After engine change.
When magnetic material is carried in a/c.

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ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION ERRORS
REMEMBER:
The Z force and C of G are on opposite sides of the pivot point. The Z force act on the side of the
nearer pole. The C of G is on the side of the equator. An acceleration is a force. The equal and
opposite force is inertia. Inertia acts on the C of G.
This causes an apparent turn when the aircraft accelerates or decelerates.

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Equator - There will be no error because - No Z.
Acceleration on E or W causes an apparent turn to the south.
ASDN or SAND
Northern Hemisphere - Errors Reversed
TURNING ERRORS
Turning errors are caused by 2 factors (they are additive).
Mechanical Error
The C of G is acted on by Centrifugal Force (C.F.) in a turn.

The error is MAX on N/S.
The Error is ZERO ON E/W.
Magnetic Error
During a turn, Weight will act in the aircraft's vertical, but the Z force of the magnet,
will continue to act in the true vertical. The two forces acting in different planes,
cause a couple that will have the same effect as the mechanical error.
i.e. They are additive.
- The Error is MAX on N/S.
- The Error is ZERO on E/W.

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Southern Hemisphere
MN
340º
Direction of
turn
CG N CF
. force
PIVOT
Reaction
When making a turn through north the compass gives an indication of a turn in the correct direction
but at a much faster rate. The compass leads the aircraft.
To Rectify Combined Mechanical and Magnetic Error:
COMMAND RULE ONUS – Pilot must Overshoot on North and Undershoot on South.
(The ONUS is on the pilot)
TURNING COMPASS PILOT ACTION

Left turn from 000 to 180 LEADS - UNDERSHOOT Roll out on 200.
Right turn from 000 to 180 LEADS - UNDERSHOOT Roll out on 160.
Left turn from 180 to 000 LAGS - OVERSHOOT Roll out on 340.
Right turn from 180 to 000 LAGS - OVERSHOOT Roll out on 020.

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SUMMARY OF TURNING ERROR
Error is reversed in Northern Hemisphere.
SWIRL ERROR
In turns, friction between the liquid and the bowl sets a swirl in the same direction as the turn. When
The compass needle is turning in the same direction as the aircraft the swirl will add to the turning
error. When the compass needle is turning in the opposite direction to the aircraft the swirl will
reduce the turning error.
In Southern Hemisphere turning through North Swirl reduces turning error

turning through South swirl increases turning error

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THE SPERRY GYROSCOPIC COMPASS SYSTEM
This system overcomes many of the problems associated with the direct reading magnetic compass.
One unit placed for each pilot overcomes parallax error.
The detector unit is placed in the wing tip or tail so it does not suffer from Soft Iron
interference from cockpit.
Turning and acceleration errors are suppressed and not shown.
At very high latitudes, where H is small and therefore unreliable, the magnetic component
can be uncoupled and the compass becomes a pure D.I. (D.G. Switch).
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The detector unit is fixed to the aircraft's fore/aft axis and it senses the direction of magnetic North.
It senses the direction of the Earth's Magnetic field passing through the detector unit.
Fluxvalve Theory
As can be seen here: Imparted Flux = Cos Heading
i.e. Maximum Flux = 360º (Cos 360 = 1)

Zero Flux = 090º (Cos 090 = 0)

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But now we are faced with 2 problems:
We have to measure the amount of induced flux and interpret it as a heading.
This is done electro magnetically.
Now the problem is that electro magnetically we can only measure a changing flux. A constant flux
dies away immediately after being imparted.
The solution is as follows:
The AC current fed to the coil is 400 cycles per second (CPS). Thus there are 800 peaks (positive
and negative) when the earth's field is not induced and 800 zeros per second when the earth's field
is induced. This 800 times per second of induced earth's magnetic field is what we need to measure
direction (changing magnetic Flux).

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Ambiguity
The fluxvalve resolves heading according to the cosine of the induced current. Unfortunately, there
is ambiguity. The Cos 180° = Cos 360° and Cos 90° = Cos 270°.
To solve this problem, the detector unit employs 3 fluxvalves at 120º apart. All 3 have a common
primary coil situated in the centre and the rest of the principles remain the same. The resultant of the
3 induced currents, each resolved according to Cosine now give the heading and there can be no
ambiguity.

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The detector unit is usually mounted on a wing-tip and contains the fluxvalve. It is mounted
pendulously by a device known as a Hooke’s Joint and has + 25º freedom of movement in pitch and
roll.
4 It is fixed to the aircraft's fore/aft axis.
4 It is filled with oil for damping.
4 The casing has facilities to correct for Co-eff A, B and C.
For co-eff A the whole flux-valve is rotated.
For co-eff B and C the adjustment is made on the corrector box by turning the B or C
corrector screws.

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OPERATION OF CL-2
1) 3 stators in detector unit have induction according to magnetic heading.
2) These 3 stators send identical current to 3 stators in signal selsyn A which is self
synchronous.
3) Rotor in centre of Selsyn A is designed to be in null position to indicate true heading.
4) If it is not in null position - there will be current induced in it.
5) If there is current in the rotor - it transmits to precession amplifier.
6) Precession amplifier interprets phase of signal - incorrect left/right. It amplifies the signal,
transforms it to D.C. and sends to precession coil.
7) Precession coil precesses Gyro.
8) Gyro is linked to indicator needle - turns to correct heading. It is also linked to rotor arm in
Data selsyn B.
9) Rotor arm in Data selsyn B is fed by 400 CPS.
10) These 3 stators are linked to 3 stators in Data selsyn C.
11) Rotor in Data selsyn C has resultant current induced in it.
12) Current goes to follow up amplifier.
13) Follow up amplifier sends signal to motor.
14) Motor turns C rotor to null position - No more signal to amplifier.

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15) Rotor A is linked on same shaft as rotor C so it also moves to null position ∴ no more signal
to precession amp.
16) The indicator on the Master Unit is also linked on the same shaft so it indicates the correct
heading.
Operation In A Turn
1) When the A/C turns, the Gyro has rigidity.
2) Gyro is linked to the indicator and indicates turn. Gyro is also linked to Rotor B.
3) Selsyn B is duplicated in selsyn C.
4) Motor is activated -Turns rotor C to null.

-Turns rotor A to null.
-Turns Master indicator to hdg.
5) Now detector unit has turned with A/C ∴ Rotor A should still be in null position.
6) If not, the whole system is precessed to indicate correctly.

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CL-2 PRECESSION MECHANISM
1) Rotor at Signal Selsyn is not in null position - current induced.
2) Current activates precessional amplifier.
3) Precession amp sends D.C. current to precession coil and it induces magnetic field.
4) Like poles repel/unlike poles attract at horn magnets causing a force.
5) Force precesses at gyro - moves horizontal bevel gear.
6) Horizontal bevel gear moves vertical bevel gear.
7) Vertical bevel gear rotates - turns rotor at signal selsyn to null position and also turns
indicator needle.

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Manual Synchronising
An annunciator indicates whether or not the compass is synchronised. When the system is
operating normally, alternate dots and crosses appear in the annunciator window. If for some
reason this is not the case, then just turn the synchronising knob until alternate dots and crosses
appear.
The precessional rate of the gyro is kept low (2º - 3º per minute). This is to correct for gyro drift. i.e.
To keep the gyro tied to the magnetic meridian.
TURNING AND ACCELERATION ERRORS
These errors are suppressed. The errors do not reach the indicators due to the slow precessional
rate (2º - 3º per minute). Therefore they are not corrected for, but only suppressed.
The Erection Mechanism
The gyro in the CL 2 must be maintained horizontal and the erection mechanism ensures this. It
consists of a 2 phase torque motor with its stators mounted on the outer gimbal and a levelling
switch mounted on the inner gimbal. Commutator switches detect any topple of the gyro (relative to
the aircraft) and pass a signal to the torque motor which applies a precessing force to the gyro to
bring it back to level.
Important Points
1) The detector unit is fixed to the fore/aft axis of the A/C.

2) Gyroscopic rigidity provides Hdg control.
3) Precession corrects for errors and gyro drift.
4) Turning and acceleration errors are suppressed by the slow precessional rate of 2º - 3º per
minute.

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QUESTIONS
1. During the correcting swing of a direct reading magnetic compass the following readings
were noted.
MAGNETIC HEADING COMPASS HEADING
359 001
090 088
181 179
269 273
Calculate the value of Coefficients A, B and C. What will the compass read after
compensation of Coefficients B and C on the Southerly and Westerly headings?
2. The following figures appear on an aeroplane deviation card:

FOR MAGNETIC STEER COMPASS
045 038
090 092
The compass heading to steer to maintain a heading of 075 (M) is:
a) 072
b) 074
c) 076
3. During a compass swing the following reading were noted:

000 358
089 092
178 182
269 268
After correction for coefficients B and C, the compass reading on the westerly heading was:
a) 266
b) 270
c) 271
4. The following Coefficients apply to a particular compass system:

Co-eff A + 2 Co-eff B + 4 Co-eff C - 3
What deviation would you expect on heading 135 (C)?
a) 6.95
b) 2.71
b) 1.29

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5. A compass system has Co-eff A + I and Co-eff B + 3. The deviation on heading 230 (C) is -
3. What is the value of Co-eff C?
a) +2.65
b) -9.82
c) -3.71
6. Coefficient A+3 is corrected on heading 300 (C). What is the compass reading after
correction of Co-eff A?
a) 330 (C)
b) 303 (C)
c) 297 (C)
7. A compass system has Co-eff A -2, B-4, C+3. Required track 022 (T), Drift 7 left. Variation
16W. The compass heading to steer will be:
a) 042 ( C )
b) 045 ( C )
c) 048 ( C )
8. Compass deviation on 130 (C) is 4 W.

Compass deviation on 230 (C) is 8 E.
Compass deviation on 315 (C) will be:
a) -4.7
b) -1.5
c) +3.3
9. A direct reading magnetic compass has coefficients A, B and C only. Deviations on 000°
(C) is 0°. Deviation on 090° (C) is + 3. Coefficient C is +2. The deviation on 180° (C) is:
a) -2
b) -4
c) 0
10. During a compass swing the following deviations were found.

HEADING COMPASS DEVIATION
000 0
090 -5
180 -4
The value of Coefficients A, B and C were:
a) A-3 B-3 C-2
b) A-2 B-3 C+2
c) A-2 B+2 C+2
11. An agonic line joins places of:
a) Equal magnetic variation.

b) Zero magnetic variation.
c) Equal horizontal force H.
12. Variation is called Westerly when:

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a) Magnetic North is to the West of True North.
b) True North is to the West of Magnetic North.
c) The Magnetic Meridian is to the West of Compass North.
13. You are turning right from 150 (C) onto 220 (C) in the Southern Hemisphere. On what
compass heading would you roll out of the turn?
a) 210 ( C )
b) 220 ( C )
c) 230 ( C )
14. An aeroplane heading 030° (C) in the Southern Hemisphere, turns left onto 170° (C) using a
direct reading magnetic compass. The roll out of the turn should be initiated on a compass
heading off:
a) 145
b) 170
c) 195
15. Compass deviation is caused by:
a) The difference in the location of the Earth's Magnetic and Geographic Poles.
b) The angle of magnetic dip.
c) Aircraft magnetism distorting the Earth's magnetic field.
16. A magnetic compass will show an apparent turn to the North in the Southern Hemisphere
when:
a) The aircraft accelerates on 000 (C).

b) The aircraft accelerates on 090 (C).
c) The aircraft decelerates on 270 (C).
17. The direct reading magnetic compass has magnetic correctors for:
a) Coefficient A, B and C.
b) Coefficients B and C only.
c) Coefficients B, C and R.
18. In regard to acceleration errors, they are caused because:
a) The C. of G. of the magnet system is above the pivot.

b) The C. of G. of the magnet system lies between the pivot and the nearer pole.
c) The C. of G. lies between the pivot and the equator.

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19. Select the true statement regarding the magnetic compass in the southern hemisphere.
a) If on a westerly heading and the aircraft's speed is decreased, the aircraft will indicate
a turn to the north.
b) If on a northerly heading a turn is made toward the west, the compass will indicate a
turn in the opposite direction.
c) If on an easterly heading the aircraft is accelerated, the compass will indicate a turn
to the north.
20. The magnetic system of a compass is suspended pendulously to counteract the effect of
component:
a) H
b) Z
c) P
21. An aircraft being manufactured in the Northern Hemisphere is parked facing South West:
a) Parameter P is positive.
b) Parameter Q is positive.
c) Parameter R is positive.
22. Parameter P is:
a) Fore and aft magnetism affecting Co eff. B.

b) Athwart ship magnetism affecting Co eff. B.
c) Fore and aft magnetism affecting Co eff. C.
23. A compass swing should be conducted:
a) with the radio equipment off.

b) with the engine shut down.
c) with the engine running.
24. A magnetic material that is easily magnetised is called:
a) soft iron magnetic material.

b) permanent magnet.
c) hard iron.
25. Compass accuracy is greatest:

a) in mid latitudes.
b) at the poles.
c) at magnetic equator.
26. The secular change in variation has a cycle of:
a) 96 years.
b) 690 years.
c) 960 years.
27. An aircraft constructed in South Africa has a red pole in the nose and right wing and blue
poles in the tail and left wing. The heading during construction was:

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a) 045 degrees.
b) 315 degrees.
c) 135 degrees.
28. Which statement is true regarding magnetism:
a) compass deviation is the angular difference between true north and magnetic north.
b) magnetic variation is the deflection of the compass needle which is caused by
magnetic attractions in the aircraft.
c) magnetic dip increases with an increase in latitude.
29. The type of compass least likely to suffer from parallax is:
a) Direct reading compass.

b) Remote reading compass.
c) A standby compass.
30. When a magnet cannot be made any more magnetic, it is said to be:
a) Impermeable.
b) Permeable.
c) Saturated.
31. In direct reading magnetic compass, the effect of dip is counteracted by:
a) Low centre of gravity.

b) Compass liquid.
c) Powerful magnets.
32. Assuming the compass to be only affected by hard iron magnetism causing deviation, if the
latitude changed the deviation would change because:
a) of the change in the aircraft's hard iron magnetism.

b) of the change in the Earth's total force.
c) of the change in the strength of the Earth's directive force.
33. With reference to the Sperry Gyrosyn CL2 compass system. The precession rate of the gyro
is kept low in order to:
a) Maintain the gyro axis in the horizontal plane.

b) Suppress turning and acceleration errors.
c) Allow the master unit to follow the gyro unit.
34. The Sperry CL2 compass system remains synchronised in a turn because:
a) The follow up motor keeps the compass synchronised.

b) The precession circuit is activated causing the gyro to follow the turn.
c) The signals from the detector unit to the signal selsyn change at the same rate as the
rotor of the signal selsyn turns.
35. The Sperry CL2 compass system does not indicate turning and acceleration errors because
of:
a) The annunciator circuits.

b) The slow precession rate of the gyro.

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c) The Hooks joint suspension of the detector unit.
36. The Sperry CL2 compass system indicates aircraft heading by:
a) The detector unit senses the angle between the aircraft fore and aft axis and the
magnetic meridian.
b) The detector unit aligns itself with the magnetic meridian.
c) The signal selsyn measures aircraft heading.
37. During a turn the remote indicator of a CL2 compass remains synchronised with the actual
heading because:
a) the horizontal gyro due to its rigidity drives the pointers keeping them aligned with the
heading;
b) error signals raised in the stators of the gyro unit data selsyn are repeated in the
stators of the master indicator;
c) the detector unit, signal selsyn stator and horizontal gyro, rotate with the aircraft in the
same direction at the same rate.

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ANNEX A
SAMPLE EXAMS

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Paper 1
1. The Central Air Data Computer (CADC):
(a) corrects or reduces all pressure instrument errors

(b) corrects the temperature error of the altimeter
(c) eliminates the time lag error in pressure instruments
2. Disregarding the effect of compressibility, at a constant IAS the ASI dynamic pressure will
be:
(a) the same at all altitudes

(b) greatest at sea level
(c) greatest at high altitude
3. If the pitot head and drain hole become blocked by ice during a climb the ASI would:
(a) overread
(b) under read
(c) fall to zero
4. Flying at a constant power setting, the highest indicated airspeed will occur when the air is:
(a) Cold and dry

(b) Warm and moist
(c) Warm and dry
5. Static pressure is supplied to the ASI in order to:
(a) cancel the static component of dynamic pressure

(b) balance the static component of pitot pressure
(c) subtract the static pressure from the dynamic pressure
6. True airspeed is calculated from indicated airspeed by:
(a) rectifying and correcting for density error

(b) correcting for instrument, density and temperature errors
(c) correcting for instrument, pressure and position errors
7. An aeroplane is flying from a warm air mass to a cold air mass at a constant FL and
indicated airspeed. The TAS and true altitude will:
(a) TAS increase and true altitude decrease

(b) TAS decrease and true altitude increase
(c) Both decrease
8. The principle and operation of the Machmeter excludes the following errors:
(a) density, temperature and pressure errors

(b) compressibility, temperature and density errors
(c) temperature. position and density errors
9. An aircraft flying at Mach 0.82 where the local speed of sound is 1050 ft per second has a
TAS of.

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(a) 490Kts
(b) 500Kts
(c) 510Kts
10. An aircraft flying from a cold air mass to a warm air mass at a constant FL and RAS will
experience:
(a) an increase in mach number

(b) no change in mach number
(c) a decrease in mach number
11 The altitude in the ISA where TAS 471 Kts corresponds to Mach 0.81 is:
(a) 32320 ft
(b) 34650 ft
(c) 36090 ft
12. For an aircraft climbing at a constant Mach No:
(a) the TAS and RAS will increase

(b) the TAS and RAS will decrease
(c) the TAS will increase and RAS decrease
13. At FL 410 in standard conditions the speed of sound is:
(a) 559Kts
(b) 586Kts
(c) 573Kts
(a) overread
(b) read correctly
(c) under read
15. Altimeter instrument errors:
(a) are constant throughout the range of the instrument

(b) are maximum at sea level
(c) increase with altitude
16. Altimeters indicate:
(a) altitude above mean sea level

(b) true altitude when corrected for non standard temperatures
(c) altitude above the pressure level set on the altimeter

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17. When the barometric pressure sub-scale setting of a servo assisted altimeter is adjusted the
altimeter pointer and counters are aligned by:
(a) direct high ratio gearing between the sub-scale and the pointers
(b) mechanically changing the position of the E bar followed by electronic realignment of
the E bar
(c) mechanically changing the position of the I bar followed by electronic alignment of the
E bar
18. An aeroplane flying at 1000 ft with QFE 982 hPa set on the altimeter is in the circuit at an
airfield (elevation 1200 ft). A second aeroplane at FL 40 is overflying the airfield.
The minimum vertical separation between the two aeroplanes would be:
(a) 1554 ft
(b) 1800 ft
(c) 2070 ft
19. An aircraft heading 003 (M), drift 10 left, has to pass over high ground that is 2200 metres
AMSL. Minimum clearance over the high ground is 2000 feet, QNH 1025 mbs. The lowest
IFR flight level is:
(a) FL 090
(b) FL 100
(c) FL 105
20. The DGI Directional Gyro Indicator operates on the principle of.
(a) Rigidity in space

(b) precession
(c) gyro drift
21. The rigidity of a gyro is directly proportional to the:
(a) speed of rotation and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia

(b) mass of the rotor and inversely proportional to the rotational speed
(c) moment of inertia and the rotor speed
22. The attitude indicator is the primary pitch instrument, other indications of pitch are provided
by:
(a) ASI and altimeter only

(b) ASI and VSI only
(c) ASI, VSI and altimeter
23. The gyroscopic instrument that cannot topple is the:
(a) attitude indicator

(b) turn indicator
(c) directional gyro

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24. Apparent wander of a directional gyro in a stationary aircraft will cause the readings to:
(a) increase in the northern hemisphere

(b) decrease in the northern hemisphere
(c) increase in both hemispheres
25. Precession or gyro drift of a DGI may be caused by:
(a) gimbal friction, earth rotation and reduced rotor speed

(b) earth rotation, transport wander and reduced moment of inertia
(c) bearing friction, earth rotation and an applied force
26. The DGI gyro with the axis aligned north/south may topple due to excessive:
(a) pitch on north and excessive bank on west

(b) pitch on east and excessive bank on south
(c) pitch on west and excessive bank on north
27. The artificial horizon erection error is due to:
(a) displacement of the vanes covering the exhaust ports

(b) centrifugal forces acting on the pendulous gyro casing
(c) reduced gyro rigidity due to low suction
28. The artificial horizon outer gimbal has freedom of movement about the:
(a) Pitch axis

(b) Roll axis
(c) Vertical axis
29. If an aircraft makes a 360° turn the magnitude of the turning errors of a air driven artificial
horizon are at a maximum at:
(a) 90° into the turn

(b) 180° into the turn
(c) 270° into the turn
30. In an electrically driven artificial horizon gyro wander about the pitch axis is controlled by:
(a) a mercury levelling switch at right angles to the pitch axis producing a torque about
the roll axis
(b) a mercury levelling switch parallel to the pitch axis producing a torque about the pitch
axis
(c) a mercury levelling switch at right angles to the roll axis producing a torque about the
roll axis

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31. The rate gyro of the turn indicator has : -
(a) freedom of movement in one plane only and indicates the angle of bank in a turn
using the principle of rigidity
(b) freedom of movement in one plane only and indicates the rate of turn using the
principle of precession
(c) freedom in two planes using the topple principle to measure angular velocity in the
yawing plane
32. An aircraft enters a balanced rate 1 turn as indicated by the turn indicator. After two minutes
and 15 seconds the aircraft has turned through 360°. The rotor speed of the gyro is:
(a) Too high

(b) correct
(c) too low
33. During the swing of a Direct Reading Magnetic Compass the following readings were
recorded:
Magnetic Heading Compass Heading
358 002
087 091
182 181
271 269
After correction for Coefficients B and C the compass reading on the Westerly heading was:
(a) 271
(b) 272
(c) 273
34. A direct reading magnetic compass has Coefficients A -2. B -3 and C +4 only. The deviation
on 155° (C) would be:
(a) 0.5W
(b) 3.7W
(c) 6.9W
35. A compass has the following Coefficients :- A –2, B –3, C + 4.

During the compass swing a deviation of -4° was noted on heading 223°(C).
After correction of Coefficients A, B and C the residual deviation on 223 (C) would be:
(a) -1.1
(b) +2.1
(c) -3.6

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36. A compass has Coefficients A. B and C only.
The following readings were recorded during a compass swing:
Landing Compass Heading (C)

003 359
088 091
180 182
The Coefficients present in the compass are:
(a) A+1 B-4 C-3

(b) A+1 B+2 C-3
(c) A -1 B-2 C-3
37. A direct reading magnetic compass has magnetic correctors for Coefficients:
(a) A and C
(b) B and C
(c) B,C and A
38. Magnetism in an aircraft is represented by a Red Pole that bears 315° relative from the
compass position. The Coefficients present are:
(a) -B and -C
(b) -B and +C
(c) +B and -C
39. The magnitude of acceleration errors of a direct reading magnetic compass depend on:
(a) The angle of dip and the speed of the aircraft

(b) Magnetic latitude and aircraft heading
(c) The mass of the magnets and the distance between the C of G and the pivot.
40. An aircraft is flying along a railway line that runs 122/302(T) on a map. Aircraft heading 137°
(C), drift 5° right, Variation 16°W. Compass deviation is:
(a) 4W
(b) 1E
(c) 5E
41. The requirement of aperiodicity in a direct reading magnetic compass is achieved by the use
of.
(a) Two or four short magnets suspended in a compass liquid

(b) A low Centre of Gravity and two or four short magnets
(c) A low Centre of Gravity and the magnet system suspended in a damping liquid
42. The detector unit of the Sperry CL2 compass transmits electrical signals to the master
indicator signal selsyn:
(a) which are proportional to the aircraft’s heading

(b) when the flux-valve is not aligned with magnetic north
(c) when the annunciator indicates an unsynchronised state

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43. The Sperry CL2 compass system is not affected by the turning and acceleration errors of a
direct reading compass due to:
(a) the slow precession rate of the gyro

(b) the gyro rigidity resisting the turning or acceleration forces
(c) the detector unit being suspended by a Hookes joint
44. The Sperry CL2 compass remains synchronized with the aircraft heading in a turn because:
(a) error signals sensed by data selsyn B are transmitted to data selsyn C
(b) the detector unit turns at the same rate as the gyro
(c) the gyro remains rigid and drives the compass pointers as the aircraft turns about the
gyro
45. An aircraft in the Southern Hemisphere turns left from 175° onto 350°. The aircraft should roll
out of the turn on a heading of:
(a) 330°
(b) 350°
(c) 010°
46. An aircraft heading 180°(C) initiates a left turn onto 350°(C) in the Southern Hemisphere.
Initially the compass will indicate a:
(a) lesser amount of turn than is actually being made,

(b) turn in the opposite direction,
(c) greater amount of turn than is actually being made.

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Paper 2
1 The Central Air Data Computer (CADC) has a Static Air Temperature (SAT) input in order to:
(a) calculate the local speed of sound

(b) calculate TAS from Mach number
(c) correct the temperature error of the altimeter
2. If the static vent becomes blocked during a climb the ASI would:
(a) overread
(b) under read
(c) read correctly:
3. Movement of the ASI needle is proportional to:
(a) pitot pressure

(b) dynamic pressure
(c) dynamic + static pressure
4. If the pitot and drain hole of the ASI become blocked by ice:
(a) the IAS would fall to zero

(b) the IAS would under read during a climb
(c) the IAS would remain constant in level flight
5. An aircraft flies a measured course of 5 nm between two pylons at 7000 ft pressure altitude
temperature 15°C in 2 minutes 45 seconds: Flying the reverse course the time is 2 minutes
19 seconds.
If the lAS was 100 Kts the ASI was under reading by:
(a) 1Kt
(b) 3Kts
(c) 5Kts
6. Converting RAS to TAS using a navigational computer:
(a) the TAS will always be higher than RAS

(b) the TAS will be lower than RAS if density altitude is lower than pressure altitude
(c) the TAS will be higher than RAS if air density is higher than standard

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7. The value of compressibility error of an ASI:
(a) increases with an increase of airspeed and altitude

(b) increases with an increase of density
(c) increases with an increase of airspeed and a decrease of altitude
8. ASI errors:
(a) increase with an increase in airspeed

(b) are independent of airspeed
(c) decrease with an increase in airspeed
9. The machmeter employs:
(a) an airspeed capsule linked to a dashpot

(b) an airspeed capsule and an altimeter capsule linked to a common axis
(c) an airspeed capsule and an altimeter capsule, their axes 90° apart
10. An aircraft reduces power which results in the Mach No falling by 0.11 and the TAS reducing
by 64 Kts. The aircraft is flying at:
(a) FL270
(b) FL300
(c) FL330
11. The altitude in the ISA where the local speed of sound is 975 Ft per second is:
(a) 31000 ft
(b) 34000 ft
(c) 37000 ft
12. An aircraft is flying at FL 330, OAT -35C, RAS 297 Kts. M 0.83. The EAS is:
(a) 260Kts
(b) 270Kts
(c) 280Kts
13. When the air temperature is higher than standard at altitude. the indication on an altimeter
with QNH set is:
(a) higher than true altitude

(b) lower than true altitude
(c) the same as true altitude

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14. The bi-metallic strip in an altimeter corrects for:
(a) non standard ISA temperatures

(b) temperature rise due to compressibility
(c) temperature changes in the instrument

Temperature -5C
Terrain Elevation 1265 Metres
The absolute altitude is:
(a) 6975 ft
(b) 7428 ft
(c) 7860 ft
16. At an airfield (Elevation of 4325 ft. QNH 1007 hpas the Transition Altitude is 6000 ft and the
Transition Level is 70.
The height of the Transition Level above the airfield is:
(a) 2489ft
(b) 2675ft
(c) 2861ft
17. An aircraft flying at FL 130 where the QNH is 1022 hPa has to pass over high ground 2137
metres above mean sea level. The height of the aircraft above the high ground will be:
(a) 5727 ft
(b) 6255 ft
(c) 6525 ft
18. An aircraft descends from FL 190 to land at an airfield 1325 feet AMSL where the QNH is
1005.5 hPa. If the pilot was unable to set the QNH due to a jammed baro setting control the
altimeter reading on touchdown would be:
(a) 1556ft
(b) 1176ft
(c) 1094ft

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19. A space gyro has:
(a) freedom of movement in two planes, gyroscopic rigidity relative to space and
controlled by processional forces
(b) freedom of movement in three planes, mounted in two gimbals and the property of
rigidity in space
(c) freedom of movement in three planes. mounted in three gimbals and is affected by
processional forces
20. The term ‘gyro drift” applies to movement of the gyro axis in the:
(a) horizontal plane

(b) vertical plane
(c) both the horizontal and vertical planes
21. A perfectly balanced space gyro is spinning with its axis vertical at the equator. After 18
hours the gyro axis will be:
(a) vertical having toppled through 180°

(b) horizontal with the axis north/south
(c) horizontal with the axis east/west
22. The directional gyro rider nut corrects for:
(a) Real wander

(b) Earth rotation wander
(c) Transport wander
23. The gyroscope properties used by the directional gyro are:
(a) Rigidity to provide a reference datum and precession to maintain the gyro axis in the
aircraft’s yawing plane
(b) Rigidity to maintain the gyro axis in the horizontal and precession to correct for earth
rotational wander
(c) Rigidity to keep the gyro axis aligned with magnetic north and precession to control
gyro drift
24. The transport wander of an DGI in an aircraft flying westbound in the southern hemisphere
will cause the DGI readings to:
(a) Increase
(b) Remain constant as transport wander cancels earth rotation wander
(c) Decrease
25. The latitude rider control of the DGI is:
(a) four exhaust ports half covered by pendulous vanes

(b) an adjustable weight attached to the inner gimbal
(c) springs attached to the inner gimbal

CPL DOC 5
Page 128
26. The artificial horizon inner gimbal has freedom of movement about the:
(a) Pitch axis

(b) Roll axis
(c) Vertical axis
27. Bank indication in an artificial horizon is given by:
(a) movement of the sky plate attached to the outer gimbal

(b) rotation of the outer gimbal about the longitudinal axis
(c) movement of the AH casing about the outer gimbal and sky plate
28. The acceleration error of the electrically driven artificial horizon is less than the air driven
type because of:
(a) erection system cut-out switches

(b) a constant speed gyro
(c) less pendulosity
29. The fast erection system of an electrically driven artificial horizon may be used:
(a) At all times

(b) At start up on the ground only
(c) For straight and level flight only
30. The erection error of the suction type artificial horizon in a turn is:
(a) a false climb indicated

(b) a lesser amount of bank indicated
(c) a false descent indicated
31. A fail flag appears on an electrical turn and slip indicator which indicates that:
(a) the instrument has failed and is not to be used

(b) the instrument may be used with caution
(c) the turn indicator has failed but the slip indication is valid
(a) Primary precession produced by the angle of bank

(b) Primary precession being balanced by secondary precession
(c) Primary precession being balanced by the springs
33. In a balanced turn the angle of tilt of the rate gyro in the turn indicator:
(a) Increases as the angle of bank increases and the airspeed decreases
(b) Increases as the angle of bank decreases and the airspeed increases
(c) Remains constant for a 25° angle of bank at any airspeed

CPL DOC 5
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34. The turn indicator uses a rate gyro, and including the spin axis has:
(a) freedom of movement in one plane only and indicates the angle of bank in a turn
using the principle of precession
(b) freedom of movement in two planes using the topple principle to measure angular
velocity in the yawing plane
(c) freedom of movement in two planes at 90° to each other and measures the rate of
turn in the third plane
35. An aircraft enters a balanced rate 1 turn as indicated by the turn indicator. After two minutes
the aircraft has turned through 3800. The rotor speed of the gyro is:
(a) too high

(b) correct
(c) too low
36. The main reason that the rate gyro of the turn indicator is electrically driven rather than air
driven is:
(a) to protect the gyro from moisture and dust in the air supply
(b) to ensure a constant rotor speed
(c) that a higher RPM gives greater rotor rigidity
37. During the swing of a Direct Reading magnetic (The compass the following readings were
recorded:
Landing Compass Magnetic Heading

000 359
087 091
179 182
271 269
After correction for Coefficients B and C the compass reading on the Southerly heading
was:-
(a) 180
(b) 181
(c) 184
38. A compass has Coefficients A B and C only. If Co-eff A is -2. Co-eff B is +2 and the deviation
on 305° (C) is -1 the value of Co-eff C is:
(a) -1.1
(b) -2.9
(c) +4.6
39. The purpose of the torque motor in the Sperry CL2 compass system is to:
(a) Maintain the gyro axis North/South

(b) Maintain the gyro spin axis in the Earth’s horizontal plane
(c) Maintain the gyro spin axis in the aircraft’s yawing plane

CPL DOC 5
Page 130
40. The annunciator circuit of the Sperry CL2 compass system:
(a) Indicates when the gyro axis is aligned 90° to the Magnetic meridian
(b) Monitors the signals from the signal selsyn to the precession coil and indicates that
the gyro axis is aligned with the signal selsyn rotor
(c) Monitors the synchronization state of the gyro and assists with manual
synchronization
41. The Sperry CL2 detector unit contains three flux-valves mounted 120 apart instead of a
single flux-valve in order to:
(a) Improve sensitivity

(b) Resolve heading ambiguity
(c) Neutralise the effect of component Z of the Earth’s magnetic field when the aircraft is
climbing or descending
42. The voltage induced into the secondary pick-off coils of a Sperry CL2 flux-valve is
proportional to:
(a) The frequency of the AC current to the exciter coil

(b) The value of component h of the Earth’s magnetic field and the direction at which it
intersects the flux-valve
(c) The efficiency of the flux-valve collector horns
43. An aircraft heading 360° (C ) initiates a left turn onto 180° ( C ) in the Southern hemisphere.
Initially the compass will indicate a:
(a) Lesser amount of turn than is actually being made

(b) Turn in the opposite direction
(c) Greater amount of turn than is actually being made
44. An aircraft is turning right from 050° ( C ) onto 220° ( C ) in the Southern hemisphere. On
what compass heading should the aircraft roll out of the turn?
(a) 210(C)
(b) 220(C)
(c) 230(C)
45. A compass system has co-eff A -2. B -4. C +3. Required track 022° (T). Drift 7° left. Variation
16 W. The compass heading to steer will be:
(a) 042° (C)

(b) 045° (C)
(c) 048° (C)
46. A magnetic compass will show an apparent turn to the North in the Southern hemisphere
when.
(a) The aircraft accelerates on 000° ( C)

(b) The aircraft accelerates on 090° (C)
(d) The aircraft decelerates on 270° (C)

CPL DOC 5
Page 131
Paper 3
1. An aeroplane heading 030º (C) in the Southern Hemisphere, turns left onto 170º (C) using a
direct reading magnetic compass. The roll out of the turn should be initiated on a compass
heading off:
a) 145°
b) 170°
c) 195°
045 038
090 092
The compass heading to steer to maintain a heading of 075º (M) is:
a) 072
b) 074
c) 076
3. During a compass swing the following reading were noted:
000 358
089 092
178 182
269 268
After correction for coefficients B and C, the compass reading on the westerly heading was:
a) 266
b) 270
c) 271
4. A compass is swung using the Relative bearing method. The magnetic bearing of a distant
object is 210° (M).
COMPASS HEADING RELATIVE BEARING
359 208
090 121
179 032
272 301
Co-eff. A, B and C are:

a) A = - 0.5 B = +2 C = +2
b) A = + 0,5 B = +1 C = - 2
c) A = - 0,5 B = +1 C = +2
5. Co-eff. A -2, Co-eff. B + 2 and Co-eff. C + 3. The headings on which zero deviation occurs
are:
CPL DOC 5
Page 132
a) 303,7º and 123,7º
b) 056,3º and 236,3º
c) 090,0º and 337,3º
6. A direct reading magnetic compass has coefficients A, B and C only. Deviations on 000º (C)
is 0º. Deviation on 090º (C) is + 3. Co-efficient C is +2. The deviation on 180º (C) is:
a) -2
b) -4
c) 0
7. A direct reading magnetic compass is affected by co-efficients B and C only, which together
cause a maximum deviation of 7 degrees West on heading 247º (C). The respective values
of co-efficients B and C are:
a) B 6,44 and C 2,73.

b) B 2,73 and C 6,44.
c) B -3,20 and C - 3,80.
065 058
110 112
The compass heading to steer to maintain a heading of 095º (M) is:
a) 092
b) 094
c) 096
9. The deviations of a direct reading magnetic compass effected only by coefficients B and C
are, 3 E on 230 (C) and 4 W on 130 (C), therefore the deviation on heading 315 (C) is:
a) 7,5 W
b) 3,3 E
c) 7,5E
10. The magnetic system of a compass is suspended pendulously to counteract the effect of
component:
a) H
b) Z
c) P

CPL DOC 5
Page 133
11. Co-eff. B is negative and one third the value of Co-eff. C which is positive. The headings on
which zero deviation occur are:
a) 108,4 and 288,4

b) 18,4 and 198,4
c) 71,6 and 250,6
12. A direct reading magnetic compass is affected by coefficients B and C only, which together
cause a maximum deviation of 5 degrees West on heading 307 (C). The respective values
of coefficients B and C are:
a) B +4 and C -3
b) B +7 and C -6
c) B -3 and C -3
13. During a turn the remote indicator of a CL2 compass remains synchronised with the actual
heading because:
a) the horizontal gyro due to its rigidity drives the pointers keeping them aligned with the
heading;
b) error signals raised in the stators of the gyro unit data selsyn are repeated in the
stators of the master indicator;
c) the detector unit, signal selsyn stator and horizontal gyro, rotate with the aircraft in the
same direction at the same rate.
14. An aircraft at FL230, temperature -41º C, QNH 983 HPA, is at a true altitude of:
a) 21 050 feet
b) 22 200 feet
c) 23 013 feet
15. While climbing to FL250, the altimeter is set correctly. On descent the altimeter is not set to
QNH 1037,8 hPa. If the aerodrome elevation is 650 FT and the altimeter is functioning
properly, after landing the altimeter will indicate:
a) minus 88 FT
b) 738 FT
c) 1388 FT
16. The QFE at an aerodrome (elevation) 1790 feet is 962 hPa and the QNH 1022 hPa. If the
transition level is FL040 the physical level of the transition level above the aerodrome is
approximately:
a) 2464 feet
b) 2150 feet
c) 2280 feet.

CPL DOC 5
Page 134
17. The elevation of aerodrome A is 390 feet and aerodrome B 450 feet. The pilot of an
aeroplane at A, sets the altimeter to read aerodrome elevation and then flies to B without
resetting the altimeter. Aerodrome pressure at A on departure was 1004 hPa. On landing at
B the altimeter reads 630 feet, and assuming 1 hPa is 30 feet, the QNH is approximately:
a) 1011 hPa
b) 1013 hPa
c) 1019 hPa.
18. With QFE 1014 set at A (elevation 480 feet), an aircraft flies to B (QNH 1020) a distance of
780 NM. In order to have minimum clearance of 1500 ft over a hill 490 metres above sea
level, 234 NM from A, the altimeter must read:
a) 3108 ft
b) 3048 ft
c) 2718 ft
19. If an altimeter indicates 3500 FT with the actual QNH of 1004, 7 hPa set, the approximate
pressure altitude is:
a) 3745 FT
b) 3500 FT
c) 3255 FT
20. During a pre-flight check the following details were noted:
Airfield Elevation 4800 ft

Apron Elevation 4780 ft
Height of static vent above ground 25 ft
Altimeter reading (QFE) 35 ft
a) 30 ft under read
b) 05 ft under read
c) 30 ft over read.
21. When ambient temperature is warmer than standard at a particular altitude, the altimeter will
indicate:
a) higher than true altitude;

b) lower than true altitude;
c) the same as true altitude.
22. The value of the compressibility error of an Airspeed Indicator (ASI) will:
a) increase with increase in altitude and true airspeed;

b) decrease, with decrease in density and increase with an increase in IAS;
c) increase with increase in true airspeed and decrease with increase in altitude.

CPL DOC 5
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23. The reported QNH of a given station is the:
a) actual barometric pressure measured at the station;

b) actual barometric pressure measured at sea level;
c) station's barometric pressure corrected to mean sea level pressure.
24. Flying at FL 430 the OAT is -59º C. The deviation from Jet Standard Atmosphere is:
a) + 12
b) - 2,5
c) + 2,7
25. At a constant pressure altitude of 1 250 feet, a temperature drop from 29 C to 18 C will cause
the density altitude to:
a) decrease by 1 250 feet;

b) increase by 1 200 feet;
c) decrease by 1 870 feet.
a) overread;
b) read correctly;
c) under read.
27. Ambient static pressure is fed to the ASI in flight to:
a) Cancel dynamic pressure in the pitot tube.

b) Subtract the static pressure from the dynamic pressure.
c) Cancel static pressure entering the instrument diaphragm through the pitot tube.
28. The Principle and Operation of the Machmeter precludes the following errors:
a) Density, compressibility and pressure errors.

b) Position, density and barometric errors.
c) Temperature, compressibility and density errors.
29. At FL410 the temperature deviation from the Jet Standard Atmosphere is + 5º C. The
outside air temperature is:
a) -51,5º C
b) -62º C
c) -67º C
30. Mach No. is equal to:
a) P-S+S
P - S
b)
S
P + S
c)
S

CPL DOC 5
Page 136
Paper 4
1. An aircraft flying at a constant Flight Level reduces power which results in a reduction of TAS
by 112 kts and Mach No. by 0,19. At which Flight level is the aircraft flying?
a) FL 280
b) FL 220
c) FL 295
2. An aeroplane at Mach 0,78 has a true airspeed of 479 knots when flying in standard
atmosphere at flight level:
a) 185
b) 275
c) 200
3. An aircraft at FL310 is flying at an indicated Mach-number of 0,80 corrected OAT is -30°C.

The rectified airspeed for these conditions is:
a) 282 knots
b) 298 knots
c) 269 knots
4. An aircraft maintains a constant TAS of 350 kts in the climb:
a) Local Speed of sound decreases and the RAS decreases.

b) Local Speed of sound decreases and the Mach No. decreases.
c) Local Speed of sound increases and the Mach No. increases.
5. Assuming that the speed of sound is 1203,8 kilometres per hour at 15º C and the mean lapse
rate 2 degrees/1000 feet, the speed of sound at a temperature of -56º C is:
a) 564,2 knots
b) 583,4 knots
c) 574,2 knots
6. A TAS OF 470 KTS is obtained at Mach 0,82 when flying at FL400. To obtain the same TAS
at Mach 0,82 when flying at FL320 the temperature deviation required is:
a) +6C
b) - 7C
c) - 16 C

CPL DOC 5
Page 137
7. If while in level flight, it becomes necessary to use an alternate source of static pressure
vented inside the aircraft, with the cabin pressure being lower than static, the following
variations in instrument indication would be expected:
a) the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed will not change and the vertical-
speed indicator will momentarily show a descent;
b) the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed greater than normal and the
vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb;
c) the altimeter will read lower than normal, airspeed greater than normal and the
vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb and then a descent.
8. Assume that an aeroplane at 17000 FT AMSL has a cabin pressure equal to an altitude of
7000 FT. If the pitot static tubes break at a point within the cockpit, the altimeter would read:
a) 10000 FT (7000 FT + 3000 FT) which is the allowance for pressure differential;
b) 17000 FT;
c) The cabin pressure altitude, i.e. 7000 FT.
9. The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator incorporates an accelerometer unit. The pistons
of the accelerometer unit are connected:
a) directly to the VSI needle to give an instantaneous deflection when a climb or a

descent is initiated;
b) directly to the capsule by a leaf spring which exerts or relieves pressure on the
capsule when a climb or a descent is initiated;
c) to the static pressure tube leading to the capsule and their movement creates an
immediate pressure change inside the capsule when a climb or descent is initiated.
10. In the servo altimeter the servo motor drives the:
a) amplifier and the induction pick-off;

b) the counters and the cam;
c) the I-bar.
11. By changing from QNH to QNE on a servo assisted Altimeter:
a) The motor drives the "E" bar sensing an error, then amplified and fed to the counter.
b) The anvil moves the worm gear, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars.
c) The "I" bar moves, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars.
12. If the static pressure ports iced over while descending from altitude, the airspeed indicator
would read:
a) High
b) Low
c) Correctly.

CPL DOC 5
Page 138
13. The rigidity of a spinning wheel is directly proportional to:
a) the speed of rotation and directly proportional to the mass of the rotor;
b) the moment of inertia and inversely proportional to the speed of rotation;
c) the speed of rotation and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia.
14. After 4 hours 15 minutes the easterly axis point of a horizontal axis gyro set with its axis in an
east/west direction at 45 N will have:
a) drifted anti-clockwise through 45 degrees above the horizon;

b) have risen to a point 60 degrees above the horizon;
c) drifted clockwise and have risen above the horizon.
15. If a vacuum gauge indicates the pressure to be lower than the minimum limit, the air-
operated instruments that would be affected, are:
a) pressure altimeter;
b) heading indicator (DGI);
c) vertical-speed indicator.
16. Erection errors in an air driven Gyro Horizon Indicator are due to:
a) Loss of gyro rigidity due to the reduction in rotor speed at high altitudes.
b) The movement of the pendulous vanes during aircraft accelerations and manoeuvres.
c) The displacement of the pendulous gyro casing during acceleration or a turn.
17. In an electrically driven artificial horizon, the axis wander about the pitch axis is controlled by:
a) A mercury switch at right angles to the pitch axis inducing torque about the roll axis.
b) A mercury switch parallel to the pitch axis inducing torque about the pitch axis.
c) A mercury switch at right angles to the roll axis inducing torque about the pitch axis.
18. Errors in both pitch and bank indication on an attitude indicator are usually at a maximum as
the aircraft rolls out of a:
a) 90 degree turn;
b) 180 degree turn;
c) 270 degree turn.
19. During a stabilised climbing turn at a constant rate, the instruments which indicate the correct
pitch and bank are the:
a) vertical-speed indicator and turn-and-slip indicator;

b) altimeter and turn-and-slip indicator;
c) attitude indicator and turn-and-slip indicator.

CPL DOC 5
Page 139
20. The effect of decreasing rotor speed in the turn and slip indicator will cause:
a) the turn indicator to over-read and the slip indicator to under-read;

b) the turn indicator to under-indicate the angle of bank but will not effect the slip
indicator;
c) the turn indicator to under-read the rate of turn.
21. In the operation of the turn indicator, a rate gyro is used:
a) having freedom of movement in only one plane and is constructed to indicate the
angle of bank during a turn, using the principle of precession;
b) having freedom of movement in only two planes at 90 degrees to each other and is
constructed to measure rate of turn in the third plane, at right angles to the other two.
c) having complete freedom of movement in two planes using the principle of topple in
the vertical plane to measure angular velocities in the yawing plane.
a) the force in the horizontal plane generated by secondary precession balancing the tilt
caused by primary precession;
b) the tension of the control spring opposing the angular tilt of the gyro;
c) primary precession which is generated by an aeroplanes rate of turn.
23. To complete a 360º turn using the Turn Co-ordinator, takes 131 seconds. The rotor speed is:
a) High
b) Low
c) Correct
24. On a descend to Cape Town on an IFR flight plan the QNH of 1008.2 hPa could not be set
because the knob had fallen off For the purposes of the approach and landing the indicated
height of the altimeter must be corrected for by:
a) adding 200 ft
b) subtracting 150 ft
c) adding 150 ft
25. The function or purpose of an accelerometer is to:
a) measure the force required to accelerate a mass overcoming its inertia;

b) determine the rate of change of motion of a given mass;
c) measure the velocity an displacement of a body along a straight line.

CPL DOC 5
Page 140
26. A RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) displays a warning flag which indicates a compass failure.
The radio bearing pointers:
a) are not to be used;

b) can be used to home to an NDB;
c) can be used to home to an NDB and a VOR station.
27. A Lewis Flush Bulb senses:
a) SAT
b) RAT
c) TAT

CPL DOC 5
Page 141
CPL DOC 5
Page 142
ANNEX B
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

CPL DOC 5
Page 143
Chapter 1
Machmeter Questions
1.1 B
1.2 C
1.3 B
2. C
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. A
General Questions
1 B 17 C 33 C 49 A
2 A 18 B 34 B 50 A
3 B 19 C 35 C 51 C
4 C 20 A 36 C 52 C
5 A 21 C 37 C 53 B
6 C 22 B 38 C 54 B
7 C 23 A 39 C 55 A
8 B 24 B 40 C
9 A 25 C&A 41 B
10 C 26 A 42 B
11 C 27 B 43 C
12 B 28 A 44 B
13 B 29 B 45 A
14 B 30 A 46 C
15 A 31 B 47 A
16 C 32 B 48 A

CPL DOC 5
Page 144
DETAILED ANSWERS
7. Assume aircraft flying at a constant RAS and altitude, then by computer

10000 feet PA 10000 feet PA
Temp -20 C Cold Air Temp +20 C Warm Air

RAS 150 RAS 150
TAS 170 TAS 182
Flying from Cold Air to Warm Air (constant RAS) TAS increases.
Flying from Warm Air to Cold Air (constant RAS) TAS decreases.

10000 feet QNH set 10000 feet QNH set
Temp - 20 C Cold Air Temp -20 C Warm Air
9 450 feet True Altitude 10920 ft True Altitude
Flying from Warm Air to Cold Air - True Altitude increases.

Flying from Cold Air to Warm Air - True Altitude decreases.
8. By computer:
Temp +20 C Warm Air Temp -20 C Cold Air

TAS 200 TAS 200
RAS 165 RAS 177
Flying from Cold Air to Warm Air (constant TAS) RAS increases.
Flying from Warm Air to Cold Air (constant TAS) RAS decreases.
9. Use pathfinder.
10. Use Whiz wheel.
11. Absolute Altitude is True Altitude above the ground.

By computer: Pressure Altitude 8000 feet
Temperature + 30 C
QNH Altitude 7500 feet
True Altitude 8350 feet
Terrain Elevation 5700 feet
Absolute Altitude 2650 feet

CPL DOC 5
Page 145
12. Density Altitude is calculated from PRESSURE ALTITUDE.
So first: Convert airfield elevation to Pressure Altitude.

CPL DOC 5
Page 146
CPL DOC 5
Page 147
CPL DOC 5
Page 148
28. Remember: RAS = TAS on a standard day.
So at sea level : RAS = 350 KTS
at 10000' Use pathfinder (Req CAS)

Enter = PA 10000'
TC =0
TAS = 350 Kts
RAS = 301 Kts
Also remember LSS always decreases with Altitude.
29. MACH 0.82 Temp 0 C TAS 528

MACH 0.82 Temp - 30C TAS 498 decreases.
30. Descending from FL410 to FL 200 there will be an increase in temp which will result in an
increased TAS.
31. Sea level Temp + 15 Mach 0.7 TAS 463 = RAS 463
36 090 ft Temp - 56 Mach 0.7 TAS 402 = RAS 220
33. TAS = M# x LSS

= 0.84 x 621.7 KTS
= 522 KTS
34. Use ARISTO : Set TAS 480 on outside scale.

M# 0.82 on inside scale.
Temp -48 C in Airspeed window.
The temp at the required FL is -48 C which is 63 C colder than sea level
(+ 15 C) So (-63-1,98) = 31 818 feet
35. Use ARISTO: Set TAS 87 on outside scale.

M# 0.15 on inside scale.
Temp -52C in Airspeed window.
The temp at the required FL is-52C which is 67 C colder than sea level
(+ 15 C) So (-67- 1,98) = 33 838 feet.
37. Substitute the answers using Plan TAS on the pathfinder.
38. Same as the ASI.
40. If the glass is broken, the instrument case will contain current static pressure from the cockpit
instead of delayed static. The capsule will contain delayed static pressure after passing
through the choke.
41. The VSI measures the pressure differential between current and delayed static pressures.
The pressure difference between two pressures with the same error is the correct pressure
differential or rate of climb/descent.

CPL DOC 5
Page 149
47.
3476 – 570 = 2906
48.
2100ft 930hpa
300”
1200FT
A 1000QNH B 990QNH
49. 1500FT (2261’AMSL)
761’
540FT QFE1008
18hpa
A 250NM 1000NM B
QNH1026 1019.5 (PROPORTIONAL0 QNH1000
1019.5 – 1008 =11.5hpa X 30 = 345’

2261’ – 345’ = 1916 ‘

CPL DOC 5
Page 150
50.
960 QNE
1270’
270’ = 9hpa
1860’
1000 ‘
Y QNH 1022
1022 – 9 = 1013
Chapter 2
1 A 14 B
2 B 15 A
3 C 16 B
4 A 17 B
5 B 18 A
6 B 19 A
7 C 20 B
8 C 21 B
9 A 22 C
10 C 23 B
11 C 24 A
12 B 25 C
13 A 26 B
Chapter 5
1 181,270 19 A
2 B 20 B
3 B 21 A
4 A 22 A
5 A 23 C
6 B 24 A
7 C 25 C
8 C 26 C
9 B 27 B
10 B 28 C
11 B 29 B
12 A 30 C
13 A 31 A
14 C 32 C
15 C 33 B
16 C 34 C
17 B 35 B
18 C 36 A
37 A

CPL DOC 5
Page 151
1. MAGNETIC HEADING COMPAS HEADING DEVIATION
359 001 -2
090 088 +2
181 179 +2
269 273 -4
Co-eff C sign changed +2

Make Compass Read 181
Co-eff B sign changed -3
Make Compass Read 270
Co-eff B = E - W = +2 - (-4) = +2 + 4 = +3
2 2 2
Co-eff C = N-S = -2-(+2) = -2 -2 = -2

2 2 2
2. FOR MAGNETIC STEER COMPASS DEVIATION

045 038 +7
090 092 -2
For 45 deg Mag Hdg change, Dev change = 9 deg.

5 deg Mag Hdg change, Dev change = 1 deg.
045 (M) to 075 (M) = 30 deg Hdg change = 6 deg dev change decreasing from +7 to + 1
FOR STEER DEV
075 (M) 074 (C ) +1
3. MAG HDG COMP HDG DEVIATION
000 358 +2
089 092 -3
178 182 -4
269 268 +1
Co-eff B = E - W
2
= (-3) - (+1)
2
= -4
2
= - 2 Change sign + 2 Make compass read: 268 + 2 = 270
4. Dev on 135 (C) = A +B Sin Hdg + C Cos Hdg
= +2 +4 Sin 135 -3 Cos 135
= +2 +2,83 +2,12
= +6.95

CPL DOC 5
Page 152
5. Dev on 230 (C ) = A +B Sin Hdg + C Cos Hdg
-3 = +1 +3 Sin 230 + C Cos 230
C = -3 -1 -3 Sin 230
Cos 230
C = +2.65
6. Hdg 300 (C )
Co-eff A + 3
Hdg 303 (C ) - Compass turned 3 deg clockwise
7. Track 022 (T)

Drift 7 Left
Heading 029 (T)
Variation 16 W
Heading 045 (M)
Deviation = A +B Sin Hdg+C Cos Hdg
= -2 -4 sin 045 + 3 Cos 045

= -2 -2.8 + 2.1
= -2.7
Heading 045 (M) Deviation - 2.7 Heading 047.7 (C )
8.

CPL DOC 5
Page 153
9. Co-eff C = N-S
2
= (0) - (- 4)
2
= +2
DEV N = 0°
DEV E = +3°
COEFF = +2°
DEV S = -4
10. Heading (C ) Deviation
000 0 N+S = E+W

090 -5 0 –4 = -5+W
180 -4 0 -4 +5 =W
270 +1 +1 =W
Co-eff A = 0 -5 -4 + 1 = -8 = -2
4 4
Co-eff B = E-W = -5 - (+1) = -5 -1 = -3

2 2 2
Co-eff C = N-S = 0 - (-4) = +4 = +2

2 2 2
13 ONUS (Undershoot South)

Undershoot by ± 10 deg (210 deg)
14. ONUS (Undershoot South)

Undershoot by ± 20 deg (190 deg)

CPL DOC 5
Page 154
PAPER 1
1 C 24 B
2 A 25 B
3 A 26 A
4 A 27 A
5 B 28 B
6 A 29 B
7 C 30 A
8 B 31 B
9 C 32 A
10 B 33 B
11 A 34 C
12 B 35 A
13 C 36 A
14 C 37 B
15 C 38 B
16 C 39 B
17 B 40 A
18 C 41 A
19 B 42 A
20 A 43 A
21 A 44 C
22 C 45 A
23 B 46 B

CPL DOC 5
Page 155
Paper 2
1 B 24 C
2 B 25 B
3 B 26 A
4 C 27 C
5 C 28 C
6 B 29 C
7 A 30 B
8 A 31 C
9 C 32 B
10 C 33 A
11 B 34 C
12 C 35 C
13 B 36 B
14 C 37 A
15 B 38 C
16 A 39 C
17 B 40 C
18 A 41 B
19 B 42 B
20 A 43 C
21 C 44 A
22 B 45 C
23 A 46 C

CPL DOC 5
Page 156
Paper 3
1 C 24 A
2 B 25 A
3 B 26 C
4 C 27 C
5 C 28 C
6 B 29 B
7 A 30 B
8 B
9 B
10 B
11 C
12 A
13 A
14 A
15 A
16 A
17 A
18 C
19 A
20 C
21 B
22 A
23 C

CPL DOC 5
Page 157
Paper 4
1 C 24 B
2 C 25 A
3 B 26 B
4 A 27 B
5 C
6 B
7 B
8 C
9 C
10 B
11 B
12 A
13 A
14 C
15 B
16 B
17 A
18 B
19 C
20 C
21 B
22 C
23 A

CPL DOC 5
Page 158

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CPL

CPL Instruments FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

1. Air Data Instruments 1

Annex A Sample Exams 117

Copyright © 2001, Flight Training College of Africa

CPL Instruments FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

The pressure instruments are : ASI

Pitot and Static Sources

Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given

Static vents are more commonly used in modern

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

a. the static pressure, and

It is the dynamic pressure which is proportional to the aircraft’s forward speed.

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

White arc stall full flap to max flap speed

DYNAMIC PRESSURE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO AIRSPEED.

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

b. Pressure / Position Error

PATHFINDER: use the ACTUAL TAS function.

P.A. 12000' IOAT. - 8º C RAS 183 KTS TAS = 220ish KTS

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

The temperature of compressed air is higher so a correction will have to be made.

It can be done automatically for you on the PATHFINDER

INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS) ± POSITION/INSTRUMENT ERROR = RAS/CAS

RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS) - COMPRESSIBILITY = EAS

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS) + DENSITY = TAS

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

A good way to put this to memory is to use the following diagram:

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

LSS = 38.945 COAT + 273

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

The only errors are Position/Pressure errors.

Is eliminated with the density error.

LEAKS AND BLOCKAGES

Exactly the same as the ASI.

THE MACHMETER INDICATOR

The machmeter indicator incorporates:

A normal ASI needle.

A machmeter of the rotating drum type.

RAS - TAS - MACH Nº RELATIONSHIP FOR CLIMBING AND DESCENDING

LSS always decreases with altitude.

ASI UNDERREADS with altitude.

For descending, the results are reversed.

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Constant TAS Climb:

Constant RAS Climb:

Mach index against temperature on the airspeed window.

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Use the PLAN MACH# function if you have OAT (SAT).

Use the ACTUAL MACH# function if you have IOAT (TAT).

LSS = 38.945 COAT + 273

LSS = 600 nm/hour

TAS = 450 Kts

LSS = 1100 feet/sec

0.73 × (1100 × 60 × 60)

TAS = 476 Kts

CPL INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

A/c A = M# 0.815 TAS 500 Kts

a) What is the flight level under ISA conditions?

b) What is the TAS of A/c B?

d) Then: Sea level = + 15º C

LSS = 600 nm/hour

600 Kts = 38.945 x √ COAT +273