TOM

Vibration
• Torsional pendulum is used to determine mass moment of inertia of pendulum.
• In viscous damping , Drag force is directly proportional to relative velocity .
• Longitudinal : Parallel axis
• When the roots are real, overdamping takes place and When the roots are complex conjugate
underdamping takes place.
•
Slider crank mechanism
• acceleration of the piston : ω2 r (cos θ + cos 2θ / n)
• Piston effort (FP) : Fg – F1 + FF + WR
• Thrust in connecting rod (FQ) : FP/cos Φ
• Tangential force on crank shaft (FT) : FQ sin (θ + Φ)
• Radial force along crank shaft (FR) : FQ cos (θ + Φ)
• angular velocity of connecting rod :  (ω cos θ) / n 

Flywheel
• In vehicles, flywheel is placed in between Engine and clutch.
• Split flywheel is made to avoid cooling stresses.
• If the load on the engine is constant, the mean speed will be constant from the cycle, then the
governor will not operate but flywheel will be acting.
• Two stroke engine, work done/cycle is 2πTm
• four stroke engine, work done/cycle is 4πTm

• The coefficient of fluctuation of energy = Maximum fluctuation of energy (Iw^2Cs)/ work done
per cycle(Tmean × θ)
• Area of the turning moment diagram represents work done per revolution.
• When engine torque is less than mean resisting torque, then the flywheel retardation and vice
versa.
• In 4 stroke , One power stroke per 2 revolutions of crank shaft hence its turning moment is
not uniform so heavier flywheel is needed. work produced is less.
• In 2 stroke , One power stroke per 1 revolutions of crank shaft hence its turning moment is
uniform so lighter flywheel is needed.
• When the work is done on the gases, the pressure inside the cylinder decreases and has a
value lower than the atmospheric pressure, as a result a negative loop is formed.
• When the work is done by the gases, the pressure inside the cylinder increases and has a
value higher than the atmospheric pressure, as a result a positive loop is formed.
• In order to reduce the heavy weight of the flywheel used gears because The mass of the
flywheel depends on the velocity at which it rotates, the velocity can be moderated by
installing a set of gears. This results in reduction of mass of flywheel.
• In multicylinder engine the coefficient of fluctuation depends only on the speed of the engine
and is unaffected by the no. of cylinders.

Gears
• Norton gear provide an arithmetic series of feed steps suitable for cutting threads
• Epicyclic gear train with bevel gears used in Humpage Gear Box.
•

Clutches
• Multiple clutch known as wet clutch.
• In centrifugal clutches, when is the contact between shoe friction lining and surface of drum
observed When centrifugal force is equal to spring force
• Friction clutches give negative engagement
• Square shaped jaws in jaw clutch are driven in both direction
• Spiral shaped jaws in jaw clutch are driven in one direction

Friction
• law of friction depends on nature of surface and perpendicular force.

Unbalanced System
• Correction couple Tc = ml1(l3 - l2)α
• Difference between torque required to accelerate non dynamically equivalent system and
dynamically equivalent system others
• Trifilar suspension system is used to determine mass moment of inertia of disc and flywheel.
• In a locomotive, the effect of “hammer blow” can be reduced by decreasing the speed and
having pairs of wheels coupled together
• The primary unbalanced force is maximum, when θ = 0° or 180°. Thus, the primary force is
maximum twice in one revolution of the crank.
• The secondary unbalanced force is maximum, when θ = 0°, 90°,180° and 360°. Thus, the
secondary force is maximum four times in one revolution of the crank. Keeping large distance
between connecting rod and crank, minimises the effect of secondary forces.
• The swaying couple is due to the primary unbalanced force.
• The effect of an unbalanced primary force along the line of stroke is to produce Swaying
couple.
• This couple has swaying effect about a vertical axis.
•  In a locomotive, the maximum magnitude of the unbalanced force along the perpendicular to
the line of stroke, is known as hammer blow. caused by the variation in pressure on the rails
due to unbalanced forces.
• The resultant unbalanced force due to the two cylinders, along the line of stroke, is known as
tractive force. The value of tractive force depends on the angle of the crank.
Mechanism
• Cam and follower is an example of
1. force closed pair
2. unclosed pair
3. open pairs

• Closed pair : Pairs hold geometrically

• Open pair : Pair hold mechanically
1. Leave screw and nut  
Higher pair : Point / line contact: relative motion is combination of sliding and turning motion :
Belt and pulley 
Chain and rope drive
Ball and bearing
Gear and pinion

Lower pair : surface contact

Turning pair              
Screw pair
Piston and cylinder
Ball and socket
Shaft revolving in bearing
Universal joint
Gyroscope
Pantogragh : 4 links
Valve and valve gear

• Cross head has sliding motion

• Scotch yoke mechanisms is used to generate sine function.
• Lower pair : surface contact : closed pair
• I = 2P - 4 , P = 2L + 2 ,
•
Brakes
• Self energizing effect:
It occurs when frictional force adds to the breaking torque. In other words, the frictional torque
and braking torque are in the same direction
Rn = PL/(X-μa)
Rn x X = PL + μaRn
Where PL is braking torque and μaRn is the frictional torque.
• Self Locking effect
It occurs when brake gets applied on its own.
Rn = PL/(X-μa)
P = R(X-μa)/L
When X < μa, P becomes negative
Hence, P is not required for braking and brake gets applied on its own.

Cam and followers

• Uniform Velocity
1.
• Uniform acceleration
1.
• SHM
1. Moderate speed
• Cyclical
1. High speed
• Minimize undercutting in cam and follower mechanism By using internal cams
• Conjugate cam does not require any external force to have contact between cam and follower
• following equation is used to measure pressure angle between direction of follower motion
and force exerted by the cam on follower when eccentricity is zero :. tan Φ = (dy /dθ) / ( rb + y)
• Maximum value of pressure angle of cam is 30.
•

Gyroscope
• Gyroscopic effect is not observed during Rolling
• Degree of freedom for gyroscope rotor is 3
• Pitching effect is most dangerous among all Gyroscopic effect .
• The pitching of a ship is assumed to take place with simple harmonic motion.
• Pitching of ship up and down motion of bow and stern along transverse axis as a longitudinal
oscillatory motion which is further assumed to be Simple Harmonic Motion.
• In an automobile, if the vehicle makes a left turn, the gyroscopic torque increases the forces
on the outer wheels.
• The pitching effect of a naval-ship produces force(s) on bearings.
• αmax = Φ(ω1)^2
• The longitudinal axis is known as the axis of precession as it is along the direction of the
acting force, about which the precession occurs.
• The axis of precession is parallel to the axis of spin during rolling for all positions, if this
 condition is not met then there can be other effects like pitching which can occur.

Dynamometer
• Rope brake dynamometer uses no lubricant
• The most commonly used dynamometer for tests in the laboratory is Prony brake
dynamometer
• dynamometer is used for power measurement when the speed is high and the ,viscous force
is small Tesla fluid friction dynamometer.
• For large ranges of power and speed and for accurate measurement of the power, used
Froude water vortex dynamometer
• Hydraulic dynamometer is widely used for absorption of wide range of powers at wide range
of speeds.
• Measuring powers of machines having high speed and comparatively low outputs used
Electric generator dynamometer.
• Dynamometer is used when it is desired to measure the large powers of the steam turbine
propelling the naval ship Torsion dynamometer.
Governors
• Watt Governor gives satisfactorily at speed 60-80 rpm.
• Governor is used to limit vehicle speed.
• In Hartnell Governor , Stiffness of spring is high then governor will be less sensitive .
• Lift is more then sensitivity also more
• for a given lift of the sleeve, the sensitiveness of the governor increases as the speed range
decreases.
• Sensitivity of Governor is increases as speed range decreases.
• Effort of Governor is mean force exerted at the sleeve for given % change of speed.
• Unstable Governor is stable by decreasing the spring stiffness.
• Hunting : too sensitive
• Isochronous : infinitely sensitive
• Isochronism in a governor is desirable when one speed is desired under one load
• The isochronous governor is not of practical use because the sleeve will move to one of its
extreme positions immediately the speed deviates from the isochronous speed.
• A governor is said to be isochronous when the equilibrium speed is constant (i.e. range of
speed is zero) for all radii of rotation of the balls within the working range, neglecting friction.
The isochronism is the stage of infinite sensitivity.
• When the sleeve of a porter governor moves upwards, the governor speed increases and
when the sleeve moves downwards, the governor speed decreases.
• A Porter governor can not be isochronous
• Stiffness : h = (r1 – r2)y/x. s = S2 – S1/h
• A governor is said to be unstable, if the radius of rotation decreases as the speed increases.
And vice versa.
• The effort of a governor is the mean force exerted at the sleeve for a given percentage change
of speed (or lift of the sleeve).
•

Last modified: 4 Jun 2020