Module 1

WHAT IS TEACHING?

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Construct your own general definition of teaching;

 Differentiate what is teacher-centred and student-centred teaching
 Identify characteristics and habits of good or effective teaching
 Discuss the role of teaching in learning

MODULE OUTLINE

1.1 Definition of teaching

1.2 Teacher centred versus student
centred teaching
1.3 Characteristics of effective teaching
1.4 Teaching and learning

Key Terms
Summary
References

From childhood to being an adult we have had teachers. Teachers who have imparted
their knowledge to us. Every teacher is different. Do you remember your teachers.
How were they? How did they interact with you? Were your experiences in their
classroom something that has enhanced your thinking skills? Were the things learnt in
your classroom applicable in your life? Did you feel involved in the lessons conducted
by your teachers? Was there laughter in your classroom? Did you sit and listen more
than actually do interesting things? Were your teachers passionate about the way
knowledge was transferred in the classroom, or was mere memorization and
regurgitation enough? Were you made to understand each idea and concept? Which
teacher do you remember the most and why? Has your experience with your teachers
given you a framework for your own future career as a teacher? What is teaching?
1.1 Teaching Defined

 Teaching is teaching the what, how and why of a subject (Halmos, 1994)
 Teaching involves activities that impart knowledge or skill (Dictionary.com)
 Teaching is the act, process, or art of imparting knowledge and skill
(Answers.com)
 Teaching is the educational process of instructing (Online Medical Dictionary)
 Teaching is the profession of those who give instruction, especially in an
elementary or secondary school or a university (The FreeDictionary).
 Teaching is the act and business of instructing (Webster Dictionary)

a) TEACHING PROFESSION

The teaching profession is a relatively new profession. Traditionally, parents,

elders, religious leaders, and sages were responsible for teaching children how to
behave and think and what to believe. Germany introduced the first formal criteria for
the education of teachers in the 18th century. In the 19th century, as society became
more industrialized, the concept of schooling became more universal.
The training involved in becoming a teacher has undergone quite a
transformation. A hundred years ago, a short training course or an apprenticeship was
sufficient to become a teacher (Berliner, 1987). Now teacher training has evolved
because of modern psychology, psycholinguistics, sociology, new thoughts in the
philosophy education, advanced technology and of course increasing educational
research that has given rise to emerging insights. These new thoughts about the
teaching–learning process has revealed a complexity that requires skills of very high
levels in teachers. Most countries also require professional certification following
formal training and in more advanced countries a university degree is required for
teaching.

b) SOME MYTHIS ABOUT LEARNING TO TEACH

Conventional wisdom about learning to teach is rooted in social attitudes toward

teaching and the experience of being a student. Some of these ideas contain half
truths; some have influenced educational policy.

 Teachers are born, not made. Some people believe that the ability to teach is
a natural endowment like being musical. Some teachers seem to be "naturals"
and some theorists posit an innate tendency in human beings to explain things.
Some believed that teaching was "women's true profession" because it tapped
their instinct for nurturing the young. Still, the belief that teachers are born,
not made rests on a narrow view of the intellectual and personal requirements
of teaching. It ignores the growing understanding of teaching as a complex,
uncertain practice, and minimizes the role of professional education on the
grounds that the practice of teaching cannot be taught.
 If you know your subject, you can teach it. Whatever else teachers need to
know, they need to know their subjects. There are teachers whose abundant
knowledge and love of their subject make them extremely effective even
though they have had no special preparation for teaching. Other teachers who
possess extensive subject matter knowledge are unable to present this
 knowledge clearly or help others learn it. Research is beginning to clarify what
it means to "know" one's subject for purposes of teaching it, and why
conventional measures of subject matter knowledge are problematic.

1.1 ACTIVITY
Give your definition of the following:
 Teach ……………………
 Instruct ………………….
 Educate …………………
 Train …………………….

Do you agree with these two statements about teaching? Explain

 ―Teachers are born, not made‖
 ―If you know your subject area, you can teach‖

1.2 Teacher-Centred and Student-Centred Teaching

The education literature is filled with many models and methods of teaching.
There are many powerful models of teaching designed to bring about particular kinds
of learning and to help students become more effective learners.

“Unfortunately, although we are well into of the 21st century and

the rest of the world has changed, the present-day classroom has
remained remarkably similar to that of 1900. Students no longer
write notes on slates, and they often sit in moveable desks, yet
many teachers still use the "I lecture; you listen and write" method
of teaching. Despite the proliferation of electronic media and
alternative methods of instruction, lecture is often the
instructional tool of choice, forcing students to take notes and to
listen carefully”. (Hayes, 2006)

To what is this true in your school, college or university? Is it due to ignorance

or just apathy? If it is due to a lack of knowledge as to what is available, educators
need to be able to identify models and methods that will meet the needs of their
students and the subject taught. However, it should be admitted that no teaching
method can accomplish all the objectives of learning.
 Hence, there is need to master a sufficient repertoire of methods to deal with
specific kinds of learning desired. For example, some methods are especially useful
for presenting a body of information to a large group of students while other methods
are useful in developing problem solving skills of learners. Many books have been
written on teaching methods. Most of the teaching methods may be classified as
spanning a continuum from Teacher-Centred Methods to Learner-Centred Methods
(see Figure 1.1 below).

TEACHER- STUDENT-
CENTRED CENTRED

Lecture Inquiry Collaborative Role-Playing Problem-

Method method methods Simulation Based
Learning
Inductive
teaching

Figure 1.1. Teacher-Centred and Student-Centred Continuum

On one end of the continuum is the Teacher-Centred Approach in which

information is presented didactically and learners are passive recipients of
information. The role of the teacher is that of an instructor or lecturer. On the other
end of the continuum is the Student-Centred Approach in which learners actively
participate in the teaching-learning process. The learning environment is highly
interactive with the teacher taking the role of a facilitator. Between the two extremes
of the continuum are numerous teaching methods depending on whether they are
leaning more towards a teacher-centred approach or a student-centred approach. For
example, the lecture method would be categorised more as a teacher-centred approach
while teaching using role-playing would be categorised more as a learner-centred
approach. It should be acknowledge, besides the two extremes, it is sometimes
difficult to place a particular method as being more student-centred compared to
another method.
Where would you put teaching in Malaysian schools or colleges on this
continuum? Are teaching methods in most schools and colleges more ‗teacher-
centred‘? Is teaching in our schools the same as when you were in school? Has
teaching become so exciting and interesting to the extent that students just cannot wait
to go to school!

a) The Teacher-Centred Classroom

It can be stated that teacher-centred classrooms are traditional where the teacher takes
centre stage for most of the time. Bickford, Tharp, McFarling, and Beglau, (2002),
discussed the teacher – centred classroom from three important aspects, namely (i)
teacher practices, (ii) student activities, and (iii) lesson tasks.
  Teacher Practices: The
content of the lesson and
the pace of the lesson are
controlled solely by the
teacher. This determines
the knowledge that is
available to the students.
The imparting of
knowledge is structured
tightly and the tasks that the
students need to do (if any)
are highly sequenced and
disciplined. Usually in the
teacher-centred classroom, no interdisciplinary discussion of knowledge takes
place. For example, a mathematics teacher teachers content in figures only,
and will not point out the mathematics principles found in plants.

 Student Activities: In a teacher – centred classroom, students are passive. Any

questions or activities given to them will have a ‗right answer‘. In such
classrooms, opportunities for inquiry and discovery cannot be found and the
students will resort to rote learning in order to try and understand what they
are being taught. The teacher is the ultimate source of knowledge.

 Lesson Tasks: The teacher controls the questions, activities or tasks during the
lesson. Usually the textbook is the main source of exercises given in the
classroom. The main aim of such activities is to prepare the students to face
examinations and not aimed at in-depth understanding and internalisation of
the content.

b) The Student-Centred Classroom

The teacher practices, student activities and lesson tasks of a student – centred
facilitated classroom is described as below.
 Teacher Practices: In a student
centred facilitated classroom,
higher order comprehension of
the subject matter is stressed.
The lessons and learning tasks
are planned and implemented
carefully with student
involvement. The teacher uses
various methods to impart
knowledge such as games,
puzzles, field-trips and such.

 Student Activities: As the

activities and the tasks are
prepared by the teacher, the students have to work within this boundary in
student centred facilitated classroom. Bickford et al. (2002) called this
‗bounded autonomy‘. Within the boundaries of the teacher set tasks, the
 student feels empowered to carry out investigations to complete the task as
they see fit. Collaboration between students and students and teacher and
students will occur.

 Lesson Tasks: The aims and objectives of the lessons are determined by the
teacher. These objectives are embedded within carefully thought of tasks. The
content to be delivered is embedded within the tasks and activities. The
teacher will design the tasks so that the student is responsible for their own
learning with a lot of interaction with the teacher.

1.2 ACTIVITY

Imagine the following:-

As you enter a classroom (be it a language, science, or a mathematics class) you

note that the teacher begins the class with what‘s important and critical for the
lesson. Then you hear the students talking to the teacher about how they are
going to understand the critical aspects of the lesson. You also hear the students
telling the teachers about their action plans for the lesson. You hear the
students talking to each other about how to understand the importance of the
lesson. You hear students asking the teacher for assistance in achieving the
goals of the lesson. At the end of the class you hear students and teachers
evaluating what and how the goals of the lesson that has been achieved. During
the discussions you note the flexibility of the content which is in-depth and at
times interdisciplinary.

Throughout the lesson you feel the synergy among the students and the teacher
in the class. You feel a sense of a ‗learning community‘ in the class. You feel
that there is a shared accountability towards achieving the lesson goals. You
feel that there is an air of excitement in the class. Students and teacher show
respect for the varied talents, competencies and perspectives in the class. It is
clear to you that the students experience the knowledge that they are learning
(Cedar Rapids Community Schools, 2007, & Teacher Vision,2007).

What is your perception of the above lesson?

Teacher centred / Student centred (Choose one) – Explain your answer
 1.3 ACTIVITY

Imagine the following:-

As you enter another classroom, you notice that the teacher talks about the
objectives of the lesson and enters straight into the presentation of the content.
The students do not talk, only listen and some take down notes. The students
ask the occasional question to which they receive standard textbook answers
and the teacher quickly carries on, in order to finish the lesson content. The
students have no opportunity to talk to each other. You hear the content covered
in breadth but the depth of understanding acquired by the students cannot be
evaluated. At the end of the lesson, the teacher rounds up, by summarizing the
main points.

Throughout the lesson you feel the lethargy and a certain amount of confusion
among the students in the class. You feel a sense of a authority in the class. You
feel that there is a main person who states the necessary content in a structured
manner towards achieving the lesson goals. You feel that there is silence in the
class – with minds that may be wondering. You feel that the teacher has one
plan that fits all and some students are feeling left out. It is clear to you that the
students memorize the knowledge that they are learning

What is your perception of the above lesson?

Teacher centred / Student centred (Choose one) – Explain your answer
1.3 Characteristics of Good or Effective Teachers

All of us have been taught by ‗good‘ and ‗bad‘ teachers? ‗Good‘ or ‗bad‘ has
been determined by us. What is your definition of a ‗good‘ or ‗effective‘ teacher?
There is has been much research attempting to determine the characteristics of a
‗good‘ or ‗effective‘ teacher. There has some convergence of the available research
data pertaining to this question over the last two decades (Brophy, 2001; Hay McBer,
2000; Scheerens, 2003). Teacher characteristics are relatively stable traits that are
related to, and influence, the way teachers practice their profession.
Hay McBer (2000) identified a set of 12 characteristics of good or effective
teachers based on large-scale study conducted in the United Kingdom. These
characteristics are organised into Four ‗clusters‘: Professionalism,
Thinking/Reasoning, Expectations and Leadership (see Table 1.1).

CLUSTER CHARACTETISTIC DESCRPIPTION

PROFESSIONALISM Commitment Commitment to doing
everything possible for each
student and enabling all students
to be successful
Confidence Belief in one‘s ability to be
effective and to take on
challenges
Confidence Belief in one‘s ability to be
effective and to take on
challenges
Trustworthiness Being consistent and fair;
keeping one‘s word
Respect Belief that all individuals matter
and deserve respect
THINKING/ Analytical Thinking Ability to think logically; break
REASONING things down, and recognise
cause and effect
Conceptual Thinking Ability to identify patterns and
connections, even when a great
deal of detail is present
EXPECTATIONS Drive for Relentless energy for setting and
Improvement meeting challenging targets, for
students and the school
Information Seeking Drive to find out more and get
to the heart of things;
intellectual curiosity
Initiative Drive to act now to anticipate
and pre-empt events
LEADERSHIP Flexibility Ability and willingness to adapt
to the needs of a situation and
change tactics
Accountability Drive and ability to set clear
 expectations and parameter and
hold other accountable for
performance
Passion for Learning Drive and ability to support
students in their learning, and to
help them become confident and
independent learners

Table 1.1 Characteristics of Effective Teachers

1.4 ACTIVITY
 a) Comment on the list of characteristics of effective
 teachers. Do you agree with the list?
 b) List other characteristics that you think should be
 included to describe an effective teacher.

Good teaching is all about putting your heart and soul into planning a superb
lesson that will engage students from the beginning to the end. Good teaching will
have the teacher thinking about the simple aspect of the arrangement of chairs in the
classroom to more complex issues of touching the young minds that are waiting to be
inspired to learn. Good teaching requires teachers to be entertaining as well as
humorous. Teachers must also demonstrate caring and nurturing behaviour. In short,
teaching is about wanting students to learn and learn well. The following is another
list of characteristics of habits of effective or good teachers.

Habit 1: Good Teachers Have a Deep Knowledge of Subject Matter

 The teacher is the guardian for learning in the classroom environment. If the
teacher goes in unprepared, unwilling to share, unfocussed on the process of
developing a context that will encourage and stimulate an interest and a thirst for
further knowledge then the teacher is shirking the responsibility of being a teacher.
Survey after survey shows that deep knowledge of the subject matter is the most
important factor in students' evaluation of their teacher's teaching. Students can easily
spot an unprepared teacher. Teachers may be a little rusty or less familiar with
concepts the first few times a new subject is taught; theyshould do a lot more
homework

Habit 2: Good Teachers Engage their Students in the Teaching-

Learning Process

Teaching is far more than simply transferring information, it is the

ENGAGING OF MINDS to seek out answers. Strong, Silver & Robinson (1995)
put forward the acronym SCORE to suggest a model of student engagement as
follows:

 S: The SUCEESS of mastery of the subject that you teach.

 C: The CURIOISTY that every teacher should have entrenched in
their teaching. A teacher who is not curious has lost a critical portion
of the passion for learning.
 O: ORIGINALITY – a teacher who is passionate about the
teaching process will be creative; will be constantly seeking new
ways of engaging and challenging students.
 R: RELATIONSHIPS are central to the effective classroom and
teachers are crucial in the nurturing of opportunities for students to
engage with subjects that at senior levels can lead to a life-long
interaction with the subject.
 E: To maintain this process the teacher needs ENERGY. This a
something that schools do not always provide, and teachers in general
need the time to reflect; to re-energise and to regenerate their focus
on the learning process. It is an essential ingredient in the effective
classroom that is too often ignored.

In essence a teacher who brings a passion for teaching to the subject, and takes
responsibility for the creation of an environment that allows for the sharing and
enjoyment of that knowledge, will be creating an effective learning climate.

Habit 3: Good Teachers Use a Variety of Instructional Approaches

Good teachers are not constrained by the belief that there is one best way. They
extend their range of instructional approaches based on a foundation of research and
dare to take risks. They use a variety of methods that make the material more
concrete. Use physical analogies, do demonstrations in class, relate concepts to real-
world situations, encourage teamwork. ―They try anything that can knock on a new
door in students' minds‖.

Habit 4: Good Teachers Understanding the Instructional Cycle.

You begin the instructional cycle by assessing individual student learning needs,
interests, and strengths through observation and consultation with learners. Then you
determine the instructional approaches required, deliver instruction in a manner
appropriate to the students' learning abilities and styles, and evaluate student growth-
and understanding. The cycle concludes with teacher self-reflection and further
teacher-student consultation.

Habit 5: Good Teachers

Monitor Student Progress and
Provide Feedback
Reinforcement has a powerful effect
on learning; especially among
academically weak students from low
socio-economic backgrounds.
Monitoring performance and providing
corrective feedback reinforces
achievement. Feedback helps students
assess what and how much they know,
and is more effective when given immediately, non-judgementally and is task related

Habit 6: Good Teachers Construct Valid Tests

Good teachers construct valid tests; that is, tests that accurately measure what you
think you are measuring.
 Don't ask students a question that only three students in the last 10 years have
been able to answer satisfactorily. Give them the satisfaction of showing you
what they can do.
 Don't give students a test that is so long that only the quick ones can finish it.
If you think that your students should be able to work very rapidly, without
making mistakes in judgment or calculations, ask yourself why. When are they
going to have to work that quickly on a job?
 Examine the test grades. If your class average is 45, you may have constructed
a lousy test—either it didn't reflect the course material, was too long, or was
unfair for most of the students. After scoring exams, you may try to reassure
students by telling them that you'll curve the grades, but I don't think that
makes most of them feel any better. The high-scoring students who made 60
or so won't be happy; the average student with 45 points may think, "I worked
hard and still missed more than half the questions!"
 Include a question on the test that separates the real thinkers from the pack, a
question that requires thinking at the analysis or synthesis level.

Habit 7: Good Teachers Manage Time Effectively

The quantity of time or ‗time-on-task‘ actually spent in a learning process per
class meeting has been positively correlated to achievement. BUT, More Time does
NOT AUTOMATICALLY mean More Achievement. It depends on how well the
time is used. Students learn to the extent that they have the opportunity to be actively
engaged in learning.
Good teachers know that improvements in learning can be realised by
maximizing time-on-task without increasing instruction time. This is enabled with
other teacher interactions such as reinforcement, feedback, a positive learning
environment, and supported with organized well-designed instructional materials.

Habit 8: Good Teachers Respect their Students

Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "The secret of education lies in respecting the pupil." The
good teachers respects students by encouraging them to ask questions and express
opinions. If students are asking questions, at least they are thinking. Good teachers do
not respond to questions such as; "You should already know that—I'm not going to
bother to answer." If a student receives a civil answer to a question, then others may
muster the courage to ask about something else; which may lead to a very productive
discussion in the class.

Habit 9: Good Teachers Know How to Pace their Teaching and Prior
Knowledge of Learners
Pacing is the speed with which students move through material to be learns, as
well as how fast it is presented. Low achievers sometimes fail to learn simply because
the pacing is too fast. They cannot sufficiently process the information, and thus
negatively impacts their own perception of their learning competency and motivation
for learning. However, higher achievers need a faster pace for learning or they will
become bored and unmotivated. Good teachers know how to adapt pacing to the
needs of learners and the cognitive complexity of the information taught. They also
alter instructional techniques with short teacher presentations, interspersed with
practice and review to maintain instructional momentum and reduce wasted time.
Good teachers make a concerted effort to tie new learning to prior learning.
When prior learning is accessed, space is freed in working memory. Then there is
space for comprehension, application and problem-solving.

Habit 10: Good Teachers Teach Students Problem-Solving Skills

Good teachers do not teach these skills by showing them only how but rather
giving students a problem and then providing immediate feedback about how they
did. Students are given the opportunity to practice the underlying strategies. Students
know a lot, but most don't know how to apply their knowledge to solve problems
different from those they have seen before.
Good teachers use many techniques for teaching problem-solving skills—most
involving groups of students, such as pairs problem solving and other cooperative
learning methods. Though the techniques require more time than conventional
teaching methods, teaching students how to think might
be more important than teaching them more "stuff."

Habit 11: Good Teachers Use Humour

Good teacher use humour that was in keeping with the
individual learning styles of learners. Justifications for
the use of humour include the promotion of
understanding, holding the attention of students,
managing disruptive behaviour, creating a positive attitude to the subject matter, and
reducing anxiety. However, good teachers are also careful not to overuse humour

1.5 ACTIVITY
 a) Comment on the list of 10 Habits an of effective
 teacher. Do you agree with the list?
 b) List other habits that you think should be included to
 describe an effective teacher.

1.4 What is the Role of Teachers in Student Learning?

For many years, educators and researcher have debated over which factors
influence student achievement. A growing body of evidence suggests that schools can
make a difference in terms of student achievement, and a substantial portion of that
difference is attributable to TEACHERS. Specifically, differential teacher
effectiveness is a strong determinant in student learning, far outweighing the effects
of differences in class size and learner differences (Darling-Hammond, 2000).
Students who are assigned to one ineffective teacher after another have significantly
lower achievement and learning than those who are assigned to a sequence of several
highly effective teachers (Sanders & Rivers, 1996). Thus, the impact of teacher
effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) seems to be additive and cumulative.
Teachers and the instruction they give their student are only two of a complex
set of factors that have an impact on student learning. One of the fundamental truths
in education is that the knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes and values with which
students leave school or a particular teacher‘s classroom are influenced to a great
extent by the knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes and values that students possessed
when they entered the school or classroom.
In addition, the knowledge, skills, aptitudes, attitudes and values that students
possessed when they enter a school or classroom are the result of some intricate and
complex combination of their genetic composition and the environment to which they
have been exposed in their homes (Anderson, 2004).
In addition to these genetic and
environmental factors which are beyond the
control of any teacher, teachers are
powerless in terms of making learning
occur; they simply cannot open up the tops
of their students‘ heads and pour in the
desired learning. The stimulus-response
theory has long been dismissed as a viable
theory for understanding the link between
teaching and learning; i.e. teachers teach
(stimulus) and students learn (response).
 As Ralph Tyler (1949) pointed out more than half a century ago, learning
depends on the activities of the student.
 Students learn according to what they do, not according to what their
teacher does;
 Student either pay attention or they do not;
 Students either construct their knowledge consistently with the teacher‘s
intended construction of knowledge, or they do not.

Students have complete veto power to do or not to do. Teachers can neither
make students pay attention, nor can they construct meaning for them. SO WHAT
CAN TEACHER DO? WHAT EXACTLY IS THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN
STUDENT LEARNING? Teachers must create conditions that reduce the likelihood
that students will use their veto power and increase the probability that students will
put forth the time and effort needed to learn what their teachers intend them to learn.
―I give up‖. Some educators may throw up their hands and suggest that any
attempt to improve teacher effectiveness is therefore futile. After all, if the genetic
composition, home background and prior schooling experiences of students account
for more than the schools which they attend and the teachers they encounter. If a
standard set of behaviours, methods, techniques and practices that will lead to more
effective teaching cannot be identified, then why bother inquiring about increasing
teacher effectiveness?. Don‘t despair, there is a counter argument as to how teaching
influences student learning and they are as follows: (Anderson, 2004).
 First, when looked at over extended periods of time (i.e. more than a week,
month, semester or year), teachers can and do have a tremendous impact on
the learning of their students. One of the most obvious impacts of schooling on
student learning is the dramatic increase in differences in student achievement
as shown in examinations and tests. It is important to understand what is it
about differences in teacher effectiveness that produce such remarkable
differences in student learning.
 Second, there is ample anecdotal evidence that individual teachers can (and
do) have profound effects on individual students. Most people can think back
to their school days and recall one or more teachers who made a real
difference in their lives. Because of one particular teacher, a complex idea was
understood, a special interest in a particular subject area was developed, or a
desire to pursue a certain career was cultivated. There can be no doubt that
these teachers were effective. It is important to understand what it is about
such teachers that makes them effective.
 Third, whether teachers have an impact on student learning depends not only
teachers possessing the knowledge and skills needed to facilitate student
learning, but also their knowing when to use that knowledge and those skills to
achieve the goals they establish or accept for their students. Generally, the
effective teacher (discussed earlier) are likely to enhance student learning than
an ineffective teacher. Hence, the task is to understand how teachers and the
schools in which they work can be helped to become more effective.
 1.6 ACTIVITY
 a) Do teachers influence student learning? Discuss
 b) Describe how you as an educator have impacted
 student learning?
 c) Besides academic achievement, in what other ways have
you influenced students you have taught?

SUMMARY

 Teachers are born, not made.

 Teachers need to master a sufficient repertoire of methods to deal with specific
kinds of learning desired.
 Teacher-centred approach focuses on the teacher, with the teacher controlling
and deciding what is to be taught.
 Student-centred approach focuses on the learner, with the teacher and learner
deciding what is taught.
 Students actively engage in the learning in methods and strategies which are
student-centred.
 Hay McBer identified 12 characteristics of effective teachers grouped
according to: Professionalism, Thinking/Reasoning, Expectations &
Leadership.
 Ten habits of good or effective teachers:
o Knowledge of subject matter
o Engage students
o Variety of instructional techniques
o Respect of students
o Pacing
o Monitor and feedback
o Manage time
o Valid tests
o Problem-solving
o Humour
 Teachers influence students in enhancing academic achievement, their
decisions about life and when to use knowledge and skills.
KEY TERMS

Teaching Teacher-centred teaching Effective teaching

Teaching profession Student-centred teaching Lecture method
Problem-based learning Role-playing Lesson tasks

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