1 sentence that vampteraents the eeel slrwene je, w plirase Canto! sar alone following sentence: is a plirase, ay ay sentence. A phrase hicks hotly the sult aind the ubject, Uh The uterine group of w vive complete nie Example: F saw an orphan inthe street “The group of words is rlated to wach other but cannot stand alone, ‘This means itis not a complete thought + A phrase will not contin nly have one, so if you see both, it is not a phrase. subject and» verb, It will wtfon of a phrase mits function in a sentence, jective, a prepos! A plluase ean at ay a preposition asentence. Depending t depends upon its enti phrases are divided into sentence is called « Noun Phrase, It contains # noun another s anil modifiers) which modify the noun, nd other rekited words (determiners and noun ina sentenee. phrase comprises of a nown as a head-word modifiers) may come before or alter the noun. ‘The entire phrase serves as Noun Phrase = noun | modifiers (or unpl & They hired « huge beautiful hy object) > She bough black (as noun: object) > A woman in the window shouted for help. (as noun: subject) ibject) Que of our close relatives never drinks coflee. (as now A phrase comprising a_prepo ion and object of preposition (noan or pronoun) is called a prepositional phrase. It x ‘0 contain other modifiers, pear a wall, on at table, in the room, under # tree,...6le, eat. Prepositional phrase ha juin Which called the object of prepositionExamples: ‘The kids were laughing atthe joker. ‘The twacher looked atthe white-bowrd, He always speaks in.a loud volve. He drives the car in ahigh speed. yryry Adjective Phrase: A phrase that acts likes an adjective it i Sivenae wrase that wets likes an adjective in a sentence is cltel HERES phrase, Like an adjective it siouiles (adds to meaning of) @ noun oF @ pronoun: Tt comprises of adjectives, MOSS and other words modifying the noun or pronoun. Examples: > A kid on the roofs looking at the sky. (modifies noun: kid) % ‘The boy intheshan my fiend, (modifies noun: boy) se Jady with long hair is walking in the garden, (modifies noun: dy), She gave mea cup fullof ten. {odilies noun: €UP) Adverb Phrase: A phase that acts like an adjective in a sentence i called adverb phrtse, Like an ave, it qodifies a verb or other adverb in the sentence, It contains a ‘adverb and other words (1. now, preposition, modifiers) which, as a whole, wet as an adver phrase. Examples: > Me drives a car ina very high speed. (modifies verb: drive) } She always speaks in a respectfai way. {modifies verb: spel) } Shanta weleomed the girl inanice way. {inodifies verb : welconte) } Me stayed at class for a few hours. (anoulifies vert: stay) Verb Phrase: ‘A verb plirase is the group of main verbs and helping-verbs(auxiiaris) within n senkenee- Examples: } Shanta is writing a letter. > He hast anual exam. ¥ ¥ Students mus! reach in time for the class. ‘They ha inInfinitive P er ralated of verb) and moditiers oF ol ‘always acts as a noun, an slic ‘An infinitive phase contains an infinitive (Wo + base for words linked to the infin'ive. An intinitive phrase will adverb int the wentene ples: > Lenjoy wodrive (us noun) > ‘Tozet success in exam is an ambition of every stuclent. {as noun) is udjective modifying noun: plan) } Goverament mitde a plan to help the poor ( > Shanta sang a song to please the auctience. ing) (as adverb modifying verb: Gerund Phrase: A gerund phrase is 9 group ofa gerund (verb + ing), modifiers and other related words linked to the gerund. A gerund phrase functions as a noun in the sentence. Exampl > Jenjoy Jistening to the music, (as noun/as object) > He started writing the letter. (as noun as object) } Walking in the sun affeets the complexion ofa person. (as nown/as subject) > Crying of ababy disturbed me alot. (@s noun/as subject) Participle Phrase: A participle phrase is a group of a present-participle (verb + ing) or past-participle verb, modifiers and other linked words. A participle phrase is punctuated with a comma or commas. Ht tinodliying wou) Taannioness adje always wets as Lxample: need extra page. (modifies nou aboutherexam, (modifies noun: ooks very beautiful, (modifies noun: > ‘The staden > Shanta got > The ebair, Absolute Phrase: Absolute phe alled a nominative phrase. It consists of a noun or a pronoun, a participle and linked modifiers. It modifies(lels more abou!) the senience, It looks Tike a clause it lacks (rue finite verb, Itis separated by a gonuna ina sentence, us also ples:Shanta is looking very lappy, her face expressing shing Of happitiess He, having books in his hand, was yoing to wiv He, having anger in his eyes, met his enemy sity vyy Appositive Phrase: ¢ phrase is one that restates a preceding or expands or ec! parenthetical statement. There are three variations of apposifive phir Her dog, « bull mnasttt, fooks ridiculous with a pink bow stuck to her head” features noun plirase. “Ilis favorise hobby, knitting, is rather unusual for a nian’ includes a gerund phrase. “The Tahitian's 4 ambition, (o become an ice skater, is unexpected” has an iulinitive phrase Note that these three types of phrases are explained below; the clistinetion in the phrase types as applied above, as opposed to the types deseribed below, is that cach type serves as the bass for {un appositive phense; on their own, they need not be appositive, or set ol. Clause What is a clause? In its simplest form, a clause in grammar isa subject plus a verb. The subject is the entity “doing” the action of the sentence and the verb is the tion that subject completes, A clause creates a complete thought (an iden or a statement that can stand alone), ‘A complete thonght is also called a main clwuse or inlepenctent elise (1C)- Examples of clauses: + Subject -+ verb, = complete thought (IC) + Leal. = complete thought (IC) © Sharon speaks. = complete thought (IC) ‘A clause may include the vexb prodicate as Well, Bul, iL must include atleast the subject and verb to be considered a clause. xamiples of elausest + Subject + verb (predicate), = complete though! (IC) + Teat bananas, = complete thought (IC) 2 Sharon speaks loudly. = complete thought (IC) It should be noted, 0, that a clause in a sentence is lfferent from a phrase in that it must contain a subject and a verb, pal Clause: ‘An independent clause is se thal can sk mntence, There is a subject, verb, and complete thought Independent or? dhalone, You can think of (his as a simple For example:oboe passed tie Dall a Mere i wea subject, Juhi verb, passed; anda complet thea, the bath eeitions malevnc a i aye ATot damit stant alone: it heyrends on another claus to nuke a ass. Me CON LeCORHAZE A dependent elute by Wise Ho starts with w subordinate conjunc ion Asub dinate conjunction is a wort that joins ideas together and shows the rulationship bstwyeen itoas Some of the subordinate conjunctions that you may already know are because, ‘although, where, andl ‘afer. Subordinate vonjunctions may represent time, cause and effect, and contrast. > "The fight ha Bono out of our tives" Jawaharlal Nehru > “Thavo a dream" Martin Lather King dre » “The w Maha Never forgi ma Gandhi These clauses: need any other ge sitid to be. independent because they are sufficient the way they are. They don’t ‘oun of words to depend upon, They can stand on their own, > ‘The light that shone In this country ® You can team grammar feely here, if you read these pages. > Weare declaring to you what ye Was no ordinary light. have seen, In the last three sentences above, the dependent clauses are highlighted. Dependent or Subordinate Chiu A dependent or subordinate cluise depends on an independent clause to express its Cull meaning (as in “Because | love granwar.”). These clauses begin with a dependent worl, like a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, nt causes can function as nouas, adjectives, and adverbs: Noun clause definition: A noun claus. sentence. A noun clause will always ¢ a complete thought. is a type of dependent clause that acts as a noun in the tain a subject and a verb, However, it cannot stand alone wunple of Noun Clan + Lremember what you said yesterday, Here, the underlined portion is the independent clause that can stand alone. The italicized words, “what you said yesterday,” serve as a dependent noun clause, ‘The noun clause is acting as the object of the senten plus a vorb, This creates the clase (a subject plus 9 cannot stand alone and therefore must be paired wit In the noun clause “you sail" is a subject verb). However, “what you said yesterday” independent clause, Additional noun clause examples:+L thought what she wore was so chic. [ Whorrever you confide in is a person you can trust boy wondered if his parents bought himvshat he wanted for Christa» Noun Clause - "The Fiyelioniy: as a seibjct, object, o Conpleng nt noun clase can replace any noun in a sentence, ve in the sentence, ay not stand tlone ag 4 clive clause is a type of dependent clause ais. An adjes Jependent ays contain a subject and a verb. Howe adjective clause will complete thought. cee ; ctive clause wil always begin with one of the following words: An adj Relative Pronouns List: © that + where « who + whom + which Relative Adverbs List: * when © where + why : example of Adjective Clause: “The bay who you saw at the store committed ‘The adjective clause is acting as an adjective in thi he adjective clause describe boy. It contains a subject and a verb, “you saw.” However, it eannol stand alone as a comple” thought. “Who you saw at the robbery” is not a complete statement, aid Wen Additional adjective clause examples: = ‘The store that the boy robbed is on the corner. + The corner of the street where my family lives i rrouncled by investigators, Adjective Clause (or relative clause) - "I listened to the song thal you told me about." A jective elause describes 1 now just like an adjective, Which song? The new song, the good wong, the song that you fold me about, Ofien called relative clauses, they're ethe restrictive or nonvestritive (also called defining andl non-cefining, essontin} and concent integrated and supplementary): - Or > Restrictive Clause - “The building that they built in San Francisco sold for a lot of money." A restrictive clause begins with a relative pronoun like that or who (or sometimes which -- see Which Versus That). It specifics or restricts the nouns in this catse, il spveifies which building the speaker is referring to. Note: the relative, pocifies which bu spea yo. clative pronoun often omitted ("The building (that) they built"), keaving wt an eit tex nt is ca ’ often amited ("7 ik Wlint is called an elliptical clause > Now rietive Claus “The building, which they buill In San Francisco, sold for a tot of money.” A nonrestrictive elawse bens with a relative oon like which or wh, t x(ra information about an already-specilic nowy; in this ease, there's only ongbutding te r punting to talk ubuat shucteas the eaannple for the peste lies that thers could be several buildings, Ww Lestiychye ebatnd anphes that there Non Restuctve © It does got cesitict or Vii wie ton is just the opposite of the Restrictive sttiet oF «wou "yaa Q ’ clive Clause, 1 ix just init the noun it modifies and is set off by commas unlike the at xiver un adtditionat information whieh is not so essential to the sentence, and this even removi , emoving or dcleting Resist i ara iois weuiene 15 oF deleting the Non Kestrietive Clause will not cause nmuch Ren Example: : 4 - y wet to the muscu with Sam, who lives next door. . My sister, who is an excellent dancer, is moving to London. In both the above sentence the el dn poslid OVE sentence the cluusey even if removed will not crente much differcnee tw the A pen-restiotive cee et i conveys some insignificant or unnecessary information a antecedent in the main clause, which is not essential for the sentence (o niake sense, and so can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. This is the reason why relative pronouns that introduce non-restrictive clause arc commonly separated from the main clause by a comma, List of Non-Restrictive Clauses ‘The two muin kinds of non-vestrictive clauses arg en sted below J. Anon-restrictive clause using relative pronoun as a subject 2. Anon-restrictive clause using relative pronoun in object KE: xnmples- A) Usage of 2 non-testrictive relative clause usin retalivepronoun asa.subiect: L. ‘The inter-school debate, whieh was held in the city auditorium, announced the names of the winners today. 2, IHer latest book tumed out (o by a bestseller, which greatly surprised her family and colleagues. 3. ‘The boy next door, who studies in the City School, Is bought a brand new bicycle. 4. The bestselling autlior of our country, whose books have inspired many lives, will visit our city today’ ect i) Usage of a nor reatrictiverdalive clause using clative pronounas an objL. he movie, whieh he appreciated for its theme, was acclaimed as the best movie of yy, car. ; POR The city bus, by which they reached the pienic spt accommodated only fity students My Finglish Teacher, whom {admire very much, has got her poetry published in national magazine. oe he The best tennis player of our school, who | been invited to participate in the inte. school play, will be migrating to Australia next yet Exercise wie ae Underline the sentences having relative subordinate clause or restrictive oF non-restrictive, awn ees My uncle; who lives in Melbourne, works as. a Professor in a University, I don't like toys that make too much noise. 7 ‘The springtime pizza, which is my favorite, has loads of mint and coriander on top. Thave bought a portable health machine that offers easy workout options for the old and the young alike. places that are serene, . gar Allan Pov, who wrote "The Raver," isa great American poet. Fricda's husband, Nathan, accompanied her to the poctry reading. Bernard, who is still on the ferry, will arrive before 4 o'clock, a ‘The dining table in our house, which is made of marble, is an eye-catching piece of furniture. 10. The painting of Mona Lisa, which is an incomparable work of art, is a half-length portrait Adverblal clause definition: An adverbial clause is a type of a woman by tho Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci, f' dependent clause that acts as an adverb in the sentence. An adverbial clause will always contain a subject and a verb, However, it cannot nd alone as a complete thought. Example of Adverbial Clause: The adverbial ¢! ou will continue driving north until you soo. stop sign. jause is acting as an adverb in this sentence. The adverbial clause mod s how you will drive. ‘The adverbial clause contains a subject and verb, “you will continue.” However, it cannot stand alone as a complete thought. “Until you sce a stop sign” is not a complete statement, Addi al ndverbial clause examples After the movie ended, we ate ice cream, Beth 's her grandfather whenever she isin town. Types of Adverbial Clauses Adverbial Clauses function as standard adverbs in a number of ways into various types according to the following parameters: ‘They ean be categorizedyrs the adverbial clauses that ilicate place or locum of notion? vert) in the mat clans usttally Jar with one of hese subordinate conju tian where, wherever. nth ‘The adverbial clauses that indicate time of action/verd in the main clos of these subordinate conjunctions: since, while, until, ater, before, when, whenever, wo wstially start with one ele. 3) Manner Ale manner of action/ verb usually in the main clause start with junctions: like, as, as if, ete. 1 clauses that indicate reason of action verb in the main clause usually start with bordinate conjunctions- because, as, in order to, since, so that etc, 5) Degree or Comparison ‘The adverbial clauses that indicate degree or comparison of verb in the main clause usually start with one of these subordinate conjunctions. as, than, ote. ‘Though most adverbial clauses modify Verbs, however these adverbial clauses of comparison may often modify adjectives and adverbs in the main clause as well. © Possibility or Conditionality ‘The adverbial clauses that indicate possibility of conditionality in the main clause usually start with one of these subordinate conjunctions- though, although, unless, if, even if, etc. Examples of Adverbial Clauses you want to take us for a picnic, 1y brother completed the painting, : 1. We will go wherey 2. 1 watched tle movie x 3. You treat me pif Fam a stranger. 4, John will visit the market today ay he has to buy a pair of new shoes. 5, This dress is costlier than the one we purchased for our siste G. The workshop finished earlier than its expceted time. 7, Our team performed better than every other ten on the show. 8. She cannot bake the cake unless the oven is repaired, 9, While you wait, [ will quickly make some coffce for us. 10. As Fapproached the glowing light, | saw a thin figure passing by.Qe —_ Word Formation Pro followang sunt FoTniaion pHOSESSES Fel gy jew words. T nt nis the process of creating n Word form ‘ot news wots in English Derivation Back-formation Conversion Compounding, Clipping leading Abbreviations ‘Acranyts Eponyiny Colnnpe Noneo words Borrowing Calquing Abbreviations: : | aid jation i e$s in which a word or phrase is shortened. Intialisms are atype of Anand tomed iy the la etc a worl or ee Ahugh rein i aely none written language, sometimes abbrevintions carry over into spoken langage, For example: Wriiten Abbrevintlons Apr, = April ‘em ~ centineter(s) = died, died in dept. = department Dr. ~ doctor J.- Junior Mr. = Mister Spoken-Weliten Abbreviations te meridliem [in the moruing) .C.F. ~ Before Common Era GOP ~ Grand Old Party (Republican Panty) IHL ~ Human Tnumutodeficieney Virus | id est (that JFK — John Fitzyerntd Kennedy 04 orange Jules PMS ~ premensirust syndrome RSVP ~ répondez sil vous plait VIP ~ very important person Abbreviation is and blending, ted {0 both the word forsmation processes o pin Acronyus: Acronyis are words Formed by the word formation process in which an initiatism is pronounced as w wor example, HV is no initialisry for Numan Imnunodgheivney Virus tat is spoken as tie theee eters TLL. However, IDS is an aerdhym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syuulrome that is spoken as the word ail, Other ples oF acronyms in English include:Rt I ‘ 1 oN ASAT ns saunas sible FE Ryvot. absent wath iene ta tate enka oli I NASA~ Nato ity and Spe Amsteathon ie Quotations ASDA - Natisnal Association of Stites Dears Auto “renehot af Rgtnh to Spork wf her angus White Anglo Segon Postestant cee cilto the wor! formation process of abbreviation, ‘Acronyms ate © sto crete a new word whose ‘acess in which parts oF two oF more words combine endi ini words. For examples Pending is the word formation pr Blondie is often a gombination ofthe a qdvertisennent + entertalnaven 5 Miagmaphical + picture ~ bionic Cereekast + faneh = boueh J Ginickle + snort —+ eh J Gybemnetie + organism —+ eybun J ucse + estimate —» guesstinale 1 fiazardous + material — be J motor + hotel + motel I print sissy — prissy v atverain Peltancous + broadcast —+ simuleast Smoke + fog —* S98 spanish + English ~* Spanglish spoon fork —* spork ‘one + marathon — telethon fered 10 as portmnteats- teleph web + seminar —+ Web slendest words are also # sor suppose derivations fix detaches Foye emples oF Sm EOHMIOH Back-Hormation cess in which an lowing list provites 6 ack-formation is the » . Partum of a word to create a new word. For coample, the Fol back-formations in Lnglish riglia — Bache formal «babysitter ~ babysit 2 donation ~ elonate J gambler = gamble + hazy - haze J moontighter ~ moonlight 3 process . = resurrectvr Back-formation is often the result of an overgencralization of devivalion sullixes For ecatrple, the nun buck Jormation entered the English lexicon first but the assumption tat the afi ev the end oF he word the ~ erivational suffix results in the eretion of the verb buck:form, Hkck-furmatin, therefore, ts Ihe epperite of Componndings ‘Compounding is the wont formation process in which two or more lescmtes e Compound words may be written as one word! or as two words joined with a hyphen. ane ity a single new wort. For example: ‘oun-nown compound: note + book —» notebook aujective-noun compound: blue + berry ~* blueberry verb-noun compound: work + room --* workroom noun-verb compo breastfeed ‘verls-verb compound: stir + fry — stir-fry adjcctive-verb compound: high + light —+ highlight verb-preposition compound: break + up —* breakup ut + rani outcun ter + siveet bittersweet into + into adjective-auljeetive compound: b preposition-preposition compound: Clipping Clipping is the word formation process in wh the word. Clipping differs from back-form: jout changing the meaning of ning of the original worl. For © gasoline — gas © gymnasium ~ gym © influenza — fu * Inboratory lab = mathematics — math memorandum ~ meno photoxraph - photo public house pubs | raveoon = coon - ion = rep telephone “The fourtypes of lipging are back clipping, fre-clipping, mid clipping, anc complex clipping, Back clipping is ng the end of a word as in gas from gasoline. Fore-clipping is temoving the beginning of & wort as for Iron alligator. Middle clipping is retaining only the midklle af a word as in flu from afluenza. Complex clipping is removing multiple parts fron muliple words ax in sitcom from situction ‘comedy remo } j Conversion: Conversion is the word formation provess in which w ward o grammatical form without any el For ecample, the noun email appeared in English before the verb: adecade ago | would have sent you an em | (noun) whereas now I can cither send you an, email (oun) or simply ermal (verb) you. ‘The original noun email experienced conversion, thus resulting fn the new Verb emuil, Conversion is also referred to as 2eco derivation or null desivation with the assumption that the format 1¢ prmmunaticnt form becomes a word of another es to spelling or promunMuasensec nse hy W processes OL UeHS att anid CUIVEEMION, Vert Canverstan: st productive form oF conversion, in Lnglish is noun to verb conversion, ‘The following Inst pre ides of verbs converted from nouns: Noun Verb , ageess~ (0 access bottle to bottle ean teean closet —to closet email — toe cye~ toeye fiddle ~to fiddle fool ~ to fool Google ~ to google For example: My grandmother bottled (verb) the juive and canned (verb) the My grandmother put the juice in a bottle (noun) and the pickles in a c She microwaved (verb) her hineh, She heated her hunch in the The doctor eyed (verb) my swollen eye (noun), sles (oun). Verb to Noun Conversion Another productive form of conversion in Linglish is verb wo noun conversion. The following list provistes examples of nouns converted from verbs: Verb — Noun to alert ~ alert ty attack — attach wo call call to clone --cloue fo com : ow one just needs good ery (noun). ‘The baby evied (verb) all night We need to increase (verb) our produc profits. vily to see an inen Other Conversions: Conversion also oceurs, although less frequently, to and fiom other grammatical forms, For exaanple ally fricnully) cen + 10 gacen (lo make environ * preposition to noun: up, down --» the ups and downs of li © conjunction to noun: if, and, but > no its, ands, oF buts jon to noun: ho ho ho + 1 love the ho he hos of Christnastine. * adjective to ved © IntericColnagess Coinage is the wor fort sing the other word fora swoals pravides some common coina + aspirin + escalator hei band-aid factold Frisbee Google kerosene Kicenex Laundromat Hinoleun muggle rer dotiboratsly oF avcidetaty jet a mew word is ered tion process in which a Ho ies ou (von sceusingly ion processes and often {rout ul doinages Found in wveryeay English Xerox Calquing ‘Culquing is the word forn another. For examplo, the following comnon Iinglish words ave culyue tion process in which a borrowed word or phirase is translated from one Jangus Fron Foreign languages: bwer garden - German -- Riergarten blue-blood ~ Spanish ~ sangre nzut ‘commonplace ~ Latin ~ locus eonundis fen market French — mureh3 aux pues fice verse - French ~ vers libre loanword ~ German ~ Lolinwvort Jong tine no see ~ Chinese ~ hho Jif bu, pineapple - Dutch — pljnappel ‘Scapegoat - Hebrew — cz ozel ‘wisdom tuuth — Latin - déns sapientiag Calques are alse referred to as root-for-rvot or word-for-word trastations, Derivation: Derivation is the word formation process in which a derivational utfix altches to the hase form ofa wortl te ereat new worl, Affixes, which include prefixes aru! suffixes, sre bound morphenies, Morphemtes are the smallest Jing nit of a language with semantic meaning. Bound inomphemes, unlike free morphemes, cannot stand alone but must attach to another morpheme such asa word. For exunple, he following, Ovo lists provide examples of some commion prefixes ami! suffixes with definitions in English Prefixes . without, not + cor together # de- opposite © dis--opposite, negative © ene ~cause to be + ex-~ former, previous, from * in negative, not tive, removal, separation1, repeatedly negative, aul, opposite rable = sense OF being er agent 1 1 chanwetericed by male, beeomne, enue ty We x = Mele ot fly like -ology ~ study, science “ship — condition, character, skill -y ~ characterized by, inclination, condition ramnmatical sivation may resull in new words of Deviv y cesull in new words of the same grammatical form, ex. notin to noun, oF Of different gr fonns, C4.» Verb Lo noun, For example: Grammutical Form Retaining Derivation ‘verb to verb: apper = disa noun to nou matical Form Changing Derivation verb to noun: preserve —» preservation verb to adjective: bore + borg, noun to verb: code — veslily noun to adjective: wature ~» matwral adjective to noun: ugly —» Uy «adjective to verb: swect —> sw + adjective to adverb: quick —» quickly 4 {fixation of sutixes, derivation differs from infect aa the escation of evs font ofthe same word rather than a new wor. Far example (he adiion itl third person singular -y inflectional suffix to verbs ereaes the tied person singulae 100) ‘of verb, oni rere and the addivion of the plural -s ifletional fix to mows eretes the plural Form of un "og tnd lags Hoth eats and dey ave new forms ofthe sane wor ent nd dog, raler thaw new words though both processes involve th Eponysnst medl fronn the wime of real oF Eponyms af ficlitions person. For example: rea word fortn by the word formation process in which a new word is orn © atlas ~ Ath © baycott = © cardigan ~ + ceral © dunce John Duns Scotus + yuillotine -- Joseph Ignace Guillotia ’ les C, Boycott Jamies Thomas Vi ‘aul of Cardigan M1, 7th es jacuzai ~ Candido Jaci Huuddite ~ Ned Ladd lapropisin ~ Mrs. Malaprey Hranz Anton Mesnict metize ~ F . Frnesto A. Miran . ie — Narcissus 1 Nicol* pasteurization - Louiy Pasteur © poinsettia ~ Noel Roberts Poinsett © praline ~ César de Choiseul, Count Plessis-Prastin © sadistic - Marquis de Sade © salmonella ~ Daniel Elmer Salmon © sandwich - John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sancivich = volcano Vulean n processes with the resulling wort at for the none, Te Ter forthe ‘ome nonce words with Nonce Words Nonce words are new words formed through any number of wonLLoraativn need that is not expected to recur. Nonce wonls are created for the 0 “For a single occasion.” For example, the follow list of words provi lentified in the Oxford English Dictionary. n-wool —to stuff or close (the ears) with cotton-wool. Jabberwock - The nante of the fabulous monster in Lewis Currolt’s poem Jabberwocky. Hence in allusive and extended! uses, especially "incoherent or nonsensieal expression." So jubberwoeky is invented banguge, meaningless language, nonsensical beliavior, also nunsenseal igluss, topsy-turvy. + fouch-me-nol-ishness ~ having a touch-me-not” character, stan-of ish, # twi-thought ~ an indistinet or vague thought, witcheraftival - The practices ofa witch or witches; the exercise of supernatural power supposed to be possessed league with the devil or evil spirits. Power or influence like that of a magician; bewitching or by persons. fascinating attraction or charm,a 7” in, is reveptive r Hive SKIL Reval. tay angie metiviy Wy the pas 8st Wht ee ee peel pater nl ayes Out Sean Skimming Extensive ve Intensive reading rique (o be used when you want to find specific information quickly. ning you have ‘question in your ind and you read a paste ony Yo dt awe va read a passage only to find the answer & wt tect information. State the specific information s vation you are looking fe Try to anticipate how the answer wi He pate how the answer will oppen and what chies you might use to help you locate the answet wr example, if you were looking for a certain date, you would quickly read the paragraph ; wickly read the parageaph F Joking only for numbers. Use headings ancl any other nds that wil help you identity which sections might contain the yn you are looking for. ysl sections oF the axsage, informat Selectively send unl skip t impression wvithin a passage to get an overall ming, refers (0 the process of reading only ma fa reading. of the content of How to Skim: Read the title. Real the introduction of the fest paragraph. 4 Read the Fist sentence of every other paragraph ef Read any heading and suby headings oe graphs: Notice any pictures, eha Readl the aunty OF lat panogeaple skimming is vending text qutelly 1 gota yen 1M at shit is celine (fins cag, Hat Hic information, ex. figures or names. example: ‘A leamer taking steading exam decides to approach text by looking athe tts, introdustions, and dingrams ancl sub-headings, then skim reading (o got a clear general idea of what the text is about, any Inthe classcoom Skimming is a specific reading skill which is common in reading no : : i i ing newspapers, messages anal nts. 1s yportant that fearnets understand tht there is no need to read every word whel skimming, so oflen teachers set this asa timed task to encourage speed. : Intensive reading involves lean compared with extensive readin general reading skills, Exampt onde reauling in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. Ht van be 1, Which involves teamners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop The Fenrners read w short text and put events fron it into chronological Sustained silent reading (SSR) is a form of school-based recreational reading, oF free voluntary reading, where students read silently in a designated time period every day in school, An underlying assumption of SSR is that stuclents Learn to readby reading constantly. Guided repeated oral reading is an instructional strategy that ean help students improve a varicty ofreading skills, including flueney. ‘There are a number of effective procedures that ean be used in providing guided oral reading, In general, « teacher, paren, or pect reads a passage aloud, modeling fluent reading One interesting question is which of these forms of classroom reakling is better for comprehension, loud reading orsilent reading, Moreover, when a student is reading out loud in the classroom, hishher peers are both listening to his/her speceh and reading their own textsilently. Kiona Lifetion treading is vital to an individual's edu while silent readers absorb the thought Knowing the differences between oral and 1. Oral reading provides the thought from the printed pay from the text, stant recognition of a thought, while silent readers immediately, Oral reading actually follows get the thought, 3. Oral reading is a complex process, involving mental interpretations based on eye sweeps of the text accompanied by vocalization, while silent readers simply interpret the material through a serics of eye sweeps (without delays resulting from vocalization). 4. With oral readets, the pronunciation of the words is most important; with silent readers, the meanings of the words are most important, ation wduces (and limits) the speed of oral readers, a problem that doesn't affect sitet Vollikely be consis ys Eales OF OF ce wg rates of silent reasers ee F dilfercnces), while reali ¢ should be evident that rending ‘cording to individ bly slower, with fttle variation al for its ive les: SUIVEY. MUESTION oy wn American edueation 6 By now, faster and varied (aC likely to be consi SQR: SQRRR or SQ3R is a reading compre’ ension method RR ot ceujew. The method was introduces by Feanss re Philosopher in his 1946 book Erfecive Susy approach to readings “The method offers a more efficient and active eal college studen ee Textremely wil for your studenys 0 Segun usingg this niethod to better understand what they are readline. ~ SQ3R is a reading strategy form cae Robinson. snook matt tvs creat mons all ver the wore ed from its letters: : Survey! Question! Real! Recitet EVIE SQ3k will help you build a framework to Miferatand your reading assinavent Before you read, Survey the chapter (1 the title, headings, and subh is {) Captions under pletures, charts, geoph oF nas LL faview questions or texcher-mede sty tides LU intoduetory and concluding parageaphs 0 summary Question while you are surveying! headings into questions {1 Turn the tite, headings, and/or subh Mer each subheading 0) Read questions at the end ‘of the chapters or af 0 Ask yourself, Jai idly inatrarctor say about this chapter or subject when it was assigned? 1) Ask yourself, Svhat do I already know about this subject?” Note: IF it is helpful to you, write out these que This variation is called SQW3R stions for consideration. tok When you be 11 Look for answers to the questions you first raised Answer questions at the beginning or nd of chapters or study guides U Reread captions under pictures, graphs, ele. fl Note all the underlined, italicized, bold printed words or phrases Nl Study graphic aids 11 Reduce your speed for difficult passages (Stop and reread parts which are not clear {Read only a section at a time and recite after ea ch section Recite aller you've read a section:have sah SE otuNNANL CA tion in yo owe owe vant eae 28H wus nore likely you are me re WW remember what you read Tripple strength ple strenyat ny 18 Saying , hearing, writing! tt or you have read «nd recited thy entice chap er, ul ABET questions in th ce questi he margins for those poi iy have highlighted rie jj iryou took notes wi He questions forthe notes you have taken wipe eft hand mains of your notebook 41 Complete the Form fora ctticalreaingrvew pay TO page through the text andor your notebook i 0 Page dua te et to re-ncquaint yourself 1) Cover the right hand colun of your extote-bok ceforally ask yoursel the questions in the left hand margins. avers from memory. Orally recite or write the Nerial which need to be memorized. ty : Develop mnemonic devices for wa rake slash cards for those questions which give you difficulty, we and Five in your Hash cards and notes and test yoursell ) on the questions you formutated. necessary. {| Alternate betws (onally or in writing) lj Make additional flash card nd Using the text andl notebook, makea Table of Contents - list ail the topics an: know from the chapl om the Table of Contes information orally and in your own words as You pil «ye consolitated all ths information you need for this chapter, af fest time ‘As you h Sheel/Map so tha you will not have to eran. tl 4] Recite thi ' 1 sub-topi “as 88 Ng you need to ants, make a Study Sheel/ Spatial Map. the Studd ShectMap together. clically review thewr" Reading difficulties and solutions This section will teach you hor ; leach you how to solve many of the problems that prague students white they read Passage-Bused Readir " . ‘ cd Resin gursayer Ft wil eover ie pens on en "Seluans Common Reading, Problcnis” Fl tell you how to solve them. " ‘Common difficultles while reading Losing your place Ba cf eae your pase two different ways: you can lose track of w! owen lone ack of wit ie you eon when moving 0m OME wastes time and cnn inhibit your comprehension, wn hat word you are on atany point, OF ine to the next. Losing your piace Solutions: = Take breaks + Trace your place Losing your focus How many times have you been readin Jr that you have no en ct have you been reading a passage and alized hallway UanBh ‘what you hive ust ead? Instead of paying aletion tothe tet you wre WEA albu wh yu are oing todo tater, what some fiend sid or why you have otk the stupid SAT. THiS sts ime and ‘energy, and makes comprehension impossible, Solutions: = Take b = Rea alout + Take notes Not getting even though the words nd sentences may make sense, you may not be able lo the meaning of the passage. pt them together to Solutions: + Take breaks: + Take notes Forgetting what you have read: ornare you tort ave to memorize all ofthe fact des not enn EP can completely forget everything that you have read. Youstill need to recal the nit ‘dleas of the passages. IF you come to the fend af the passage ancl cannot recall what it was about, you need to improve your eetention. Solutions:2 Take breaks | © Read aloud Fake wut solutions to com on reading probeas jou read the sample passages s Luehiniquen we cote by some ot th : UF the provily went ot enough; be sure to ive nnd practice ‘Take breaks Remember, cognitive fatigue can leave : Tee eerie tn oul of th areeaoned prob oer your gon wl ikl ga puand wllcayoupeis ‘Trace your place You can mark your place either by point ynderneath the line you are rene Lp ™ iting to each word as you read it by placing er you ne readin Puitng w each wor wa poll oryour ner cael ure seo where it should be reading. Pi ic Fe eral roan i Pasig anise of paper under the ine you ae reaing in bly Yo to Read aloud Ifyou are in your own ruo1 ne heonae fal olin MM, YOU iclually say each word aloud. If you must remain silent, mumble the words to your rata mou he word, anh in or had nor actualy Her the sound ven it. yononly is fa yermagintn This mali approach to m :, hear, feel h your niouth) what a ng. Reading al rol help you stay focused, understand better, and remember sa soa realinye a a Take Notes you are inking at nigh to write down, you will pay nvore attention to the reading. This wil keep your mind fm wandering help you proces he 1 point of the passage, and improve the likelihood you will remember things. In addition, the notes you take are a record of the sage that you can refer back to ityou do forget elements Here are some things you should note: neat fo the relevant text, 6 yout can easily find the portions to {the thesis) should be at the bottom of the yrage. You will lose many of the benefits of note taking if you underline o i tight text instead, Highlighting does not wequite you to think as clearly abvut the passa will wo rigger our MEN oS well, ant will force you to rely on the author's confusing wording,Reading Sample Comprehension 1 tn 1912 an American shipping company launched a neve chip eat the *T *. Vewwas the largest any ‘most luxurious ocean liner of that me, It weighed! 36,000 tons and could carty about 2,209 Pussenge Experts said that nothing could sink it. It was definitely unsinkable. On April 14, 1912, the ship sated gn its first voyage neross the Atlantic from Southampton in Englnnd to New York in the United States, wig 2,224 passengers, men, women and children. On April 15, just before midnight, the ship struck aq iceberg. The iceberg tore a great hole in the ship's sie, and the unsinkable “Titanic” began to sink ‘There was great nlarm on board. Warning bells rang out, Everyone rushed to the lifeborts, but there was ‘80t enough room for them all, There was room for only 1,178 passengers. The lifeboats took mostly ihe Women and children, It was a terrible seene, Wives were weeping beeause they had to leave theig husbands to drown, Children were erying because they lad to say xocabye to their fathers. The men hag to remain on the ship, The ‘Titanic’ sent out signals for help, but no help enme. Another ship the Californian was only twenty miles away but her radio operator was asleep and did not hear the distress signals, In the carly hours of the morning the ‘Titanic’ sank while her band was playing bravely on deck. Twenty sminutes Inter smother ner the “Carpathian” ave on the ssene an help (9 rexeue survives Fam the icy water, But of the 2,224 passengers, only about 700 wurvived. Twas a lerible dnsater But comeing good came out ofthe sinking ofthe “Titoale’. In 1913 there was committee of inquiry into the disaster. This committee drew up many new rules for shipping companies, Since then, every ship has had to provide lifeboat places for each passenger and has had to organize lifeboat drill during each voyage. Every ship has had to carry enough radio operators so that there is always one of them on diy. Another important result ofthe sinking of the “Titanic! was the formation of an international ice patrol. This patrol warns ships about ice and icebergs in the North Atlantic, cerclses Answer the following Questions : a) Did anything come from the sinking of the Titanic? b) What does an ive pateol do? : ¢) Why were so many people lost their lives in the Titanic dlisuster? d) Which passengers were given the first place: the lifeboats? ©) Why did the Californian not go to the rere 2. Word meanings and making sentences with those words from the above comprehension, 3. Giving a title and writing a summary of the above comprehen: Ren 1g Sample Comprehension Men usually want to have their own way. ‘They want to act and think as they Like. No ane, however, can have his own way all the time. A man cannot live in sociely without considering the interests of others as well as his own interests, ‘Society’ means a group of people with the same kiws and the sanye away of life, People in society may make their own decisions, bul these decisions ought wot to be wust orwry to nts Hoe. 1 nets an Bem tee vis tab pe Ta unfsion serge rivers: an ste other person For example. 4 olism saving wt Wal spe “ “ on the 4 has struck . ‘The collision has inju appen through the thoughtlessness of selfish ‘We have governments, the police hn! the law c courts to prevent. sh i mi the aw courts ‘¢ punish such criminal aes, But in vss of end very tan oi to Bhave wth consideration roy the property of others. Ther jen in a free society have certain privity on fas socly hws cei privileges he goverment andthe police do not wat al their ry think us they please. They rything they may oF may uot do. Men ina free society ange vot to ete ny even chuows ui om : ns sy ev cho sr vn gore etn rhea i Wee ie: Wieser that ey the Mage ee ee eee inne ce oeae a oat ‘no place for this sort Sayegh ets Hecate Sine een oi ior of its individual members, Wis every gs iy depends on the is every good elizen's responsibility fo give as wel ive Eaereises bi yew Answer the following Question What da we mean hy *wociety"? ‘Why can men not always have thei en not always have their own ws Why do accidents often happen? ” How should men behave towards other men? ‘What privileges do men in a free society have? y r) °) a °) 1 2 Word meanings ard! niaking sentences with those words from the above comprehension, Write a summary of the passage amd give atitle to it, Aeading Sample Compr hension 3 Loneliness is seldom alle ‘fen discover that the excruc el by man ny tone age. People who marry each other so they will stop being lo ess ofall i shared with each otler. “There are theee main «pes of loneliness. First, there isthe loneliness ofthe individual who snp has net race ico io get sion with people. When such lonely people marry each oer eich one fas high tapectations of his spouse. Neither realizes that the oer is paralyzed by te sme Tinitations as he is. AS seal, th of them wind up lonelier than ever, The ‘TV and movie, pay *Marty" where a shy, a erate woman arnt they find happiness together, is about on a par with ‘Cinderella’ when it comes to si. ~y nNa af ‘ 4 scconit type of incline AOS SML OPE of loneliness is fund in psopte who aes rae Hist uu They cones ewenaites and well develope foil skills dare vrsmad ah dei te pepe ata SERS Sek people make wood sles an averting vel lela Sf of tm Bas Th peomnge a UE "sy hon in elit they nny bese ae pln he hy hve br AEaMbirs withthe opposite sex. This typeof persons fad ital w be itimate wih ANYONE whom He doy ot fel to beh inferior, Theft ins, Ives, Fags ny Wh pe Beneral-uless ene person can deat wth anata eset be He Tel eC ‘eo and what a good uixture lena apes oe Ire test in eatower As We abves, Many stint Kil of tau the type oF person wh 0 Peeene fil People nthe oes, tusiness and itty fl inte this category wh cn be ofl 1 then People of this sort tust no one to do anything wel, suspecting that almost everyons-even thei spouses D in the way of their headlong rush towarl suexess. They require vistunlly everything and, Everyone to revolve around themselves, If they are glamorous or poster eno, they may be able 9 aoe tes who will put up with this for a while, However, such marriages: don't last, and they try again, nm” dcifting from one marriage to another, becoming more and more suspicious and more and more Le Weite th 4 nvake sentences with them. meanings of the following wonls 2 Alleviated; Limitations; Mixer; Headlong; Glamorous, Complete the following sentences with suitable words 50 that they conform to the idea contained in the passage: 1) Maarciage seldom -~-- loneliness. : b) Loneliness ----from the chiaracteristis of certain personalities, . ©) A-person may appearto be a good -~-but he may not be able to --- loneliness after marriage. 4) Successful people ennnot ----- anything, in the way of their success, — to Jonelin ©) Marringeis nots a sensible sentence with the given word Dy words and mak Write synonyms of the followi nol copy sentence from the passige, Think, Push, Delicious, Grow, Garbage. sible sentence with the given word Bo, 1 make a ntonyms of the following words entence from the pas i, Beautifl, Leave, Give, St