Chapter 5

Loading Effect

Electrical Loading:
Lets consider the previous example of the thermocouple and the amplifier, in
which 𝐾 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 = 1. “The perfect accuracy condition”

Here, we assumed that the amplifier needs the true value of 𝐸(𝑇) and that the
indicator needs the true value of 𝑉.
However, once the amplifier is connected to the thermocouple, some of the
current of 𝐸(𝑇), 𝐼1, will be drawn by the amplifier and some of the current of
V, 𝐼2 will be drawn by the indicator.
To describe both voltage and current behavior at the connection of the two
elements, we need to represent each element by an equivalent circuit.

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 Thevenin Equivalent
The consider the following linear network
Rth
a
a
Linear Eth

RL
Circuit b
b

Eth is the open circuit electric field (𝐸), and 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑎𝑏, when applying the load, then

𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = × 𝐸𝑡ℎ .
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ

If 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑡ℎ → 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ . The maximum voltage transfer is achieved. Unfortunately,

this is not the case.

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 Thevenin equivalent example
Recall the previous temperature measurement example

The Thevenin equivalent circuit for the temperature measurement system becomes

The Thermocouple may be represented by 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 20 , and 𝐸𝑡ℎ = 40 𝑇𝑉, where

T is the measurement junction temperature.

The amplifier acts as a load for the Thermocouple and as voltage source for the
indicator. The indicator is the resistive load of 10 𝑘. 3
 Thevenin equivalent example…
With neglecting loading effect, we have the measured temperature equal to input
temperature as

−6
𝑉 𝑉 𝐶
𝑇𝑚 = 40 × 10 × 1000 × 25 𝑇 = 𝑇
𝐶 𝑉 𝑉

Introducing the loading effect, the amplifier input voltage is given by

2 × 106
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 6
× 40 × 10−6 𝑇
2 × 10 + 20

The output voltage at the load becomes

10 × 103
𝑉𝐿 = × 1000𝑉𝑖𝑛
10 × 103 + 75

Finally,

𝑇𝑚 = 25𝑍𝑉𝐿 = 0.9925𝑇
4
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇 = −0.0075𝑇 = −0.75%
 Thevenin equivalent example
Solutions

The Solution of the loading effects:

Using buffer Amplifier

• 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1
• 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐺’𝑠)
• 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑤 (10’𝑠)

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 Generalized Effort and Flow variables

Voltage is an example of an across or effort variable 𝑦, current is an

example of a through or flow variable 𝑥.ሶ

An effort variable drives a flow variable through an impedance.

Other examples of effort/flow pairs are force/velocity, torque/angular

velocity, et.

Each 𝑦 − 𝑥ሶ pairs has the following properties:

• The product 𝒚𝒙ሶ represents power in watts
𝒚
• The ratio 𝒙ሶ represents impedance.

Thus we see that the concept impedance is applicable to mechanical, fluidic

and thermal systems as well as electrical.

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Flow/Effort variables and related quantities

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 Generalized Effort and Flow variables

Thus we see that the concept impedance is applicable to mechanical, fluidic

and thermal systems as well as electrical.
For a mechanical system, mass (inductance), damping constant (resistance),
etc.
We can generalize the electrical equivalent circuits of Thevenin to non-
electrical systems.

Example: mechanical to electrical system

Force F → Voltage
Mass → Inductance
Spring → 1/capacitance
Damper → Resistance
Velocity → Current, and
Displacement → Charge

The equivalent electrical circuit becomes

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 Generalized Effort and Flow variables

The equivalent electrical circuit becomes

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 Potentiometric Displacement Sensor
The resistance of the potentiometer varies linearly with displacement d, the
schematic diagram is shown below

Thus, if 𝑥 = 𝑑/𝑑𝑇 is the fractional displacement, the corresponding

resistance is 𝑅𝑝𝑥, where Rp is the total resistance.

The Thevenin voltage 𝐸𝑡ℎ is the open circuit voltage across AB. The ratio
between 𝐸𝑡ℎ and supply voltage 𝑉𝑠 is equal to the ratio of fractional
resistance 𝑅𝑝𝑥 to total resistance Rp , that is
𝐸𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑝 𝑥
= , 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑠 𝑥 10
𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑝
 Potentiometric Displacement Sensor
The Thevenin’s impedance 𝑅𝑡ℎ is found as

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑝 𝑥 𝑅𝑝 1 − 𝑥
Giving

𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑝 𝑥 1 − 𝑥

The load voltage is thus written as

𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑠 𝑥 11
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑝 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑅𝐿
 Potentiometric Displacement Sensor
Finally, the voltage-displacement relationship for a loaded potentiometer is
given by
1
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑥
(𝑅𝑝 /𝑅𝐿 )𝑥 1 − 𝑥 + 1

The relationship between VL and x is non-linear, the amount of non-linearity

depending on the ratio Rp/RL. Thus the effect of loading a linear
potentiometric sensor is to introduce a non-linear error into the system given
by:
2 𝑅𝑝
𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)( )
𝑅𝐿
𝑁 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑡ℎ − 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑝
1+ 𝑥(1 − 𝑥)
𝑅𝐿

Expressing as a percentage of the full scale deflection or span, gives

𝑅𝑏
෡ = 15
𝑁 % 12
𝑅𝐿
 Potentiometric Displacement Sensor, practice

Practice:
A potentiometer has a total length of 10 cm and a resistance of 100 .
1. Calculate the supply voltage so that power dissipation equal 1 Watt
2. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit for 7 cm displacement
3. The potentiometer is connected to a recorder with a resistance load 𝑅𝐿. Find 𝑅𝐿 such that
the recorder voltage is 5% less than the open circuit voltage at 7 cm displacement.

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