Juorr Konuos-ANrra CSOLLE

Toprcs rN AppuED
LrxcrJrsrrcs
TOPICS IN APPLIED
LINGUISTICS
by |udit Kormos and Anita Csölle

ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, Budapest

A könyv az oktatási Minisztérium támogatásáva], a Felsőoktatási Pályázatok Irodája által
lebonyolított felsőoktatási tankönyv támogatási program keietében je]eDt rneg'

Készült a Pro Renovanda Hungaria Klebelsberg Kúnó Szakalapitványának és a Kózoktatási

Modernizációs Aiapítvány támogatásával'

Lektolálta:
Kontráné Hegybíró Edit
Káíoly Kfisztifia

, .',,"*r'
.: ;,..

5\í\6"*". l

o Kormos Judit, csölle Ánita' 2004

@ ELTE Eótvös Kiadó' 2004
I"

CONTENTS

(hapter I
FOREWORD
(hapter2
: INTRODUCTION - WHAT IS APPLIED LINGUISTICS?
Öapt€r ]
. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES l5
(hapt€r4
, LINGUISTIC ANALYSES IN SLA RESEARCH 23

(hapt€r5
THE LINGUISTIC INPUT FOR LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 3l
(hapteÍ6
.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE 37

(hapt€r 7
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES
(hapterB
,INDIVIDUAI, DIFFERENCES I.
LEARNER BELIEFS, ANXIETY, APTITUDE AND AGE
ftaptel9
' INDIVIDUAL DIFFERTNCES II. MOTIVATION 55

(hapt€1l0

' INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES III,

PERSONALITY, LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES 6l
(hapterll
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS I. COHESION AND COHERENCE 69
(hapt€Í12
Í DIscoURsE ANALYsls II. TEXT TYPEs ?7
Chapter l3 FO
"
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS III. CONVERSATION ANALYSIS 8l
ChapteÍ l4
"PRÁGMATICs 87

(hapter 15
- SOCIOLINGUISTICS 95

(hapterl6
' PSYCHOI,INGUISTICS 101

ChapteÍ 17
This
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105
toÁ
(hapter 18 teacl
CLASSROOM-ORIENTED RE,SEARCH I l5 ma](
ftapter 19
edge
.]LANGUAGE TESTING r21 theo
ous i
teacl
Ir
desc
com
task:
projr
read
T
coul
Tl*
FOREWORD

This book contains an extended version ofthe lecture notes ofthe Introduction
to Ápplied Linguistics course we have taught in the past few years in various
teacher training institutions. Our aim was to give students an overview of the
major issues ofapplied linguistics and equip thern with the background knowl-
edge necessary to become professional teachers whose practice is grounded in
theory. In the selection of the topics we consulted colleagues who teach vari-
ous applied linguistics courses at universities and also took into consideration
teacher trainers' recommendations.
In each unit relevant and uP-to-date theories and research findings are
described in a note format. This is followed by check questions, which test the
comprehension ofthe major ideas outlined in the unit. We have also designed
tasks related to the topics which can be developed into small-scale research
projects or even into a thesis. A detailed list of references and recommended
readings is also provided at the end ofevery unit.
The book can be used for self-study, as a complement to applied linguistics
courses, and as an aid in the preparation for exams in this field.
l,

INTRODUCTION -
WHAT IS APPLIED LINGUISTICS?

1. WHAT IS APPLIED LINGUISTICS (AL)?

Ll. DeJtnitions

",\ppliecl lingu isrics 1s thc ut ilisation of the knorvledge about thc nat u rc ol'la nguage
achieved bv linguistic I'esearch lirl the inrprovement of the efficic.ncy of sorre
plactical task in ivhich lar.iguirge is a centr-al cot.t-tpol'tent." (Corder, 1974, p.24)

"Whenever knou'ledgc about language is used to solve ii birsic lanquaqc rclatcil

prob)em, one nray snv that applied lineuistics is bt'ing placticccl. A[. is a tec]rnol
ogyr'vhich rlra(cs abstrirct ideas ancl rcscirrch lindings accessible ancl relevant to
the leal rvorld; it nediates bctrvccn thcory ancl praclice." (Strevens, 1992, p. 76)

1.2. Scope

* Language teac.hirtg attd lcarning: the ntost developed area of appliecl lin,
guistics. It tries to.lns\\'er two basic questions:
(l) I{or.v shoulcl lanlguage be defi ned so that it u'ill be possible to determine
rvhat to tetrch?
(2) I Iorv can languaee learning itselfbe characterised?
.} P.yr:lolllr3aisÍics:psychological p|ocesscs (e.g. lllenrory, attention) urrder.iy
ing speech productior.r and perceptiorl; first languirge accluisition; speeclr
therapy
.a. L.ttlguo1e it1 socicry,: tl.rc relationship of power and language; spccific lan
uuage rLse in r.arious scgrrents o1'the population and in various pt-olessional
Íields (c'g' language use by politiciarrs, ird\'ertiseIs);literacy, pragnatics (e'g.
10 ToPICs rN APPLIED LINGUtsrrcs

issues ofpoliteness, the realisation ofactions by verbal means), discourse

analysis (study of various spoken and written texts), language planning
and language policy, bilingualism and multiculturalism
., Language Íes1irgl how can second language abilities be measured?

Other important fields:

.l contrastive analysis (see below)
.l translation and interpretation theories and research 2.3.
.i. computational linguistícs (linguistic analyses carried out with the help of

computer programs and databases)

* neurolinguistics (the relationship ofhuman biological factors and language The I

learning and use)

l.

2. HISTORY OF THE FIELD

2.
2.1, Background

* The term "applied linguistics" first occurred in the U.S. in the 1940's, in-
spired by the desire among language teachers to be perceived as scientists
and to distinguish themselves from teachers ofliterature. The relevance of 3, TI
AL now extends to all languages, not only English. LI
* 1950s: pioneering institutions with the term'applied linguistics' were born
(School ofApplied Linguistics in Edinburgh, Center for Applied Linguistics
in Washington D. C.). 3.1. I

.t l] 5L,
2.2. Major factors infruencing the development of AL IATE,

ÁAAl
.! Contrastive analysis: comparison of the learner'.s language and the target MAN
language with the aim ofpredicting where students might experience dif-
ficulties in learning the language.
,t Chornsky's (1965) cognitive view oflanguage and learning: the childt abil-
ity to acquire its mother tongue is the central tas( oflinguistic theory (this
work gave rise to second language acquisition research).
 INTRoDUcTtoN - wHAT Is APPLIED LlNcustrIcsr .lí

.:.!e!LL!y!neís (1971) study on communicative comPetence, Austint''(1962)

and Searle's (1969) study on speech acts,. lalliday's (1973) systemic gram-
mar. ánd several studies in Discourse have been crucial in the formulation
of communicative approaches to language teaching (see Chapter l0).

2.j. Approaches

The first 30 years of AL created two distinct approach€s:

1' Practical approach (teaching/learning-orientedÁL, languagepedagogy):

"It starts from the standpoint ofpractical language teaching and applies
intellectual rigor and classroom research to improving language learning
through the deliberate, principled redesign of teaching, which helps the
understanding ofunderlying theory" (Strevens, 1992, p. 83).
2. Theoretical approach: It starts from SLA theory, and devises empirical
research whose results justify the use ofparticular techniques and meth-
ods in classroom teachins.

3. THE INTERNATIONAL SCENE OF APPLIED

,,LINGUISTICS

3.1. Major organizations

TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers ofOther Languages)

IATEFL (International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Lan-
guage)
AÁAL (American Association for Applied Linguistics)
MANYE (Magyar Alkalmazott Nyelvészek Egyesülete)
 TOPICS IN APPLIED LINGUlSTICS

3.2. Major periodicals ACTI'

'llteoretical Hungarian Check

Applied Linguistics ELI Journal Alkalmazott
Lang!rage Lcarning Iinglish Teaching Forurn Nyclvtudomány
.l.caching
I-anguage Resoarch Modern English Teacher Moder n Nyelvoktatás 1. \
Línguage Testing
Modern Language lournal
Itractical English ]'eaching
TESOL lournal
noYELTy (in English)
Nyelvirrfo
z.\
Studies in Sccond Language Nyelvi Mérce
3. 1

Acquisitiorl
Systen)
'IESOL Quarterly
Task

ReÍerences: Look u
read tl
article
Austin, l. (1962). Hop to do things with wortls. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
chomsky' N' (l965). Á spects oÍ the theor, oI syrrtax' Cambr!dge, Mass': MlT Press.
CordeÍ' s' P (1974). Error analysis. In J. Al|en, & S. P Corder (Eds.), Ihe Edinburgh coutse in
applied linguistics. yoi. 3. (pp. 158-171). Oxfordr Oxford University Press.
HaIljday' M' (l973)' Exploratiot|s in lhe fu,lctions oÍ language' London: Edward Arno|d.
Hymes, D. (197),). On communicativc competexre. Phiiadelphia: Universjty of Pennsylvania
Press.
sear|e, J. (l969). speecá acÍs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Píess.
Strevens, P Applied LiDguistics. In D. Crystal (Ed.),
(1992). The encyclopedia of language and
linguistícs vol. J. (PP. 7ó-84). oxford: Pergamon Press.

Recommended reading:

strevcns, P (l992)' APplied Linguistjcs. ln D' CÍystal (Ed'), The encyclopedia oflanguage and
linguistics Vol. t. (pp. 76 84). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
 INTRODUCTION - WHAT IS APPLIED IINGUSITICS? I3

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1. What is applied linguistics?

2. What is the scope of applied linguistics?
3. What are the two basic approaches within applied linguistics?

Task

Look up any one issue ofone ofthe major periodicals ofapplied linguistics and
read the abstract of the articles. Discuss which field ofapplied linguistics each
article deals with.
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
THEORIES

1. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LT AND L2 ACQUISITION

Ll acquisilioij L2 acquisitiatl

Overall succcss PerÍéctmaste.y AdLrlts usually do not lerrn an L2

perfectly.

\ra riat ion Every healthy child learns 'lhere is great individual variation
the Ll. in the success oí I,2 learning.

Goals Colnplctc rnasterY 1,2learners are often satisfiec:i with

imperfect mastery oíthe L2'

No íossilisation lossilisrtion olien takes Place (see

Chapter 3).

lr)ItLtt (lhildren have intuitiorls L2 lear ners do not always have

concerning rvhat is intuitions concerninB correctness,
grarnnratically correct and
IncoÍÍeci.
.
lnsl rLl No explicit instruction lnstructioll helps I.2 learning (sec
needed. Chapter 4).

Ncgátive evidelrce Children's errors are Correctiorl is believed to hclp 1.2

tyPica]]y not coÍrected. learning.

Affe.tive factors Do not pliy a role. Play an important role in

cleternrining the succcss of L2
leáÍnlng.

NJ.mrr) Children's memory Adults have deYelopecl memory

c:rpacities are not fully
dcvcloped-

ACCeSS IO PreVrouSly No acccss

acqujred language
(based on EIlis, 1994)
ló ropIcs IN APpLIED LlNGUIsTlcs

.i There are four types of SLA tl.reory: resl

- nativist (the importance of innate biological and genetic factors is toc
emphasised); the
cnvirolr rnentalist (experience and the effect ofenvironment is consid- r ise
ered inrportant); .i In t
- interactionist/multi-dimensional (both innate and environmental fac- forr
tors are ilnportant)j UII
- cognitive theories (the psychological mechanisms of SLA are in the fect
focus).

3.2. ScL,
2. NATIVIST THEORIES

+ Sch
* Nativist theories stress the importance of genetically inherited language gua
abilities in I-1 and 1,2 learnir.rg. alcc I

* The rnost fanrous nativist theory is Chomsky's (1965) Universal Grammar cult
* Chomsky claimed that children are exposed to ungrammatical and impov- ( Brc
erished input, but they still learn the language easily and successfully. This *lnS
is only possible if they are equipped with a n innate Language Acquisition and
Device (LAD), which, in Chomsky's view, is an organ of the mind. Univer- A)
sirl Clranmar (UG)constitutes an essentiirl part of LAD. UG consists of a
systern of principles, conditions and rules that are elements or properties
of trll humirn languages.
* SLA theories based on Chomsky's UG are primarily concerned with the
acquisition of grantmar and ignore other irspects of communicative com-
petence. Researchers wor(ing in this paradigm have tried to answer the
question v4rether UG is available for L2 learners. To date, there is no strong
evidence that L2 lcarners can have access to UG.

3. ENVIRONMENTALIST THEORIES

3.l. Behaviourism B)

* BelráViourist theories ofL2 learnirrg are based on Skinner's (l957) work, in

which learning is seen as hal.rit fonrration. l-labits are regarded as automatic
 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES ]7

responses to stimuli. Learning takes place with the help ofpositive feedback
to correct responses and the inhibition ofincorrect reactions. Behaviourist
theories ofL2 learning were predominant in the 1940t and 1950t and gave
rise to the Audiolingual Method.
* In this view language learning was not a problem-solving activity, but the
formation ofhabits. The role ofpra-qlige and repetition was considered very
important. Ll was seen as an impediment to L2 learning, therefore the ef-
fectofll on L2learning was mainly assumed to be negative.

3.2. Schumann's (1978) Acculturation Model

o Schumannt Acculturation Model aimed to account for naturalistic lan-

guage learning in a second language environment. Schumann claims that
acculturation influenceg tle success ofsecond language acquisition. Ac-
culturation is defined as "the process ofbecoming adapted to a newculture"
(Brown, 1980, p. 129).
* In Schumannt model acculturation is dependent on two factors: social
and psychological distance.
A) Social distance comprises further components that determine to what
€xtent L2 learners want to become members of the target language
(TL) group. This factor has prirnary importance in the acculturation
model. Its components are:
- social dorninance (dominance relationship of the TL and Ll
group: superior, inferior, equal);
- integration pattern (to what extent the Ll group is assimilated);
- enclosure (how enclosed the L1 group is);
- cohesiveness (whether members ofthe Ll group have more intra-
or extra -group contacts);
- cultu,ral congruence (to what extent the culture ofthe L1 and the
TL group is similar);
- attitude (the attitude of the TL and L1 group towards each
other):
'"
- _turE-.!lucu rErrBLr r ur'residence.
B) Qgyc.holggicll distance concerns personal characteristics and fears
that.play.a role in L2 leaqning. They are of secondary importance in
the model. The components ofpsychological distance are:
- language shock (L2 learners'fear oflooking comic when.speak-
ing the L2)i

frtsuo
I8 roprcs rN Appr-rED r.rNcursrrcs

- culture shock (L2 learners'anxiety when rneeting the new cul- ca lle
ture); and
- rnotivation; * Pien
ego pernreabrlity (L2 learners'perception ofhow rigicl or flexible wl.ri<

the boundaries of their Ll personality is). less,

* Schumann characterised learning situations as 'good' or 'bacl'. For example, inflr
a good situation is when:
- social dominance is equal;
_ members of the Ll group want to assimiláte into the TL culture;
- there is lou,-enclosure in the L2 group; 5. COG
- the L2 group is l-tot cohesíve;
- the Tl. and Ll groups have positive attitudes towards each other;
- the TL group wants to stay in the L2 environment for a long time. Cognitivr
* Schumann's (1978) model received limited e:npirical support. process, t
mechanir

3.3. Gardner's (1988) So cio - educational Model

5.1. Kra

* Gardner's research was carried out in Canada and involved instructed L2

learners. Krashen'r
* In his rnodel he claims that three important inter-related factors play a framewo
role in L2 learning: municati
l. the social and cultural milieu: cultural beliefs, integrativeness (desire theory o:
to integrate in the TL community), attitudes towards the learning well:
situation - it ha
2. individual learner differences: motivation and aptitude (it is directly and
relevant in formal learning situations) maÍ
3. the setting: formal or informal learning context - it is
+ Among these factors, motivatioll has direct influence on L2 achievement Pra(
in this model. - lt tr
hen

Krashen'
4. THE MULTI.DIMENSIoNÁL MoDEL (MDM) oF sLA are:
1. Ac
2. TF,
* The MDM is one of the most comprehensive models of SLA. It is originally 3. In
based on research conducted with guest rvorkers learning German in Ger- - 4. AÍ
many and is mainly associated with the name of Pienemann (1984). It is 5.M
 I
sll(loND I-r\N(;uAGE r\CQUISt', ON I tioRIES l9

rl- caIled nlLllti-.liI]]ensioIlaIbecatlsc it tlkcs the ro]c ofinclil'idtrirl cli11érences

arrd sclcial Íactors illto considcrittion'
.t I)ienenarrn clainrs that there are (levelopnl!'ntal stages in llnguage leirrning
u'liich lravc a fixecl ordcr clue to Lrniversll proccssing consLraints. Nevertlte
s taucs l'it h clitlcr cn t speed, and th is speetl is
lcss, ler rncrs go th rouglt l hese
le, inHuenccri bl'social irnd indivirlual variirblcs (c.g. rnotivation, aptitude).

5. COGNII'IVE ACCOUNTS OF L2 LEARNING

Cognitive thcories oI SLA assLrrne that L2 learning is basically a psychological

proccss, therclbr.e' thc nra in task of Sl-.\ resea rcbers is to cliscovcr rvh al cogn il ir,c
rneclralijslns lrovent L2 lcirnt ing.

5.-l' l(ras/lcirls (1930) t|tcorI oÍ SLA

Krashen's j\lonitor'llreolv js one oi the eirrlicst attcntpts to

cxplain SLA in the
ya franrcwork ol a thcory. It hirs greirtlv influerrcccl language pcdagogy irncl corn
nunicltir,e lrrnguagc teachirg is based on Krashen's llreory. Although lirashcn's
llre theory of languirge lcalning ]ras to lace nucir criticism, it has advirntirges as
ing well:
.n
- bridging the gap between lingu istic thcorr.
it has u n,-loubtctlly succeccled
-tl. and actual language teaching Lry aflecting thc attitudcs anci thinkinq oi
nrany practiclng teachers;
- it is set dorvn in simple lirnguagc irnd uscs examplcs frol'n actual classroon.)
ent practice;
- it tries to unif)'the isolated scicntific observatiot.ts irtto a single cor.t.tpre
hensive theorv.

Krashcn's tl.te'orr,has ser,er0l clistinct compol'tcnts, thc ntost illlportant of \\,hicl)

are:
1. Acqu isition - I.ca rning I lypothesis
], The N.lIl|Í.ll t)rti'.'I Hr.I'r'Ihesis
ally 3. I npul I Iypothesis
Ger- 4. AÍIectivc Filter l Iypothesis
It is 5. ivlonitor Theory
 20 TopICs rN Appr-rlr) LrNGUIsrrcs

The Act1uísi tio t t - Le ar n i ng Hyp oth e sí s C

'lhe basis of thc thcory is the separation of trvo processes: acquisitiol.l
(subconscious llrocesses involved rvhcn leartrers use languirge for com-
lnunicarior'r) and learning (conscious and formal learning of linguistic
rules and forms = instructed language learning).
.flre
tWo processes result in two diíIerer-rt types oflanguage krrowledge:
_ the acquired systetn: respclI-tsible for Í]uent' sponti]lleous' co]1,t
municative language use; ).2.
the learned systent: eclitor, "Monitor" (see also Nlonitor hypoth-
esis) is responsible for making corrections.
*
llrc ,\nlurtl O nltr Hypotltc'i:
It was observect that L2 learners who have dilTerent Ll backgrouncl ac-
quire certain morphemes and gramntatical stuctures in a fixed order.
For exatrple, Krashen clairred thirt in naturalistic iearning situations in
.. the Írrst stage the -lng fornl, plurirl mirrking and the copula are urcc1uirecl'
, '' i then auxiliarics and articlcs, followecl by thc irlegular pirst, regular past,
.' ')''
/ 3'd pcrsorr sinBul.rr irncl the possessive s.

The Input llypothcsis Ref,

* Language acquisition occurs thror.rgb receivir.tg "cotnprehensible input".
Thus one oftlre teachers'main task is to provide letrrners with suÍicient
ll.lPut. I
* Efhcient comprehetrsible it.tput involves rllessages rvhose general lirn- ll rov

guage diÍficulty does not exceed tlre learrrer's ability, but w]rich also l
cont.rins structures that are onc stcp beyond the learner's culrent level Cho
of competence. (Formula: "i+1") Cart
I

Tltt Ajccl ivc I:il!tr Hyyollrc<is Grel

..afl-ective
* The learner needs to be open to the input.'lhe Í]lter'' is a nlen- Kra
tal b]ock (nlotivaticlrr' sclÍ-conhdcnce, arrxiety)' rvhiclr acts like a gate
controllirrg tlre amount ofinput thát is accepted. It has two positions: Pier
a) UP: the input tvill rtot icird to acquisition
b) DOWN;the input u'ill result itr acquisition Sch

Mottilor H|Pollrcsis Sch

.} Leartlers produce utterances with the help oíacquired knowledge, and
learned knowledge is only available for rnonitorir.lg the correctness of
the output. The'monitor'can only be used if learners are not under ski
tinre.pressure and if they are íocussecl on co].rectness'
 sLcoN D l,ÁN(;U,\C]]] t]] sITIoN THLo](l Ls 2l
^cQ

Criticísttl o'/ I(l-a.r/rr:lllr ntodel (Gregg, 1981)

ort * many of the tc'ncts of tlre Iloclel (c.g. the afl-ective filter h1'pothcsis) at-e
,m- irrpossiblc' to tt'st errpiricallv.
tic .i thc irc(]uisjtion learning clistinction is ps1'c1iological11'unfountled

)nl
5. /. lneortts oJ tlo (1ng
,th

.l Contrary to Krashen, Schmiclt (2001) clair.l.ts tilirt uucoliscious leatniug is

Irot possib1e, irllc1 thll cotisciortstless is a 1]]e.ÍeqtlisiIc Íbr 1eatlting. Lcaln-
ac- ers nccrl lo pa) iittentiou to tlle inPLrt lhcl' t'eceivc, ancl thel'hai e lo nolice
1er. specific l-ea{u rcs tltat rre lo bc leilntt, ot helrvise ittpLtt tvill not beconle illtake
iin (lvi1l not be lealnecl). l(ecent ps;'citological lhcories antl reseaLch evitlencc
'cd, strongl)' support the noticing h1'pothesis.
asl,

Referenc es:
ut.
ent
Lllis,]{.(1994)'7rgsrrxl1l1fsecontllauguttgL:ricqr,rl.síÍioll.()xlbrdloxfordUrliversit1'Press'
LAn - Brcxvn, LL (198u). lhe oplimrl LListar)ce modcl ofsccorrd langurge acquisition l l)SOl Qrrartu'tlt"
lso 11,157 161.
:r'el Chomsk,v, N' (l965)' Á s|ctÍs af 1||e tlrco1'.,- aJ.'',f/llíl-Í.call1l)Íidge' N1irss': NlI,[. Press'
Gardner, R. (1938).'fhe socio cclrrcational nrodcl ofsccond language Learning: AssuIrlPtions'
finclings and issucs. /.,rrigrdg.l-crlnrir.q, i8, l0l 126.

Klasbcn's monitor ancl Occam's fazor- .'\pplie./ li'.qrri-\1i.5' 5' 79-100

{ircgg, K. I(. (198'1).
ten - KÍ shen, s' (l98o) 11e il1PÜt lr)'pol hesis' ln J. ,.\]t1lis ( I]d')' cll'-r.'ll iJJl!..\ i,' l.lilinguaI ucLllioll
Iale (pp' l68 130), \\rashington, D. (].: Ccorgetowl1 UniVeÍsity P|css'
NS: lienenrann, N{ (l9s'1). Psychological co strainls on the teachtl)ilit} oflangu.rges Strrdi':s itt
Sccorrd Lalglra.qc Ácqtli.!llio,j' .i' lij6 2l'1.
schnridt, R' (20o1)' Attcntion' In I]' ]{obinsoll (EL]')' C-r)g]1iÍk,I dttd scIalld Idngltdgt act1uistlion
(Pp' 3 32)' CanlbIidgc: carnbIidgc Uni\'.Ísit), l)ress.
Schunann, l. (1978).'lhe acculturetioll moclcl for-second langrrage acquisition ln l. Richards
and (Ed.), Urrdi:r sta rrllrrg sacottd and Jttraigtt /arr.qrrnlc leorrrirrg, /s-srrc-r rrrrl approor:lrcs (pp
sof l61 173). Rorlc,v,,\4xss.: Nervburl' I Iouse.
rder Skinner, B. (1957). \'trLtalbchat'iour. Ncrv York: APPltton (lentury-(iofts
22 ToPICs lN ÁPPLIl]D LlNGUlsTIcs

llecommended reading: LINGI

llllis, l{. (199a). Iha study of secotti la,tguagc acquisiLion. Oxtbrd: Oxford University Press. pp.

Creg8' K. I{. (l98a). Kraslrcn's monitor and occam's razor. Ápplied Li,1gllistics, 5,79-|oo.
K rashen, S. D., & l errell, f. D. ( 1933). '|1rc tntural apptud.lt. Ox ford: Pergamon Press.
l,arscn Frceman, I). & l,ong, M. (1991). Irtroduttion to scca dltl guage acqai.riiion. Nerv \brk:
l,ongnran. pp.220 289.

r. coNT
ACTIVITIES
'i. Resei
langr
Check questions to idr
effecl
* The sl
L What does Chomsky's tireory of Universal Grammar say about Ianguage rhat I
acquisition? to lea
2. How has the theory of UG been applied to L2 learning? diffic
3. What are the adv.rntages oí Krashen's theory of L2 learnirrg? *CAw
4. How does acquisition diÍl.er from learning in Krasherr's theory? when
5. What is the role ofthe affective filter in Krashent theory? CA h,
6. Wl.rat is the role of the monitor in Krashen's theory? ofCl
7. What do tireories of noticing clairn about L2 learning? How do these * Wher
claims relate to Krashen's theory? TCVEA
8. What fáctors influence L2 acquisition in Sc|rumanni acculturation model? not n
9. How does Gardneri socio educational model dilIer from that of Schu- .t ln res
mann? para(
10. What do interactionist models clairn about second language acquisition? simil
{. Even
aban

Tasks

2. ERRO
1. Discuss the relevance oIthe aÍ1bctive filter in language learning and teaching.
2. Discuss how teachers can ensure áPpropIiate comprehensible input.
3. What, in your opinion, play a more important role in second language * In E,/
acquisitíon: innate capacities or environnrental factors? lyse t
LINGUISTIC ANALYSES IN SLA RESEARCH

1. coNTRASTIvE ANÁLYsIs (CA)

{.Researchers in the 1950's and 1960's systematically compared the native

language (Ll) to the target language (Tt) (e.g. Lado, 1957). Their aim was
to identify similarities and differences between the Ll and the TL so that
effective teaching materials could be prepared.
+ The strong version ofthe Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) blaimed
that linguistic structures that are similar in the Li and the TL will be easy
to learn, whereas elements that are different in the L1 and the TL will be
difficult to acquire.
.!' CA was an important tool in the audio lingual period oflanguage teaching
when errors were believed to be caused by bad habits (see behaviourism).
CA helped to predict errors, thus it was believed that by taking the findings
ofCA into consideration, errors might be prevented.
.r When CA predictions were subjected to empirical tests, several ffaws were
revealed: CA did not predict all errors, and it did predict some that did
not materialise.
{. criticism the wea( version ofthe CAH was set up. In this
In response to the
paradigm, CA aims to explain errors TL learners produce by pointing out
similarities and differences between the TL and the L1 (Wardaugh, 1970).
* Even though CAH was unproven, CA as a methodological option was not
abandoned, but its strong version is not practised any more.

2. ERROR ANALYSIS (EA)

{ In EA researchers first describe the learner's language use, then they ana-
lyse the TL and compare the learner's use of the TL with the TL itself with
24 roptcs IN APpLIED LINGUISTICS

the aim offinding dill-erences. Initially in EA errors are described without Table 3.
reference to the L1 ofthe learners.
* The ear]y version oí EA, rvhich exclrrcled tlre eÍ1.ect of the l,,l was not ten'
'Ihe solution to this
able since there are errors that are due to Ll influence
problem was transfer analysis (see Section 4 belou).
+ In EA distinction was made between errors and mistakes (Corder, 1967).
Mistake: ranclotl slip in per formance causecl by tiredness, anxiety' etc
ErIoÍ| systellatic devíation that shows that the learner has not acquiÍed.
the TL structure yet
.Corder arguecl that in EA only errors shoulc{ be analysed. It is, however,
very difficult to distinguish elrors from mistakes.

2.1. ClassiJication of errors 2.2. )

.! We can distinguish two basic types of error taxonomies (Ellis, 1994): *'
1. Linguistic classification (e g. Iexis, morphology' syntax) *I
2. 2. Surface classification

Table l. Linguistic taxonomy oferrols

Type of error Exomple

PhonoloBical error
{":""r!l:,r:ry:dl _
Lexical errof
-1his
restaurant sells exccllent cancer. 2-3.

Morphological error He cxplained it brief.

syntactic erroÍ You hdve to Pay the tlventy live per cent the Price. .i
*
.t
Table 2. Surface strategy taxonomy of€rrots
Exa pLe

O m ission 'lhe dog sleeping-

Shc doesn't likes chocolate

^ddition 3. I
N'1isin ibfnrat ion Ilc goecl home.

Misordering I do not know what shoulLl 1do

lnte
* Errors can har'e 1.our major sources: transíer' intraLingual' developmenta1 trav
and unique sources (see belorv). t96t
 LINGUISTIC ANALYSES IN SLA RESEARCH .U5

It Table 3. I axonomy ol errors accord ing lo lheir sources (ba(cd on Fllr\, lqq4)

Source ExampLe
I
s Transfer Use of elenrents from one language I entered into my room.
while speaking another language

Intralingual Overgeneraiisation of rules, two advices

simplihcation

Developmental Errors that also occur in Ll learning He throwed it away.

Vriq* Teacher induced errors lmitating the mispronunciation

ofa word produced by a non
natlve teacher

2.2. Major fndings of EA

* The majority of errors is intralingual.

.l Error evaluatior.r studies found that global errors (i.e. errors that affect sentence
organisation, e.g. word order) hinder comprehension more seriously than lo-
cal errors (i.e. errors in single elements in a sentence, e.g. agreement) and that
non-native speakers are harsherjudges oferrors than native speakers.

2.3. Problems h,ith EA

looks at what learners do wrong, not what they do right.

.i. It
.:. ItdiÍicult ' ifnot impossible - to identify the unitary source ofan error.
is
* Learners sometimes avoid structures, thus the frequency oferrors does not
give a comprehensive picture about language development.

3. INTERLANGUAGE STUDIES

Interlanguage (lL): continuum between L1 and L2 along which all learners

traverse, that is, a learner language that is a system in its own right (Selinker,
1969). At the beginning of the learning process the IL is close to the L1 and at
26 roplcs IN ÁPPLIED LINGUIsTlcs

advanced levels it approximates the TL. Interlanguage can become fossilized, tonl
that is, learners do not develop any further. trar

.:

3.1. Characteristics of IL

* ILs vary systematically, that is, learners' language use is not random but
is governed by rules.
* ILs exhibit common accuracy/acquisition orders. It was found that regard-
less of the learners' Ll, certain morphemes emerge in the same order. For
example;

Table 4. Stages of development in the lcarning of negation (based on Larsen-Freeman &

Lorig, l99l).

Stage Example

l. External No you do that.

2. Ir)ternal, pre-verbal He no like cheese.

3' At]xiliaÍy + neg' He can t drive.

4. Analysed don't She doesn't like opera.

3.2. The ffict of Ll on interlanguage

* Ll can delay passage through a developmental stage.

n Ll can speed up passage through a developmental stage.
n Ll can ma(e the period of committing errors longer. F

(
4. THE STUDY OF TRANSFER
I
t

Transfer is..the influence resulting from the simílarities and differences be-
tween the target language and any other language that has been previously
acquired" (Odlin, 1989, p. 27). This means that not only features of the mother
 LINGU]STIC ANALYSES IN SLA ITESEARCII 27

d, tongue, but elements from any previously learnt foreign lirnguate cirn be
transferrecl.

.} Types oftraIrsÍérl
- negirtive transfer: results in errors; '' l't )'' " k"t ' '.'
. avojdirnce: ar'oiding a structure becar.rse ofc1iÍlérences between L1 and
TL;
positivc tritnstel': fircilitates leirrning;
oveLuse: letrrneLs ovcrgeneralize a strLtcture due to siutilarities bctrveen
L1 ancl L2.
* Marliedne.ss (Zobl, 1980): I{esearch evidence shorvs that lillguistically
unr-nar(ecl/prototypical Í.eatur.es of the Lt (e.g' r'oiced stops, ZeIo n()r
pherres to malk singular') u'ill be transfcrrcd k) the IL, but Jinguistically
marlled ones (voiceless stops, plur-al narking) lvill not.
.l Pe;-ceivccl transf-erability (Kellernrirn, 1979): rvhether leirrners transfer a
form dcpcnds on tl.reir bclieli hol' 1i(ely it is thrt the form ir accepr.rble
in the TL, that is, or.t tl.rc lcarner's perception ol-the clistancc'betu,een Ll
ancl L2. Iror exarrple, a Dutch spea(er rnight be nrore rvilling to translate
a Dutch expression word for word when speaking English than a Hungar
ian speirker because he believes that the'tl'o Janguages are not yery distant
from each olher.
* Finclings ofstudies on trirnsfer (Odlin, 1989):
- With the developrnent o[ profrciencv the number of tr ansl-er errors
decreirses.
Transtcr errors typically occur at tl.rc ievel of phonology, Iexis ar.rcl clis
couLsc, irncl are rirrc in the field of r.norpholoty ancl synta>
Transfcr erroLs;rrc nracle more frcqlrentlv bv adult learners thirn by
cl.t i lcl re n .

References:

Corder, S. P. (1967). llrc signilicance oflcarncrs' etrors. I tartuitianul Ilcvicw of Apptirl Lin
Sr./rrtr.s, -5, 161 170.
.Ifu
ELlis' R' 1]99'l)' study ol scconl ltt,l(rr.r8.' d.{'iJifio,l, oxford. oxt'oÍd Uni\'ersity Prcss'
(ellerlIan' E' (1979)' l.ransfer anc] non 'trirnsfér: Where are we not'? .!trlrllr's in .Srcllal Lnlr3rrngc
Ácquisitial1,2,37 57'
lado, l{' (l957)' I-i'gll'slic.s rrcross rtrlfrrres' Ann AÍbor: UDivcrsitv ol'\4i.higan Press'
28 roplcs IN APPLIED LINGUIsrrcs

Larsen-FIeeman, D.' & Long' M. (199l). 1rr tÍoduction to se.ond lanlua4e acquisitioh'NewyoÍki I asKS
Longman.
odlin' T. (l989). larguaqe transíeÍ: Crosslinguistic infuence in language learning. Carnbtidge:
Cambridge University Press. 1. c,
selinker' L' (l969). Language transfer. Ge'eral Litlguistícs' 9,67-92. tr
Wardaugb' Il' (1970). 'rhe contíastive analysis hypothesis. TESoL Quatterly, 4, |23-ll30' o
Zobl, H. (1980). Tbe formal and developmental selectivity of Ll inlluence on L2 acquisition. z.A
La ngüa3e Leat ]1in8, 30, 43 -57. L
v
t
k
Recommended reading: I
s

Iames, C- (1998). Errors in language learning and use: Exploring error analysis, London: Long-
man.
Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. (l99l). 'lÍ'roduction to second language acquisitio|1.Nevl York|
Longman. pp. 52-107.
odlin' T' (l989). lazgl age transfer: Crosslinguistic íhfl'uence i ldfiguage learníng' Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1- What was the basic assumption of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis?

What are the problems with this hypothesis?
2. What is the difference between the strong and weak versions ofthe Con-
trastive Ánalysis Hypothesis?
3. What is the difference between transfer and intralingual errors and be-
tween mistakes and errors?
4. What are the problems with Errol Ánalysis?
5. What does performance analysis study?
6. Explain the term 'interlanguage' in your own words.
7 What is transfer and what types oftransfer are there?
8. What are the major research findings concerning transfer in L2 learn-
ing?
 LINGUISTIC ANALYSES IN SLA RESEARCH 29

Tasks

1' Collect composition work from L2 students. Select one €omPosition. Iden-
tify the errors in the composition. Discuss the source of errors in pairs.
Observe how difficult it is to decide where the error comes from.
2. Ask an L2 student to describe a picture and record his/her performance.
Listen to the tape together with the student and stop the recording when
you hear an error. Ask the student about the error (e.g. is he/she aware of
the fact that she made an error, would she be able to correct it, does he/she
know where the error comes from). Transcribe the text ofthe studentt
performance and identify the errors in the transcript. Decide about the
source ofeach error, taking the student's comments into consideration.

Ík:
THE LINGUISTIC INPUT FOR LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION

Trvo issues emcrge in input sludics:

L studies analysing the way nativc speakers speak and write because the texts
native spea(ers producc serr.e as an 'input text' to Icarrrers. In this field the
basic question is which r.arietl'oflinglish should ser\/e as an input text to
language leirrners (e.g. American, British, slang, standarci);
2. studies of input discoulse', i.e. the way nativc speakers (NS) irddress non
native speakers (NNS).

1. THELINGUISTIC INPUT FoRFIRsT LANGUAGEÁCQUISITIoN

.! When carretirkers (i.e. rnothers, babysitters etc.) talk to their children who
are learnir.rg L1, they ma(e a number of adjustrnents. This kind of talk is
called "carretirker talk".
+ Usual input for children acquiring their mother tongue:
- syntax: rvell-fornted, shorter utterances, less complex, fewer clauses;
- phonology: higher pitch, reduplication of syllab)es, clearer articulir-
tlon;
- sernantics: restricted vocabulart'. "here and now".

2, THE LINGUISTIC INPUT FOR SLA

* When NS talk to NNS they also ma(e adjustnrents in their speech, which
is called "foreign"l 1nl11" (lrT) (Fe'rgr:son, 1975). FT shows ir nunber of
similarities with care ta(er tal(.
JZ TOPICS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

* FT is sometimes ungrammatical especially if the NNSt proficiency is 3. D(

low and if the NS has higher social status (Long. 1983). See the examples
below:
This i
NS-NS NS-NNS plicat

1. Where did you eat? 1. Where you eat?

-l
2. Do this at once! 2, You do nowl
i
3. My brother doesn't like football. 3. Brother me no like football.
-l
l
l
2.1. Linguistic modifcations in FT

FT
.:. is usually-slower than NS-NS interaction. 4.cl
FT
.:. contains short-sentences.
* FT is.syntactically less complex.
* FT uses simple and frequent vocabulary items. *

2.2. Discourse modifcations in FT a

* NS often change the amount and type of information to be conveyed in

interactions with NNS.
* NS often use a high number ofquestions to establish and control topics.
* NS often select topics that concern 'here and now'.
* NS frequently use comprehension checks and self-repetitions.
s.o

2.3. The functions of FT -!*"r

by Ll
,-that
1. topromote communication prov
2. to.signal attitude towards the conversational partner that
3. to teach the TL implicitly learr

In naturalístic situations (í.e. second language environment) Function 1 is the

most lmportant.
 THE LINGU]STIC lNPUT FOII LANGUAGL ACQUISIT]ON 33

3. DOES THE LINGUISTIC INPUT MATTER?

lhis is not only a theoretical question but has very irnportant pedagogical im
plications.'lhere are t\\'o clucial elTects the input has ot.r SLA:
DeYiant input: Ifexposed to ill-fornred input, the SI' learner might acquire
a substandarcl variety of the target language.
'lypical example: teacher
induced errors.
- Frequency hypothesis: The secluence of L2 acquisition is deterrnined by
horv frequerrtly iinguistic items occur in the input. At present, there is no
llrm research evidence to support this hypothesis

4. COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT AND SLA

.i Krashen's (1980) lnput Hypothcsis: devclopment from a leatner's curtent

stage I lo the r.rext stage l+1 is irchicved through the learner cot.nprehend-
ing language lvhich contaills itens at the stage l+1. On11. thís way rvill the
input becorr'e ítttake'
*There is only indirect evicletlce for the input hypothesis' and several pojnts
ofcriticism ivere raisecl against it ln the liglrt ofLhe criticisrr, the hypoth
esis has been rnodiliedr "(lomprehensible inPut can frrcilitate acquisition'
but is not a necessary condition ofacquisition and does not gtrarantec tll'rt
acquisition rvill ta(e place" (Lllis, 1994' p. 279)

5. OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS

Swain (1985) cLainrs that comprehetrsible output (i.e. speech or writing produced
by L2 learners) pronloIes lear;r ing because |earners are íolced to produce otltput

that is concjse, coherent and appropriate Psycholinguislic theories of learning

provide strong support for the output hypothesis. All teachers intuitively accept
that providing learners with opportunities to Practice the language enhances
learnrng.
 ToPIcs lN ÁPPL]ED l,lNGUlsTlcs

6. THE EFFECT OF INSTRUCTION ON L2 LEARNING I7eco,

.i. EarLv studies (e.g' Uphshur' l9ó8) clairned that instructed learning is the Larsen
salnc as naturalistic acquisition. I-or
.:. Studies conducted in rhe I980s sho',v that formally instructe'd L2
learners
dcveiop fhster both in seconcl and in foreign language environr.nent than
learners rvho receive no instrllction (e.g. Weslander & Stephany, 1983).
Stuclies trlso indicate that stuclents u'ho are also exposed to the L2 outside ACT
the classroorn setting progress the rnost rapidly (e.g. Spada, 1987).
* Thcrc is eviclence that learners who received instructiolr on grammatical
structures, speak mrore accuratel,v. The jnstruction ofstructutes that arc wcll Chec
above the learners'compe[ence does not result in intproved irccuracy.
* Pieucmann's (198'1) research also shou's that formal instructlon cannot
altef the acquisitior.r orcler of grarnmatical structures, but in certain cases 1.

can speed up learrners' passage through a sequence. 2..

3.

4.
References: 5.
6.
7.

Ellis, R. (1991).71te studl ofsetont!la gudge ac.luisitian - Oxforcl: Oxforcl University Press
Ferguson, C. (]975)-'ibw:rrds a characteriZation offoreigner tal(' ÁllhropoLogical I'itlguistits,
17, I-4.
Krashen, S. (l980) Ihe input hypothesis. ln I. Alatis (Ud.), CLrl?7tt issues in bilingual eclucation Task
(pp. 168-180). Washington, l). C.: Georgetown University Press.
Long, lt{. (]983). l-ingüistic and conversational idjustments to non-native spcakcrs. Studies i
seca]1d Ldngüdgc Acqui5ition, 5' l77 l93. I.
Picnen,ann, lvl (19{14). PsychoJogical constraints on the teachability oflanguages. Studies rn
Second Language Acquisition,6, 186 2I4. z.
spada' N' (] 987)' RelationshiIs betu,een instÍLrctional differenccs ancllearn1rrg outcomes: A proc
ess PÍoduct study ofconrlnu11icative language teachlng' ÁPl/icc] Li guis1ics, 8, I37 16l. 3.
Swain' M. (1985)' CorI mu],]icati\'e comPetence: Some ro1es oícorlrPlehensib]e input arrd compre
he']siblc ou|Pul in its develoPment. In s. Gass, & C. Madden (Eds '),lúPut in secand ldnguage
dcquisiliofl (pp. 235-251). Rowlcy, Mass.r Ne\\bury House.
Upshur, j' (t96t])' Four experiInents on the Íc]ation bctlveen lbreign language teachirrg and
learning. ldrgrldg. l- edr t1 i ng, 8, lll-124.
1

Wesiander, D., & Stephany, G. (1983). Evalualion ofEnglish as a seconcl language program for
southeast Ásian students' T'.so| Qu.irlcrb,, ]7 4/-3 180'
 35
THE LINGUISTIC INPUT FOR LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Recommended reading:

yoÍk:
to second language acquisition.Ne\^l
Larsen-FÍeeman' D'' & Long, M' (199l)' In,ro duction
Longman PP. 114-144

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

their Ll'
1. List the features ofinput to children acquiring
2' What is foreígner talk?
with
i. Wh"t typ". oiudjustment do native speakers make in conversations
non-native sPeakers?
acquisition?
+. What is the role of input in second language
acquisition?
^

S. What is the role ofoutput in second language

state?
6. What does Krashen's Input Hypothesis
7. Ho* do". fo.-al instruition affect second language acquisition?

Tasks

l.RecordaconversationwithanativespeakerofEnglish.Canyounotice
to you?
anv adiustments he/she has made while talking
;i'J:;ih; implícations of Krashen's Input Hypothesis for language
'. teaching.
by a native sPeaker' Record the adjust-
- Observe an English lesson taught the
3.
students during tbe lesson RePort
-.nt, fr"t.t " ria(es in talking to
your observations to the grouP'
COMMUN ICATIVE COMPETENCE

1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE?

The tertn communicativc conpete nce is associated with an American socio-lin-

gurst, DeJ FIymes (1971), rvho argued that the ability to speak competently does
not only irlvolve knowing the grammaticaL rules of a language but also knowing
what to say to whom in what circumstances and how to say it.

2. COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

2.1. Canale and Swain} (1980) framework

one of the most widely accepted theoretical models of communicatíl'e compe

tence was put forward by two Canadian applied linguists, Michael Canale and
Merill Swain (1980). Their model identified four components:
l. Lir.rguistic competence - the knor'vledge of the language cocle (granr
matical rules, vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, etc.);
2. Sociolinguistic competence - the mastery ofthe sociocultural code of
language use (appropriate application ofvocabulary, register, politeness,
and style ín a given situation)j
3. Discourse competence the ability to combine language structures into
different types of cohesive and coherent texts, i.e., to construct texts
larger than a sentence (e.g. letter, political speech, poetry, academic
essay, cooking recipe);
4. Strategic competence - the (nowledge of verbal and non-verbal com-
mut]ication stÍategies rvhich carr enable us to overcome dif-l]cu]ties when
conmunication breakdowns occur ancl enhance the eÍficiency of com.
 IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

munication. In other words, it involves the abilitv to express oneselfin

lhe lace oIJifficultie' or limited language proficiency.

.! This model has been influential in defining major dimensior.rs of com-

municative language use, and has been used as a starting point for most
subsequent studies on the issue. * Stl
.t Its major shortcoming is that it is difficult to include language functions se(
(e.g. suggesting, apologizing) in it, even though these have an important se!
role in communicative language teaching. an
.:' Ps)
vol

2.2. Bachman's (1990) framework

oÍ communicative language ability
3. col
FORE
Communicative language ability includes Ianguage competence, strategic com-
petence and psychophysiological mechanisms.
Traditi
* Language competence gramrT
1. Organizationai competence: "knowledge of how sentences and texts provinl
are organised" (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p.68) skills, t
A. Gramnirtical competence: "kt.rowledge of how individual have pt
utterances and sentences are organised" (ibid.); involves the includt
knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, morphology, phonemes and compe
graphemes been a
B. Textual competence: "knowledge ofhow sentences or utterances affects
are organised to form a text"(ibid.); involves the knowledge of
cohesion and rhetorical organisation.
C. Pragmatic competence: "knowledge of how utterances or sen-
tences are related to the communicative goals ofthe language Refert
user and to the features ofthe language use setting" (ibid.).
2. Illocutionary (or in a later version of the model, functional) corn-
petence: "(nowledge of how utterances or sentences are related to Canale,
the communicative goals of the language user" (ibid.). It includes la n!
knowledge of ideational fur.rctions (e.g. descriptions, classifications, Bachma
explanations, expressior.ts of sorrow or anger), manipulative fur.rc- Pre!
tlons (e.g. requests, suggestions, warnings, greetings, Ieave-taking, Bachmr
compliments, apologies), heuristic functions (e.g. problem solvir.rg), Prer
imaginative functions (e.g. telling jokes, writing poetry). Hymes
Píe
I
co]!lMUNI(]ATlvI] co]!'íIltjTEN(jE 39

3. Sociolinguisliccorttpetettce: "\n orvledge of horv uttcra nccs or sentenccs

:rrc relatcd to the lcaturcs ofthe language use settir'rg" (ibid.); involves
tl.tc knou'leclse of tlialccts, r'arietie's of language, re'gisters, natural or
icliomatic expressior.rs, cultural reterences irnd fi gu rcs of speech.

.t Slrategic courpctcnccI it is central to all conrmunication and is not only

sr'en ils ir collpensirtor)'tool. It hclps dcternrine com nru u icirtir.e {:oais, as-
sess ol]e,s Icsol]Ices [o colll]'],]unic.rte ()ne's lllessaue, plan cotrrnunícation
itnd executc thc corlnrrrnicatiYe illtention.
* i)srhoph,vsiologicalnrcchan isr.r.rs: r'reurological and ps1'chological proccsses in-
volved in proclucing languagc (e.g. auditorv, visual and mcurontuscular skills).

3. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AND

FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

Traditional languagc teaching was concernecl r.vith clcveloping the leirrners'

gramnatical competence. illodern language teaching, horvever, air'ns at im-
proving thc learner's ability to comnrunicate, their active verbal performance
skills, that is, their communicative corrpetence. Comrnulricative coursebooks
have put a lot ofcrrphasis on frrnctional/pragmatic cornpetence, and have often
included exerciscs focusing on thc devclopnrent ofsociolinguistic and discourse
competencies. lhe consciorrs training of strateqic conrpetcnce, horvever, has
been a neglectecl a rea in languagc teach ing cven t hougll this cornpetence greatiy
affects the learners'conve'rsational skilis and deeree offluency.

Ret'eren ce s:

Canrlc, r\'1., & S\r'ain, l\{. (19lt0). Thcorctic.rl bascs of conrmunicativc l1ppfonches 1o second
Jlnguage teaching anr] tesling' Á|/'i.d Lil/g!r/sl'(.i, ], l.]7.
Bachnlan' I'' (l990). |r1nlan1e,I1dl.oü5illefiIiaüs i1r lnn!u11!e 1es!i/l.{. oxli)rd: oÍford UDive|sit)'
I)rcss.
Bachnran, L., & l)Lrlmer, A. (1996)- l.arrgaa-qc les!i)tS ilt pr/1ctit:r. oxÍord: C)x lilrd Uni\,ersit,v
Prcss.
Hfnrcs, D. (1971). O,1 ct, tnluticatit'c conlpLlcncc. l)hilaclelphia: UniYersitY of Pen ns,vlvrrnia
Prcss.
;

40 roptcs rN APPLTED LINGUlsrrcs

i
Recommended reading: cor
skehan' p' (1998). Á cognitive appíoach to language learuing Oxford: Oxford University Press'
pp. 157-165.

ACTIVITIES
NR
Check questions
c
n
l. What is communicative competence? *T
2. What are the components of communicative competence proposed by a
' Canale and Swain (1980)? (l
3. How does llachman's (1990) framework dift'er fror.n Canale and Swain's *T
model?
4. Why are illocutionary/functional and strategic competencies important
in language learning?

Task

Select a language test (e.g Cambridge First Certificate Exam, Hungarian In

termediate Level State Examination). Which components of communicative
competence do the various tas(s measure?

I. TH

Accor
1.
2.
 COMMUNICATIONSTRATEGIES 4-I

COMM U NICATION STRATEG I ES

r.. Researchers started investigating communication strategies in the 1970's,

when they observed that second language learners use certain devices to
cope with problems that arise from the mismatch between their commu
nicative intentions and their linguistic resources in a systematic manner.
.i. The term 'communication strategy' (CS) was first used by Selin(er (1972),
and CS were first analysed systematically by a Hungarian researcher, Váradi
(1e80).
* There are three main views ofwhat CS are:
l. CS = devices used to compensate for lack of L2 knowledge: "CSs are
potentially coltscious plans for solving what to an individual presents it-
selfas a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal" (Faerch
& Kasper, 1983, p. 23).
2. CS = meaning negotiation mechanisms: "CS relate to a mutual at-
tempt of interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where req-
uisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared" (Tarone, 1980,
p.420).
3. CS = g,eneral problem-solving mechanisms in L2 communication:
"every potentially intentional attempt to cope with any language
related problems of which the speaker is aware during the course of
comnrunication'' (Dörnyei & Scott, l99Z p. I79).

1. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

According to Dörnyei and Scott (1997), CS have two main defining criteria:
l. Problem-orientedness
2. Conscíousness
 42 ToPlcs rN APPLTED LINGUISTIcs

l.l. Problem - orientedness

)1

Type of problems in L2 communication:

a) Resource deficit gap in the L2 learner's knowledge
b) Own-performance problems - uncertainty in the correctness of the
message
c) Other-performance problems - problems processing the interlocutor's
speech
d) Processing tin.re pressure - problems in conveying the message fluently 2.2

1.2. Consciousness

Consciousness as awareness ofa probiem: the L2learner is aware ofthe fact

that he/she is having a problem. This distinguishes CS from mistakes
b) Consciousness as intentionality: the speaker uses the CS intentionally to
solve a problem.

,í
*.*..'.".*"]'.......-,
2. THETAXONOMYOFCS

There are a number ofdifferent taxonomies ofCS, but what most ofthem contain
is a division between message adjustment and achievement strategies.
l. Message adjustment strategies: tailorlng the message (e g reducing or 2.:
abandoning it) because of problems.
2. Achievement strategies:the use ofstrategies to convey the intended mean-
ing in spite of problems.

Dörnyei & Scott (1995) add an additional group:

3. Time-gaining strategies: the use offillers, hesitation devices to gain time
to express the intended message.
 coM M UN laAl lohv sTR-r.IEGlLs 43

2.1. Message adjustment strategies

.t Messagc abar.rdonment: giving up tlte message

.l Message reduction: reducing the tnessagc to avoid certain structures or topics
.! lvlessage repltrcement: substituting the original t.nessage with a dill-erent one

2,2, Achievement strategies 4

.} Paraphrase or circuInlocution - describing or exempliíying the target

object or actiorr lvhose name the learners do not know (e g.'the thing you
open wíne bottles with, for corkscrew)
.! Approximation - using an alternative term whicl.t expresses the meaning
ofthe target word as closely as possíble (e.g. \hip, Íor saíIíngboat)
* Use ofal] purpose ra'ords (e.g. thíng' stuff)
.l Restructuring (e.g. He looks . .. he tloes not look interested)
t Literal translation (e.g. cuckoo clock for pendulum clock)
{. Word coinage: creating a non-existing L2 word (e.g. unrelevant for ir-
relevant)
.;.Non-linguistic rneans: mime, gestures, imitation, mumbling
.r Appeal for help - eliciting the word you are loo(ing for from your com-

munication partner by askirrg questions 1ike,lylíat,s the wordfor...,

2.j. Time - gai ning strategies

+ Fillers and hesitation devices to gain time (e.g. well, I mean, actually, as a
matter ot'Jact, what I,m tryíng to say is that, now let me think, l see what you
mean, to be quite honest)
 TOPICS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

3. THE TEACHABILITY OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

Dörnyei (1995) argues that CS are teachable and that they should be taught in
L2 courses in order to help learners express their intended message. The experi-
rTrental study he conducted in Hungary demonstrates that the teaching ofcertain
types ofCS was successful as stuclents used these strategies more frequently after
instIuction, and the participants' fluency also íncreased. CounteÍ-arguments
against the teaching of CS say that CS can help fossiiization, that is, students
might overuse CS instead ofworking on improving their L2 competence.

References:

Dörnyei, Z. (l995)' on the teachability of communication strategies. TEsoI Quarterly, 29,

55 84.
Dörnyei, Z., & scott, M' (1997)' Communication strategies in a second language: Defrnitions
and taxonomies. Idr guage Lear ing,47,173-210.
Faerc}r' C., & Kasper, C. (t983). Plans and stlategies in foÍeign language communication. In C.
Faerch & G' Kasper (ü{:ls.), s,].dfegies irl infer|anguage communicatiok (pP.20 60). London:
Longntan.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. 1/1,41, rc,209 230.
Tarone, E. (1980). Cornmunication strategies, foreigner tal(, and repair in interlanguage. ldr-
luage Learning, 30,417 43L
Váradi' T' (1980). strategies of target ]anguage learnet communication: Message adjustment.
IRAL, 18,59 7t.

Recommended reading:

Dórnyei, Z', & scott, M' (l997)' Communication stlategies in a second language: Defrnitions
and taxonomies. tdr guage Learni/1g, 47, 17 3 -210.
Dórnyel, Z., & Thurrel], s. (199l). Strategic co],Dpetence and how to teach it' ELT Journal, 45,
16-23.
Dőtnyei,Z., & Thurrel1, s. (1992) ' Conyersation and dialogues irl acfioÍ' New York: PÍentice
Hali.
 c:ut\lllulilc.\fl()N sl R-\Tl Gtls 45

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1. What arc the nrain vien's of conrmunic.rtion strategies?

2. W]]at a1e the t1eÍining critcria crf com:lunicirtion strategies?
3. \\rhat are thc three main groups of comt.nunication strategies? List the
strirtegies that belong to each of these groups.
4. Why is it important to teach communication strategies?

Tasks

1. Select words that irre specilicirlly connected to Hungariirn cuiture (e.g.

délibáb, busójár ás, gólyabál' szalagavató). Work in pairs ancl irsk your
partner to explain these rvorcis in English. Observe tbe conrn)unication
strategies your partner used. lfyou teach, do this task\\'ith your students,
and compare the clehnitior.rs provided by your fellow students and the
learners you teach.
Select ir short l{ungarian íoik.tale in rr4rich tllere irrc tvords you assLtt,ne
vour feilow stuclents/ the studelrts you teach clo not knorv. Give the text
ofthe tale to your course-mate/ student and asl< him/her to tell you the
story in English. llecord his/her speech. Play the tape bac( to hi;n/her
and stop the recording when you heirr a comnrunication strategy. Ask
him/her why he/she used that particular strategy. l{eport your observa-
tlons to the group.
3. Design an activity to teach one of the comrnunication strategies. If you
teach, try rt out.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I.
LEARNER BELIEFS, ANXIETY, APTITUDE
AND AGE

I, INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Why is it that everybocly is able to master his/her mothc'r tonguc, but not always
a second la nguage ? One possible ansrlcr to th is questior.r lies in the exirnr ination
oiindividual dillercnces in 1.2 learnirrg. Beliel.s about languirgc learning, affec-
tilcstales (i.c. irnxicty) and gcrreral lnctors such as age, lptitude, motivation and
pcrsonalitr' tritits c()nstitutc the 1naj()I t)'pes oI irrdividrral ]earner diÍl-crcnces'
Jhese individual clilicrcnces together rvith lcarner stralcgies can influcltce lan-
gurge learning outconres, that is, proliciencl', achicvenrent and rate of ircclu isition.
Language lcarning oLrtconres cirn also have irn ir l'l-ect orr indivirlual clillcrences
antl strategies (see fi gure bclorv).

IN l)lYIDUA I- DIFF Ill{ llN*ClS

,,, \\
la" \.\
'.\.
.'.
\
,',.' \\
I-EÁRNtlt sTRÁl l;(lIEs < i L,t Nt;uect I-uARN-lN(; outcot{tis

Figure I' The Íclatiolrs|rip ofindivitlual diÍIercnces' lcar.ner strategies and Ianguage lcarning
oulcomes (adoftcd fronr Illlis, 199'1)

2. BELIEFS ABOUT LANGUAGE LEARNING

L2learners have strong beliefs irbout Janguage Jearning, that is, they have pre
conceived irlcas rvhich str ategics work best, horv languages should be learnt,
etc. l.earners sometinres hoicl incorrect beliel.s about I-2 lcarning (e.g. one can
48 ToPICS I.V,\PPI,IED I-INCUISI'ICS

rnirsreÍ a lal']guage \'ithin il Ícir'fuont]rs, or olle call leirrn a langutrge by read-

ing onl1'). lb date tberc is no firm cl'iclencc that leaIners'belic.|i irrÍ]ueIlcc the
success of L2 Ica r n inn.
\Ii.iirl t1'pcs rl].bclic'I.s ctlttcertl tlre ftl]lorl'inu isstres (IJorr,r'itz's I]e]ieÍ.s about
Lan{uagc l-cirrn ing Invcutor\', I9tlS):
*.11rc cliÍlictr1t1'lll. I-2 lcar.rlirrg jIt ueneral and thc diljrctrltr'clflcirrtrinq the
targe't lallgLlaqc. I:.g.: Sonrc languaees are cirsicr to learn tltirn othcrs.
.t Thc role. ol lirnuuirge aptitLrdc. E.g.: Sor.ne people arc bonr r.r'ith a speciirl
ability,rvhich helps thcnr to learn a foleiqn lanquagc.
* 'l}c nirturr. of l.rngLrare leirrning. li.g.: It is bcttcr to lc.arn tl.re fbreign lirn
guirge in llte lirlcitl coLrnlry.
.] Lc'arnjllC illl(l !olI DIul if .r ioD strittegies. ll.q.r It is intporlant to revicrv
t

an(l practice a lot.

* Nlotivation anrl expcctations. li.g.: Il'l learn to speak th is language u.ell, it
lvil) hclp nre get a uooti jotr.

3. ANXIETY

J. I,2 ]eartlcrs frct1ucIrtlv ctPcricllcc anxiety rl'hÍle lear rling tilc Ianguage'
tirkir'réi I tr'sl and u,lrcn com ntLr n icirting (especial)y spcaliing ancl listcn-
ing) in I-2.
* Thcle arc t\\'o typcs ol-anxietr'; lacilitating rrntl clcbilitrtinq anricrr.
Facilitating anxietv: ntotiYates thc lcirrner to copc rvith the (ask, has a
positilc r'lli'c1 rttt pellitrttrtlcc, alcl is gelcrirlly 1c)w leyel a1-\lety.
Dcbilitating arrriel\,: nrak!'s tht'lt'irrncr ayoicl thr'1as\, hirs.r ncgativc'cf-
l.rcllorntance, ancl is glenerirllv lticlt le vcl anxictr'.
l-ect otr
i\nxiety is r.elalc'cl to u illingncss to conttltunicate in L2. 1\n\ious sludents
arc getrerallv lcss l illinc to engalic itr cot'nlr.tunication than rc]axccl stu
dents. 'ltis clcyrrivgs 1l1gr11 of oprPortLrDities ol usin!: llte lanruage' and
nri{ltt slorl'clol n tlte rrrte ofacclrLisition.
* Nlaclntl're and (jarclner (1991) tbLrnd thirt .utxicty is inflrrenced by the
lcartlets']ct'el o1.plrlÍlcicItct'aIlt] tllr'le.ttllitlt]silLLir1iotl'

..xfl
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I. LEARNER BELIEFS, ANXIET!
APTITUDE AND AGE 49

ld- 4. APTITUDE
he

ut 4.1. Scope

te

t Basic question: Why do some learners learn a

al foreign language quickly and
thoroughly whíle others with the same opportiniti;
Íalt?
{. The ability to learn a foreign language, as a child or as an adult,
varres signifi_
n- cantlyfrom individual to individual. There is suih a thing as having
the special
'lalent", the "gift", or in scientific terms the ,,aptitude,'foi
language learning.
.l Foreign language aptitude
does not predict whether an indiiidual can learn
a foreign language or not. Rather, it p redicts the
rate oÍprogress the learner
ir
is Iikely to make under oPtimal conditions of rnotivation,"opportuníty
to
learn and qua Iit y oí instruction.
{. Language aptitude consists of several independent abilities.

4.2. John Carroll's (cf. Carroll, 1981) theory of language aptitude

Iour components:

l. Phonetic coding ability The ability to identify clistinct sounds, associate

souDds and symbols that (epresent them and
.
memoÜse these associations,
2. G.f ammatical sensitivity The ability to recognise the grammatical functio]l of
worcls rn sentences.
3, Rote learning ability The ability to rernember associations oetween
sounds aDd meaning.
4. Inductive language learning The ability to identify rules and patrerns jn the
aDlllty foreign language.

4.3. The Modern Language Aptitude Test

.:.
Language aptitude tests measure the learners' ability to learn
foreign lan_
guages.at zero language proficiency, that is, these tests
are always in the
learner's mother tongue.
50 ToPrcs rN APPLIED LINGUrsrrcs

.:. There are several language aptitude tests available for spea(ers ofdifferent 4.:
first languages. The most famous is Carroll and Sapon's (1959) "Modern
Language Aptitude Test'' (MLAT), which was originally develóped íor
English spea(ers, but later also adapted for several other languages. Th
N;
The MLAT consisls of five parts: co
vo
t. Number learning: Students hear some numbers in a new language and are
provided with some practice exercises to learn them. 'llen
they must Íjanslate 15 numbels into their Ll'
2. Phonetic script: FiIst students heal a set of shoIt Ítonsense words while they
follow their printed phonetic script. Then they hear one
word at a time and must choose from four printed phonetic
alternatives.
3. Spelling clues: A modification ofa vocabulary test, in which the key word
is spelt approximately phonetically. Students are tested by 4'
having to choose the synonym ofthe key word frorn five
alternatives.
LUV
A. carry B. exist C. affection D. wash E. spy

4. Words in sentences: l-irst there is a key sentence in which a wo.a is unaertinea.

Then comes another sentence, in which frve alternative
words are underlined, and students must select the one
which performs the same function as the underlined word in
the key sentence.
IONDON is ihe caoital ofEnslsnd.
He liked to so Íishins in Maine.
AB C D E
5. Paired associates: students have fouÍ minutes to memorize 24 Kurdish/English
word pairs, then they must choose the proper equivalent for
each Kurdisb word from liv€ English a]ternatives'

4.4. Pimsleur's (1966) Language Aptitude Battery

* Specifically designed for adolescents

* It is designed to tap the following three parts of language aptitude:
1. verbal intelligence, which measures familiarity with words and an abil-
ity to reason analytically about verbal material;
2. motivation;
3. auditory ability.
 tNDr\.tDLr?\t. r)l]:IjFtRltNcEs L t-lt^RNER llll.tliFs, ANxl[T\" Al,l tl ut)r] ANI) -5,1
^cE

rent
4.5' Hungarian version oÍ the aptitude test
lern
l for
The IIungariaIt version ofthe apt it t|de tcst citllctl l\ lEN YF'.1' (N 1agyirr l]gveteÍni
N,velvér.zé(nlól.ő Teszt) rvtrs devcloped irncl va1ic1atctl bv Ottti Istr'iin (199ó). It
consists of .l parts: hitlclcns souncls, lanuuirge ilnal),sis, \fl)r(ls in senle'nces altl
voclbularv ica lning.
()ltó c]ainls thaI laIlguage irptitude tests can bc usec1 for:
l. selection, i.e. in dccisions on adrrissions to languirge progrants;
2. placerncrt ofstuclcnts in troups;
3. diagnosis of lea rn ing protrlclns.

il
4,6. Sunrntory of aptitude researLll

.t lhere irrc l\\'o rrain questions corrccrnir.rg thc interpretations ol .rptitu(lc:

L u,hether nrotjvation is sc('r'r to be itrrlepenclc.nt ofaptilucle ol an integral
part ofit, und 2. whether vcrlrirl intclligence contributes to aptitude. It rvas
tound that ver-birl intelli{tence irflt-ects ac:rdentic and re'lding skills, rvhile
language aptitude in its narrorl'setrsc inlluenccs interpersonal cornmutri-
cirtion skilis (e.g. speaking) (Skehan, 1989).
d in l. l{esearch Iindings stLggest that l.righ clr,ralitv tcirching nright neutrtrlise thc
cÍ}-ect ofaptitudc ()I] the stlcc!'ss ol.I,2 leirrnirl{. Under pclor qtlalitr' teach.
ing conclitions, horvever, aptitude might inf'lucnce tlre lcarninq oLltcolres
positivelr,.
lish
lor

5. AGE _ THE CRII-ICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS

.) it has bccn u'idelv observccl that irlicr settlir)g in a Iirr'.'ign .()rrrunit)',

children tend to bc'able 1o ir.quirc nirtivc Iilic proficiency in the nov lan
guage, rvhcreas aclLrlts rarclv r1o so. lhis lecl to the hypothesis that there
exists a criticirl period 1or chilclren rvhcn language acquisition takes placc
abil- naturally and ellortlcssly.
.r'lhe critical periocl of languirue' lea rn inq is assu nred to last until jr:st betbre
the chilcl reaches p' rrbert r' (a rorr ttd thc .rge of ten, Ito\vever there arc researclt
52 roptcs rN'. Al,l)r-llrD r.rN(;LirsTrcs

cls \\'ho sa\'that it laSts ulltil tI]!'ngc ctl-6). Aftcr this ctltllplcte ]llastcl)'oí 5.4.
thc sccorrl larrguagc is nearly irnpossiblc.

5. l. Bíol ogí cal / N etLrol ogi cal cxplalldt i ()|1 I

'llrc child's abilitl, 1o lerlrr a languitg.' more ersih' than an aclult coulcl be ex
1ll.rined llr'1he qÍcl]tcI l'].r5ti.itY of tll. chjlc1's bririn' \\lith the olrset of pr'rbertv, I

I h is plislicit i, secrr s to clisirppear, arcl t he tivo henr isphcres ol-1ltc brairt acquilc

I lic lateru lizirl ion o l spcci.r lizirtion o l-lir rrctjon t hat chit racterist's t ]te' aclttlt bririn

(ivith thr'langr.rir:c tLrnction concentr-.ttecl in the lcli ltc'rttisl'herc ip1 11;rr.1 Ptr''
p l.)

Re.fer

5.2. Cogrt itit,c (xplalldtiot1

(larroll

I)iaget's (1929) fanroirs Lheory of intcllectual qrorvth states that with the onset of ( lxrrol
pubertr', irrouncl thc age of 12, there is a raclicai changc' in the child: a cirpacity' ch(
lirr nbslrircl thinliing clcvclops iinrl scvcral tescitLchers clirjm thitt this nitrks thc Iillis, R
encl ofnatLrrirl lartgrLitge lcirr.nlng. the ,voung child docs not kno\\'that hc/she is llorlvit
accluiring a lirnquagc, does not havc social attitucles to\\'ards tlte tlse oitlne lan gut
guage as oppose(l to anotlrcr, and therefore he/she is cognitively open, whet-eas MclDt)
the nletii'ii\\'arerlcss oftclolcscents arrd atlults irtltibits rtrilural lcirrning artcl leads
to irn altern irtiYc approach. ottó' I

I)iaBct,
l)imsle
Skehar
5.3. Afl'cct ive / Soc ial ps1tch6l11gícal expLanatitltl

'[his arguurent links the criticnl period to the changes thirt occur in the child's Reco
a í.l.ect ir'c/c Itlotiot-ta l state around ti]c onset ot.puberty' Yottr-tg cilildren irre less

culture bound thirn adults and are ver)'stronglv motjvated as a rule by the need
-fhey
to be acccpted by their pccr group. have not yct developecl inhibitions Brown
about thcir self-iclentity, arrd are, thcrefore, not afraid to souncl ridiculous and Ha
are pre1.'ared to take risks $41en experimcnting $'ith their imperfect foreign Ellis, R

language )<nolvledge. 471

 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I. LEARNER BELIEFS, ANXIETY' AP'IITUDE AND AGF' JJ

5.4. Research fndings concerning the role of age in L2 learning

{ At the beginning ofthe L2 learning process, if it takes place in a classroom

setting, adult learners have an advantage because they learn faster' Children,
however, overtake adults in the long run.
ro
_Only
children are able to acquire native-like accent in the target language
environment.
* Some adults can acquire native -level linguistic competence (e'g they can
have native level reading or writing skills).
{ The acquisition of grammar was not found to be affected by age, but the
acouisition ofpronunciation seems to be influenced by it'

References:

Carroll, (l98I). Twenty.five years ofresearch on foreign language aPtitude. In K. Dillér (Ed.)' /'d'-
J.

idual diferences in language learnhgaptitude (pP. Il3-135) Rowley,Mass: Newbury House'

.Ilre
carroll, J.' & saPon, s. (1g5g). Moderfi Languale APtitude Test. Fo,'m Á'
New York: Psy-
Í
CorPoration.
chological
: nudy oJ second language acquisition Oxford: Oxford University Press
Ellis,R. ('1994). The
Horwitz' E. K. 0988). The beliefs about langrrage learning ofbeginning
univeÍsity foreign lan.
l- guage students. Modern Language Journal, 72,283-294,

McIntyre, P'' &Gardner, R. (l991). Methods and results in the studyoíforeign language
anxiety:

i A review oíthe literatu rc. Lal1guage Learfiin4,41' 25-57,

(3) 6-2o.
ottó,l' (t996)' Language aptitude testing: Unveiiing the mystery. rr avELTy' 4
piagel, l . (\929) . The child's conception oIthe rvorld New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul'
PinsleuÍ, P. (1966). P'fl sleur Lal1guage Aptitude Balfer],. New York: Harcouít Brace Jovanovich.
Skehan, P. (1989). It?div idual difierences it second language leatxing Londonr Edward Arnold'

Recommended reading:

Brown, H.D. (1994). Pritt ciples oJlanguage leatning and teachingEnglewood Cliffs, N J : Prentice
Hall Regents. pP. !34-162.
E||is,R., (|994). Th. stuó, of second language acquisition. Oxfor& Oxíord University Press. pp.
47r-499.
Larsen Freeman, D. &Long,M. (1991). 1/f/otluction to secondld guage dcquisition. New York:
!]\
LongmaD. pp. 153 172.
ottó, I ' ( l 996). La nguage aptitude testiDg: Unvei1i ng tlre mystery' No|ELTy, 4 (3), 640 ' M

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1. What factors influence the success ofL2 learning?

2. What are sonle ofthe beliefs L2 learners have about learning?
3. What are the two types of anxiety and how do they affect L2 perform
ance?
5. What is language aptitude?
6. What are the main components oflanguage aptitude and how can they
be measured?
l. I
7. What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?
8. What explanations exist for the Critical Period Hypothesis?
Trl

Tasks

1. What are your beliefs about language learning? Ifyou teach, interview one
of your students about his/her beliefs about L2 learning.
2. In what situations do you experience cornrnunication anxiety? If you
teach, interview one of your students about his/her feeling of anxiety
while learning or using the L2.
3. Do you think that one can have diÍIerent degree ofanxiety when learning
and speaking different foreign languages (e.g. German and English)?
4. Design solne tasks fur Hungarian leaÍners to measule one ofthe compo'
nents oflanguage aptitude. Ifyou teach, try them out.
5. What do you thin( the best age is to learn a foreign language?
6. Interview a few primary school teachers about tl.reir opinion on when
foreign language leaming should be started.
7. Ask people of differing ages to imitate EngJish words read out by native
speakers on a tape. Can you detect any effect of age on irnitation ability?
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES II.
MOTIVATION

't Motivation is the most common calch-all tcrm to explain what causes
success or failure in language learning. Motivation theories in general at-
1empt to answer the Íundamental question ofwhy certain people choose a
particular action, how nuch effort they are willing to put into the action,
and horv long they will pertain the actior.r.

I.MOTIVATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING.

THE CANADIAN MODEL

.t Research on motivation.in language learning was initiated in the late

1950s by lwo Canadian social psychologists: llobert Gardner and Wallace
LámbeIt (l959). Their 6rrding was |lrrtt success ín language learning depends
on the learner,s attítudcs tou,ards the Iínguísticcultural contmunity of the
target language.
.:. In this model there are two basic types of motivation:
L lntggrative otivation: Motivation to learn the language of a valued
community in order to facilitate comnunication with that group.
2, hslrumental mo1ivaÍiorr: Motives associated with the pragmatic, utili-
tarián benefits ofattairring good larrguage proliciency, such as getting
a better job or a higher salarv (i.e. career, social status).
* This model works only in second language acquisition, because in foreign
language learning contexts
(1) learners do not usually have suflicient first-hand cxperience about the
target language comn]unity to be able to forrn attitudes for or against
it, and
(2) language learning typically ta(es place in learning groups in a class-
room settins.
 5ó ,t.clt'Ics lN
ÁllP],II]I) l-lNGUls'II(]s

2. MOTIVATION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNIN(i 4,1

t l )örll\'ei's ( ] 99.1) fia merr'ork of nlotiva|ion is filcussed on nlot iViltion fron,l .:

a cl.rssroi)llt pefsp!'cti\-e and conceptualises nlotj\.irtion at tllrcc leYels.

!'-nni-,. -^:," lntcgril i\ c nlot i\,.ttion

)' l nslI unl(.nliti rlrot i!ati()nill sLrbsyslr r

I i .\ l) \'l r) | E\'r] \eccl lirr' .rchicr curr'nt

S.ll.or)llJ.n(.
I-rngu.rtt' us(,.rnritl\'
I)L't.cjlc(1 l.l .()rrrf cte nce
AttÍibutions al)()t|l Prst sLlcc(.ssC\ ilnd ]allurcs
Sc]J cl]icircr' (|.lrrncrs'ju(]gcn]enl oí thciÍ clPabiIilics to
pertornr r tr\l()

5.7
1.1:i\ lt N 1N(l SI-fL;,\'l J( )N l-hV EL PRÁ
(.oLrrse - spec ilic I nlcrtst ln lltc ao!trsc
ll)()ll\'ilt iírn.ll l{clcv:rnce ol lltc aortrsc to onc's naads
L\pcct.lnc\' ()i \u..css
Silisir.tion ()l \lLt(l.nl\ in thc lc.rrr)in{ outconrc
-lr'.rih.'r
rpecilic \lJ.'r,t''. ''ri,. " .fl.
I

rr .r.c t .( lL.,.r,.rj
l.rachc'r's irLrtJltlr'it1 t}'pt (.oIrlÍoIliIrg \'5' iluLonolny stlppoÍrlngJ
conlp()nen ts intcfest in lhe le.l.lting ntrlerial
(]r(jtlI spcc iÍj. (loal orientcrlness (horv harcl rhc group is willinli to \r()rk k)
nrot irrt i{)nal learr) I-l
B) Gr
)

i\ ()Ín] irn(] |.\.JlCl s\.st(]nr

Croup cohcsilclcrs
' r\.-,., tr',tr'ttr'. rt . .,j, l,.,t.r.t!(.,, ]]jl,.,t.ttyc,,r a
indiviclualist ic) r.l
(Lras.d on DörIl\.ei, l!)9']. I
l) 2r 0)

C) Ma
3. RE'SE'ARCHING MoTIVÁTIoN ... 1

b
*T
.t Ihc lt-r'e'l of ntotiviltion is generallv assessed \\,ith the help oiquest ion naires e'
(|or C'-\anlPles scc I )ör'nvei, 200l)'
.l Inlcrvie\\' stuclics rre rare, but they ale usel.rrl in providing insights into *Lr
irt.l,r iJLr.'I I(.u n( t \ |rl,,ti\.lltl,l). b,
I

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERT]NCES II. Mo'TIVAT]ON 57

4. MOTIVATION OF HUNGARIAN LEARNERS

.1. The motivation of primary school- ch ilclren to learn English was investi-
gated by Nikolov (1999) over a period of8 years. She found that the most
important motivationai facttlrs regardless of age are situation speciÍic: at-
titudes towards thc teacher, the tasks and the materials.
I * Dörnyei, N.vilasi and Clément (l996) found that among prinrary school-
children English is the most popular language, but students are also
n,]otivated to leartl German and French. The strongest notiváting factors
among primary school-children rvere iutegrative nrotivation and L2 rclated
attitudcs (especially American English was popular).

l
5. THE coMPoNENTs oF MoTIVATIoNÁL TEACHING
PRACTICE (DÖRNYEI' 200l)

A) Creating the basic rnotivationirl conditions

.i. Teachers should be enthusiastic, committed to their work, have good rela-

tionship rvith students and their parents.

* Teachers should create a supportive atrnosphere itr the classroom.
.i. A cohesive learner group and appropriate group norms arc necessary to

creale su mL ien t l.'r'cl moLivation.

B) Generating initial rrrotivation

+ Teachers should promote a positive attilude to L2 learning(callingstudeltts'
attention to the value oflearning L2).
* Teachers should increase learners' expectancy ofsuccess ancl should create
realistic belieL rbout L2 learniug.
.;. Learning rraterials should be reievant to learners' needs.

C) Maintaining and protecting nrotivation

.l Learning shouLd be stimulating and cnjoyable ancl rrotivatiltg tasks should
be used.
+ Teachers should set sub-goals for the students (e.g. learning 20 new words
every rvee(, reaciing a book in a month, passing an exam) that they can
achieve.
.! Learners'self-esteem shouJd be protected and thcir self confidence should

be enhanced.
5S r(,r'rL\ rN \l't'!r 1:l) | rN,Jur\r'ri s

{. Teachers shoulcl promote learner autonomy.

.' Teachers shoulcl pronrote co-operation arnong learners.

D) Encouraging positive retrospective self- eva luirtion

.t'leachers shoukl providc :-egular fecdback about students' progress.
* Teirchers should ofl-er rewirrcls ancl grades in a motivating manner.
l.

2.
References: 3.

5.
l)ilrnyci' Z. (I994)' lv1olivi1tion and nlol iviit ing in a íorcig langu|tgc' Motlerlt I'anguage journal'
73,273,234.
t)i;rnvci Z. (2001). 'katlting and restartlting tltotirnlion. Harlorv: l.ongnran.
I)i)r.nyci, Z', Nyi1lsi, E', .\ clóment, N. (l996)' 1lrrngarian school.childrcn's motivt]tion to leaIn
Íbrcign lilnguages: A conrpilÍisol] oft |8et lan3uLlgcs. NovE|D,'.] (.,]),6 |o. Task
(lardncr, 11.,.\ Larubcrt, \\r. (1959). N'lolivational variablcs in st'corrcl languagc rcquisition.
()titddia lountdlol Psrchology, 13,266 272.
.\Vh'v
Nikolov, l999)- 1,<lu lerrn English? I}ecause the teachcr is sl]oÍt.' A study ofHungar
do 1.
(

^{'
ian chilclrerr's foreigIl Ianguage learning n1oti\'ation' Ld'8'ldg. Teatl]i g Reseílrch' 3' 33-56'
2.

3.
Recommended reading:
4.

l)örnyci Z' (20O)) ' Motintionlll sl/ílf.gi..\ il? !hc la|lluage classrooln' Canrbridgel Cantbridgc 5.
University Press.
l)örnyei' Z', Nyjlilsi' E', & clé rent, (l996). l lungarian school.chi]dIen,s motí,atioD to learn
^.'
foreign languages: r\ contpaliso', of tLrrget languages. Novt.l,'l)', 3 (l), 6-16
I,arsen Freenran' I)' .\ l,ong, M' (|991)' ln|raÍluctian !o second languagc a.íillisitiolr- Ne$ York:
LongDr,rn- pp. 172 184.
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES II. MOTIVATION 59

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

L What characterises motivation in a setting where the language is Iearnt

in a naturalistic environment?
z. How can foreign language learners' motivation be characterised?
3. What are the situation specific motives for learning a foreign language?
4. How can teachers motivate their learners?
5. What factors can influence language learners' attitude to the foreign/
second language?

Tasks
)n.

ar- l. Work in pairs. Interview each other about what has motivated you in
learning English.
2. How do you thinkprimary school-children's motivation differs from that
oÍsecondary schooI student s?
3. Ifyou teach, prepare a short questionnaire to investigate your students'
motivation. Have the questionnaires filled in and discuss the results'
4. How do you think foreign language teachers can enhance their students'
motivation?
5. Interview a few secondary school teachers about their students' motiva-
tion in learning English.

rk:
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES III.
PERSONALITY, LEARNING STYLES
AND STRATEGIES

I. PERSONALITY TRAITS

Language learncrs brir.rg their pcrsonaliti traits to the learning procr'ss, which
might prorrote or inrpcde successful L2 accluisition. ln the lbllorving rve lvill
summarise researclr linclinss corrcerning the efl-ect of nrost rviclely studiecl per
sonality tlaits on 1,2 learning.

.t Scf'cslcerrr: /he l-ecling of self u,orth. Thc three typcs of self-estecrn arc
global, meciial (c.s. rvork. er-lucation), alicl task-specific (e'.g. 1.2 learning).
To date' the eÍIect oísel1.esteern on [-2 learning ís t-tot clear.
{. E'tl/,o 1,f io'l: ExtÍo\'efts har.e better sl)ort.tcÍnl nlellloly, itIo l.nolc stress
'T
lcsistant and irrc less anxious in 1.2 procluctior-r than introvcrts. Extroverts
uere founcl to be nrore llucnt spcaliers than irtroverts (Dcwae)e & Furu-
ham, 1999).
lisl'laÁülg; l{isk taki ng stuclerlts rl'ere |ouncl to be tnore activc in ]a]lguirge
.r

classroonrs (lrl), I 9lJ6).

*Scnsiti|ity to rejcclia : tlle students'sensitiYitY to the negative reintbrciDg
qualitv ofothers.'lhose rvho are sensitive to rcjection nright avoid active
participatior] for Í.car of bei ng ric1iculec1.
+ Enpathy: an individual's .lbilit,v to put oncse)f in another's placc'. there
is evidence ancl counter-evicience concerning the relationship betu'een
empathy and achicvernent.
* lnhiLtition: ln a study conclucted under iirboratorl'conditions, L2 learners
were given alcohol to recluce thcir levcl of inhibition.'Ihe effect ofalcohol
on 1,2 pronunciation was measuretl. r\lcohol tas tbuncl to hirve a positile
effect on pronunciation (Ciuiora et al., 1972).
* I.olerance oJ anbiguíty: Nar inlan et al. (1978 ) found that tolerance of ambi
guity has a positivc eliéct orl ]istenitrg cotrrprehensiotl' but thc effect ofth is
pelsonality trait on othcr aspects ofL2 ]eárning lras not been proved'
62 toptcs IN APpLTEI) LrNGUrsrrcs

2. LEARNING STYLE

* Cogniti\.e style is the preferred rvay in which inclividuals process informir-

tion or approach ir task. I

.1 Cognitive styles are typically discussecl as if the,v werc polarities. Humans {

shou'a tenclency towards orre pole or the other. I

Examples ol- virrious learning styles:

I. icld indepandencc/dLtpetld ance: people irre termed 6eld dependent if they
F

are unable to irbstract an clenrcnt frotn its context, or bac(ground field.

l{esealch concerning l.he tclatitlrrshi;l of Íicld depenc1ence and independ.
ence and L2 leirrning is inconclusive, and it see;ns that this learning style
has only Iltinor eÍIect on the success (lf L2 Jearnirrg (F.Ilis' l994).
2' Refectivity/impulsivíty: individuals who have a reflective cognitivc style
tend to nrull things over when making a decision. An impulsive person,
on thc othcr harr.rd, tends to mirke a quic( guess when faced with uncer-
tainty. Impuisivc leirrners tend to nrirke rlore errors, but irre more fluent
than r eflective learncrs.
3. At ab,l ic/holist ic: Gesralt or holistic learners are data - gatherers, they tend
to use r.nenrorisecl units irnd usually spealr mole lluentlv than analytic
learner s, wl.ro are rule tbrrners. Analytic learners f aI close irttention to
accuracy ancl Iike to sort out rules.
4. Pcrccptual ||lodalrÍies (Reid' 1987)
- Visual learning style - e.g- likes to learn rvorcls from reading texts
- Auclitory leanring styie - e.g. likes to learn structures from listening
texts
- Kinaesthetic learning style - e.g. likes to learn rvords by acting them
ouI
- Tirctile lcarning style e.g. likes ro iearn with hands-on experieuce

* Most teachers will not fi nd themselves in a situation where students can be

streamed according to a particular cognitive style they employ. A reasonable
alternative might be to divcrsf ' langutrge instruction as much as possible.
Teachers could diagnose their students' styles through self-reports.
.i Learning styles are not ir.r.rr.nutablc, individuals can change in response to
unique contextualdemands. Thus a student may develop a preferred style,
and miry ..rdapl if necesirry.
 I\Dl\r]DUÁL Dl I]ljl:RI.]l.!(]lis l ll. PF,RsoNAL]l l.. L!^ R.! lN(] sl.Y I'l.]s '1ND sTRAl.I](;lljs oJ

3. GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNER STUDIES

'lhere trre trvo tvpcs ofstuclies that ir.n'estigate \\'hirt chirracterises good languirge
lclrners: (1) conrparisorr ol-sLrccessful ancl less succcsslirl learners (e.g.,'\brahan.r
&Vann, 1987) ancl (2) casc stuciles oigoocl latruuage learners (Naiman ct al.,
1978).
Five main charirctcristics ofgoocl languauc lcarners (GLL) cmerged:
l. attention to fornt: (ll-l.s regard the L2 as a s,vstenl and mirkc c()nsaioLls
ellbrts to anaiyze its rLrles;
2. attention to nreaning: (iLLs arc ablc to pi1),ilttention to meaning anci fornr
at the same t in)cj
3. active inYolYenrcnt ul l('arning: GLI-s enqagc'in L2 learning actively';
4. a\\'areness of tlre lcaming process: Gl,l-s ilr!'c()r)sciorls ofthcir learning
methods, stratc-gir-'s a nd styles;
5' Ílexible arrc1 a;rpl-o1lriate use oileirt-l-ting strategicS: CI-I-s use the apptc.lpri
ate stÍategics il1 clillctcIr1 sit Lrirtiot-ls irlrcl a rc itblc to r.rlodiÍy their st ratcgics
in response to tllc lcitrning situation.

4. LEARNING STRATEGIES

4'1' Defnítions

Á nunrber of de1jniticllls irllc] tirxonoI,tries of learIting strategies exist. IIcre rr'e

rr'illpresent the tl'o ntost l'idely' used ones:

.i."Learning strateeit's arc techniques, irpproaclrcs or deliberate irctions that

studetlts tirke in tlt.clcr to Ílrcilitate thc lcarIlirtg' recall of botlr lingtristic
and contenl areir inlirrnration" (CJranrot, l9lt7).
.| Language learn ing st ratcgi!'s are behaviou rs ol actions wl.rich lcalrrcrs tLse

to makc languirge lcirrning rrore successl-ul, scli-rlirccted and enjo,virble"

(Oxford, 1989).
L

64 ToPIcs IN LIN(;UIs,l.|(:s
^l'PLIl]Í)

4.2. Characteristics of learning strategies (Ellis, D9a) B) (

t
|. Stratcgies itlclude general applroaches arrtl speciÍlc ilclions ()r techniques I

t)ir
used to lcarn I-2.
tlral
2. Stratcgics arc problcnr-olir.'nteri, that is, they are uscd to solve a lcarning L larrl
proDlent.
,1. Strategies arc uscd co|sciouslv.
4. Strategics can be linguistic (c.g. as(ing tbr irn unknorvn rvord) and non
linguistic (c'.c. ntinrirru an unknou'n vcrb). Linguistic strategies can bc
expresscd in Ll and in I-2.
5. Sonre stratcgics are observable, sonte not. lndi
(). Strillegics corrtlibute to lcrrlnirrg. indir
7. Strategy usc varics in difl'crcnt t1.pcs of tasks ancl is inlluencc'd by indi, learr
vidr.ral prclerences.

4.3 ' Tnxottontíes o.f learning strttegies

+ lhere xrc trvo s'iclelv usetl faxonomies of learning strategies: that of 4.4. I
O'Malle,v ancl Chanrot (1987) and that of Oxford (1990).

A) O'Nlallt'1' arrd Clhattrot's (I9t)0) taxononrv .:. T

3 majors groups ol-strirtr.'gics arc rlistinguishecl: .:. 1

l. (,ognitivc stratcgics "operate directly on inconring infirrnrirtion, nta i
nipuiating it in rvals thirt cnhance lcarning" (O'Malley and Chamot, .& Il

1990, p. .1.1). i
2. MetacosnitiYc strat('!:ies ar.'"highcr ordcr e'xecutive sl(ills that may .!. I
c'ntril plarnning tbr, ntorritorinq, or cvnluating the success of leirrning s
act iyit)," (ibi(1.).
3. Social/allc'ctivc stratcgics "inrtrlve e'ither interactiotl u'ith another
pers()n or idcational control over atlect" (ibirl. p. a5).
lTefer

Abra h ir

&I
1., I
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES III. PERSONALITY. LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES OJ

B) Oxford's (1990) taxonomy

Strategy Example
rques
Direct strategies (strategies Memory strategies Mernorising a u.ord by
that dircctly involve the targct repeatiDg it several times
fning languagel
Cogllitive strategies Deducting the meaning of a
word fronr its context

, noll Compensation Using a similar word to the

In be oDe that is not known by the
learner

I!direct strategjes (provide Metacognitive Planning the learning activity

indirect support for language

indi- learntngJ
Affective strategies Rewarding oneself for the
5uccess[ul completion oí an
actrvlty

Socirl strategies Seeking opportunities to

convease with native speakers

Íof 4,4. Learning strategy training

.i. There are a numberoílearning strategy training programmes, and learning

stntegies are included in modern course-books as well.
{ The success of learning strategy training, however, has been investigated
ma- in a few studies, which produced mixed results.
mot, .! It seems that learning strategy training is m-ost useful ir.r vocabulary learn-

ing.
may ,t The success of training was found to depend on proficiency and learning
ring styles.

ther

References:

Abraham,l{., & Vann,ll.. (I987). Strategies oftwo language learners: A case study. ln A. Wenden,
& ]. Rubin (Eds), learl et stÍategies ifl language learning (pp' 85 102). Englewood Cliffs, N.
J,:Prentice Hall.
ó6 roprcs lN LINGUtsTtcs
^PpLlED

Chanrot, A. ( 1987). l,ea rD ing st ratcBies ofESL srudents. In A. Wcnden & I. Rubin (Eds.), Lea r'er ACTI
s! rdtesíes i|l Il]1|lndgc |ear,|ihg (pp.7l-83)
' Englewood CliÍli, N' J.: Prentice H a l|.
l)ewaele, J-M., & Furnham, A. (1999). Extraversion:'fhe unloved variable in applied linguistic
rcsearch. lar3rra.qe /- ed rni ng, I 9, 509 -544. Checl
Ely, C. (i 986). A n a nalysis ofdiscomfort, risk-taking, sociabiliry and motivation in the L2 class
rtxltn' Lattguagc Learní g, 3ó, |.25'
Ellis, Il.(1994).'|1rcstu{yofsecondlanguageacquisi!io.Oxford:OxfordUrrivcrsitypress. l. \
Cuior., Á., Htlllahmi, B., Brannon' l{', Dull, c., & scove|,.f. (l972).'nle effects ofexperi'
|}eit 2. I
mcntally in(luced changes in ego states on PÍonunciation ability in a second lirn8ua8(': An 3. I
cxp|oratory stud)'' (,.on|PÍche sive Psychidtry' l 3, 421-428'
O'MaIley,,|., & Chanrot, A.(I99o)' Lcarni gs!rdÍegics i}| scco,|illolrgrragenc4aisilior. Cambridge:
Crmbridge University Press.
()xforr1, R. (l990)' ,l'a niuage lear,1i,ry strategi.s: wh11Í eycrl Icaclrer s/torllr1,tnov'
Row|ey, Mass':
Ne$,bury Housc.
Nniman, N', Frijhliclr, M., stern, H', & Todesco, A. (l978).7he good Ianguage leaÍne|. Research Tasks
in Education Series No. 7.lbÍonto: 'I}e ontaÍio Institute of l]dÚcation'
I{eicl, J. ( 1987). Thc lcarning style prefcrences of EFL students. J ESOL ()udrtarr,, 21,87-)tl.
l{ubin' i' (l975)' what the ..good língua8e learneÍ'' can teach us' TEsoL Ql/nrlc rly, 9' 41_5| ' 1. Ir
st
2' IÍ
fÍ
Recommended reading: H
3. \^
tl
Ellis' R. (l994). T|rc stutly of second lalguagc acquisition. í)xfordl oxford Univ€rsity Press. pp. 4.D
499-508,529-559.
P
l-arsen-Freeman, I)., & Long, M. (1991)- /rtloductiot, to second Iarrguage ocqr.rlsitior. New york:
L-ongman. pp. lil4-215.
I{eid' J.M. (l987). 'Ite learrring stylc preíerences of ESL studcnts. TEsoL
Quarterly, 2]' 87-|o3'
Ilees.Miller' l. (l99])' Á critical appraisai of learner training: theoreticaI bascs and teaching
implicAtions. TtSOt Quar l er !y, 27, 679 - 689.
Il.ubin' l' (1975)' what th€ ..good lirnguaBe learner'' can teach us ' TEsoL Quarlerly, g,4l-5|.
 INDlvlDUÁL DIIFERDNCEs IlI. PERsoNALlTÍ LEARNlNG sTYLEs AND sl.RATEGIEs 67

ACTIVITIES

Check questions
lass-

1. What are thepersonality factors that can affect L2 learningz

Perl- 2. How can learning style influence L2 learning?
3. How can learning strategies be defined?
4. What types oflearning strategies can be identifred in L2 learning?
dger 5. What characterises successful language learners?

Tasks

Interview a fellow student about his/her cognitive style and the learning
strategies he/she has used in learning English.
Ifyou teach, prepare a questionnaire for your students (or translate Parts
from Oxfordt (1990) questionnaire) to investigate their learning strategies.
Have the questionnaires filled in and discuss the results.
Write an introspective account of how your own personality infiuenced
the way you have learnt English.

' PP.
Discuss how teachers can enhance their students' learning by taking their
personality and learning style into consideration.
lrK;

103.
ing
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS I.
COHESION AND COHERENCE

1. DEFINITION AND SCOPE

Discourse analysis is an umbrella term for all those studies within applied lin-
guistics which focus on units/stretches of language beyond the s-gllenge l3vel
ln discourse analysis the highest unit of language is the lexÍ, and language is
studied in its context.

rt Discourse analysis considers language in its full textual, social, and psy-
chological context.
i Discourse analysis is relevant to language teaching since learners have to
Iearn how to produce and comprehend texts not only sentences (discourse
comDetence).

Some areas ofstudy:

* forms and functions .;. spoken vs. written language

+ speech acts .1. cohesion and coherence

+ conversation analysis { theme and rheme

.r information status * discourse intonation
,' genÍe analysis

2. WHAT IS A TEXT?

A,textis"a communicative occurre cewhichmeets[...] the standards oftextuality.

Ifany ofthese standards is not considered to have been satisfied, the text will not
70 r'oPIcs I i\- t-tNGUrsncs
^l,pLrED

be colt-trt]utticirtive. Flcnce, n(Jlt conll1]Llnicrtivf texts xre trealc(l as nol.t-texts"

(tle Beaugrandc & Dressler, l9ll3, p. 3).

I Iere l'e' rvil l el.rbornlc onlr' t h lc'e stirtclaLds (rl te\tual it\':
1. (,ohesion " 1...I conccnt s llrc rllvs in ilh ich t lte contpon.ltt s oi the su r.facc
1c\1, i.c. llre rtctLral u,or.ds we hear or scc, irr.c tnutrrirlll conneclecl rvithin
a sL'qLlcnc.. llte surtacc con)ponents clcpcncl upon each othcr accordins
lo grilnllritiaal lirrrls itnil cortvcntions, sLtch that colresiorr rr-sts upon
qlarrnrrrtrcirl dr.pcncle ncics. ;\]l of thc l-Lllrcrions lhich can be used to
signal Iclirtions artrong srrllricc'cl!'lltellts.irc inclurieci rrntier our rtotrrtrr
o1 colrcsion" (de lleaugrirncle ,-\ [)r.ess]cr, 1983, p. -3).
2. (,ohercrrce "l...] concelns lltc tva1,s in u,hiclt tlte collporlcnts of tite textual
lorld, i.c. the configur'.rtion ol conccIt\ rrrrr.l rclirtions rvhjch r.rr.rderlic
the suriircc text, are mLrluaill'acccssible irnd reLcvirnt" (tlc lleaugrande .\
l)ressler, lr)83, p. -i). Coltcttnce is clcarlr not ir ntere icature oftc.xts, bLrt
rather th(. outconte ofcognitive pro6q'5595 antonq text Lrscrs (sec'ltelorv).
3. Inlenti()itirllty"[...]thctcrtproclucer'siittilLrdctltilttllesctol occurrenccs
shoui(i corlstitLLtc rr colr,'srve alicl cohercnt text instrul.ltcntill in fulhlling
thc ploqiql(g1'5 int!'lttiolts, c.g., to (iistribulc kno 'lcdge or to attain a goal
sPeciÍlc(l irt a plarl'' (de l}catrgrirrlcle & [)rcssler, l983' p. 7).

3. COHESION AND COHEI{ENCE

.l Hailidav irncl Hasan (197(r) argue that cohesive relationships rvithin and
betrveen sr'r'tt!.nces deternt ine whether a set o1-sentences cirn be considered
a text.
.:.CohcsionislirrgLristicallvcxplicitanclsignalsunderlyingsenranticrelation-
.h r1.s betrvL,.n lc\l Llenlcnl:.
.1. Cohcrence': ur.rderlving or{aniser l'hicl.r ntakes the rvords and sentences
inlo a uniflc'rl discoLrrse tltat conforrrs to a consistent worlcl picture. A co-
herent tcxt is rneanir-tgfuI, unifred, and gir,es the inrpression oí..hanging
together".
 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS I. COHESION AND 71

3.1. Categories of discourse cohesion (Halliday dv Hasan, 1976)

Reference
A ílh ul.s verv oroud o( \is Chihuahuas' l don.l like I hem.

Substitution
Cromtnlical Tell a slorv. - I don't know one.

Ellipsis
How did you enjoy Íie pa''li,gs? - A lot (ofthe Paintings)
were very good but not all (the paintings).

Conjunction
Lexico-gramnatical
They thought he didn't believe them. A!!! this was true.

Lexical cohesion
Lexical
He met an old /al.y. The kly was looking at him for a while...

+ Anaphoric reference: refelring bac|wards E.g. l can see a bird. It ís sínging

(11 refers backwardsto bird.)

+ Cataphoric reference: referring fo rw ard'. E.g. When they arríved at the house,

aII the participants were very tired- (They refers forward, to participants).

3.2. Relationship between cohesion and coherence li'

I

ri

Cohesion and coherence are related notions, but they are clearly distinct.
I
.1.

There are two types of views concerning their relationship. 'Í

A)Cohesion is neither necessary nor sumcient to account for coherence.

A: That's the telephone.

B: l'm in the bath.
A: O.K.
(Widdowson, 1978, p. 12)

B) Cohesion is necessary, though not sumcient in the creation of coherent

texts. In other words, cohesion is a crucial though not exclusive factor
contÍibuting to coherence, since it facilitates the comprehension of un-
derlying semantic relations.
72 Tor)lcs IN ,\t,r)Lllt) r.r^-cLrrslrcs

3. j. Background knowledge (schetnnta) -.t.4

* \'Vhen texts arc producccl or urrcierstood, lrirckgrorrlcl knou,ledgc play's 'Ihe'

an ir.nportant ro]e'. \\rhen u'e sl.rcitk or rvrite, r'r'lalic tor grante(l tl)at tltc s()t')
listcner or rcirclc.r has cel t.rin itntorrr.tt ol'inforntrtion available rvircncvcr rvc
a sit Lrirt ion. For cxantplc, rlhcn a restilu ra llt sccne is tlescribc'd, it is
':lcsclitre
itssulnecl that ilrtcrlocLlt()rs kno\\'th l there ir|e'rr,irilcrs/u'aitresscs, chairs
aIld ti.rblc's, ctc. itl iI Ic5tilL]rirlrt',lhis knorrlcclile oÍ.(lt.'rrorltl is stllred in
ollr m!'nr()rv irr units ol-stcrcotl pic Iinorr lcJgc. lltcse units hil'c been
conccptua lisccl in cl illelcnl u iri s ir ncl ir ntons ol hcr llt ings havc bccn ca llecl
tl-antr,'s, sclipts, .rnti schenrrrlir.
.!. lir.olrc-s:11al.r slructLlres tltat rcprcseltt stcrcotvpical siluations. Iror cxlntple: .:.

suilttnrirrg pool l-r'arne inclutles the knorvlt-cluc tlrat thcre are frools, lif-c,
guarcls, chanuinu rooms r'tc. in ir su'inrminu pool ancl that rvc cirrr srvirn, *
sun-bathc or rr'lirx in a swinrnring-poo].
.:. Sari/)1-\: c()rlrriIl inlirrntirlioll on cYcnt scquenccs. Scripts ntal,inc)r-rclc sccIlcs,

r'olcs anrl yrrops.

F, , r.uttl'1,: l(r'\(ilur.rrtt saril,(
'r'
5i. l,.i: ,'ri/. r'irr(, .,t/l/lt, /',lt /l!
1io1, sr crrs/r'rrrcr; rlriilcr/rlrrilrcs-s (cooA) 4.C
PtllÍ,s: ltt,,tttt' bill, solttl bttr etc.
Scripts hclp c:ii)lain that ex!cctiltions plity irn inrPortirnt rolc' in rrnder
stirndinq tliscourse. \\rhc.n \\'r- Ircirr a situittion l)cil)q (1!'scribe(1, \vc cxpcct
that certain cvcnls take plrcc. I\rr cxanrplc; lhcrc rvas al't acci(lcnt in
thc street. Orrc ofthe cars'rllilcl rr'as takerl (o X. It is on thc basis ofour
knorr4edec oi the ircciclcnt script tltat rve aulonratically assuntc'thirt X *
stancls tbr hosp.ritirl.
.l .Scltctttrt.,.it/rr'rrrrr/rr: high-lclel corrrpl'.'x knou'lcrigc slructurcs G'an I)irk,
1977) that hclp lhc organisation iincl jr'tterprctrtion of one's expct'icnce.
"Scl.tenlata lcitrl us tir L)xpccl \rr I'r'eLlict asl'ects ir) ()ur ilt terpr!'tat io n ol clis
cclurse'' (I:}tilrr'tt & \'ulc' ]9|]]' p. 248)' Scherrlata help cxplain why á text is
runclcrstood easicr-and tirster if a tit le is provirlcd.
Schcnrata can irlso bc cultirrc sl'ccilic; lirr exlrrrplc thc schenta oia u'cdilinq +'
ceretirol-ly vrrties crr ll ur-c Irv cLr ll rr r c. (
 DIscoURsE ANALYsls I. coHÉsIoN AND coHERENcE /J

3.4. Some areas of investigation

The range of studies on cohesion and coherence is extensive' Below is a list of

some ofthe fields of investigation.

* How does cohesion contribute to coherence in native sPeech/writing?

* How does cohesion contribute to coherence ín non-native sPeech/wríting?
+ Comparison of cohesion in native and non-native speech/writing;
* Comparing cohesion in different genres (newspaper articles, novels, infor-
mal letters, informal dialogues, etc.);
6 Cohesion in child language and adult language;
* Cohesion at the different levels oflanguage proficiency;
l.. Cohesion in differ€nt languages;
r.. Cohesion in disordered vs. normal talk;

+ Cohesion in translations;
+ Teaching cohesion to non-native speakers.

4. CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (CDA)

t .t Texts are not only linguistic artefacts but expressions ofsocial and cultural
I processes. Texts constitute a system ofknowledge and beliefas well as socíal
r and cultural subjects.
+ Critical discourse analysis investigates texts from three inter-related per-
spectives (Fairclough, I 995):
1. analysis ofspoken and written texts
2. analysis ofdiscourse practice (processes oftext Production, distribu-
tion and percePtion)
3. analysis oftexts as instances of socio-cultural practice.
t The aim ofCDA: formulation ofcriticism and alternatives in discourse
+ The focus of CDA: discourse representation ofsocial action and reaction
(van Leeuwen, 1995)
74 roplcs IN Appl-rED LINGUISTICS

References:

Brown, G.' & YuIe, G. (|983\. Discourse anal-ysis' Cambridge: CambÍidge Utriversity Press.
Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical discourse analysis. London: Longman.
flnlliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cofi esion in English. London: Longman.
van Dijk, T. A. (1977) . Text and context.London: Longman.
Van Dik' T. Á. (l985). Handbook oJ discourse atalysís.London: Academic Press.
va n Leeuwen, T. (1995). Representing soci al action. Discourse and Society, 6,81-106.
Widdowson, H. 6. (1978). Teaching language as cottlnunicatioh. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Recommended reading:

Cook, G. (t989). Discourse. oxford: Oxford UniveÍsity Press.

Mccarthy, M. (1991). Discourse analysis for language teac[ers. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

l' What is díscourse analysis?

2. What areas does discourse analysis investigate?
3. What is cohesion and what is coherence?
4. What is the relationship between cohesion and coherence?
5. What are the categories ofdiscourse cohesion in English? Illustrate each
category with an example.
6. How do frames, scripts and schemata helP understand discourse?
7 What is critical discourse analysis?
 DIsCOUR5E ANALYSIS I. COIIF5ION AND COHLREN'IJ ,/5

Tasks

L Select short pieces of texts that have different genres (e.g. a newspaper ar-
ticle and an extract from an instruction manual). Identify all the cohesive
devices in the texts. Do the two texts differ in terms ofthe number and
type of cohesive devices?
2. lfyou teach, collect compositions from your students. Analyse one or two
compositions frorn the point ofview ofcohesion.
3. Select an English coursebook. Is the teaching ofcohesive devices ir.rcluded
in the book? If so, wl.rich cohesive devices are taught? Do you think tire
selection ofcohesive devices to be taught is appropriate for the given level
of stuclents?

ii
tl

tl
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS II. TEXT TYPES

1. WRITTEN LANGUAGE

* Written ianguage is llo/ spoken words written down.

{. Functions of written language:
1. arctionle'g. plrblíc signs, product labels and instructions, recipes' maps,
'fV-guicles. bills. menus. telephone directories;
2. social contacti e.g. letters, postcards, greeting cards;
3. information: e.g. nelvspapers, magazines, non-fiction books, textbooks,
advertisements, reports, guidebooks; ;l
4. entertainment: e.g. light magazines, fiction books, poetry, drama, film ii
subtitles, garnes. il

i'
2. SPOKEN LANGUAGE

t Intonation expresses grammatical, attituclinal, and discourse meaning.

* Tone (melody): fall, rise-fall, rise, fall-rise, level
* Prominence
It was INteresting.
It WAS interesting.
* Functions ofspo(en language:
1. action: guidelines or directions given, teacher instructions;
2. social contact: telephone conversations, chats;
3. infornration: lecture, presentation, political speech;
4. entertainment: jokes, radio programs.
I
78 ToPIcs IN APpLIED LINcursrrcs

3. SPoKEN vs. WRITTEN LÁNGUAGE 5. S'

Spoken languagc Written language

*
shaÍcd situatiolr no shared situation

on-line intcraction (two way) delayed reception (one-way)

verbal ard non-verbal means verbal means

no_carefulediting ng: ed i.titlg possrbl:

:e:s..'

'1':::'" _
no time PÍessure
l

.:. Role of the situational context: spoken discourse is part of a shared situa-
tion, which includes the speaker as well as the listener.
* In spoken discourse there is interaction, and immediate reaction is pos
sible.
.1. ln spoken discourse the use ofnon-verbal means (e.g., gestures, eye contact,

facial expression, body position, and intonation) is also present.

* In writing, howevel writers do not encounter their audience since wntten
texts are not part ofa shared sltuation.
* In writing no immediate reaction is possible. 5.1. I
* Monitoring: spea(ers are processing their production under very demand-
ing circumstances. They monitor what they have said and how it matches
their intentions while they are uttering their current speech and planning They
the next chunk of their speech. Consequently, their production includes tyPes
false starts and hesitation devices, lvhich are not characteristic of writing. numt
Writers, on the other hand, may read again what they have produced, stop comp
and think it over, delete or add ideas, or even quit and return to the pro 199\)
duction later. Therefore the processes that are visible for the listener ofthe
speech are not visible for the reader ofthe writing.
I

1"^"
l(func
4. FIXED DISCOURSE TYPE VS. INTERACTION I T::i
lotvto
nomt
{. Interactir'e and Íixed texts (dialogues and monologues) f
I

* Two-$'ay interaction can only be found in dialogues | ?pu

irnrro
+ Tl.re sharp distinction between monologic and dialogic discourse led to
t::Pn
F-
the birth of conversation analysis, a major area in discourse analysis (see ttteDlr
Chapter 12).
t!::"
 l)tscouRsE .\rv,\Llsls .l E\'r 't Yt'Es z9

s. STUDY OF TE,X]'-TYPES: GENRE ANALYSIS

.l lJearing a short piece lioÍl] a]1\.text \l'c can inl nlccliatel\' te]] \\'hether it is f}on,]
a lettcr, an a rt icle, or a telephone conversat ion. 'Ih is irnplies that all lext-tvpes
hitvc thcir orvn svstenr ol-lingLristic, rhetorical rrrd organisational chrr:rctcr-
jstics.'iherclbr.e., gcnlc nnirlysts sct ()rLt to investigate whal nrirkes ir lcttcr ir
lcttcr, ol rvhat nralies a raclio annolrncenlenI a rlclio anrrouncentent.
.! "A genrc conrprist's a clirss oicorrulullicirtive events thc nrenrbers of tlhich
sha rc some set of coln rrun icat ive purposes.'fhcse purpost's are recoqnized
bv the cxl.rert lnenrl)el s ol-thc Prrent discourse comnrunit\', ancl thercby
constitLrte the rationalc tirr the genre.'lhis rationale shapes the schcnratic
strrrcture of thc' discou rse anrl influcnccs ilnd constrilins choice oI content
irnd style. ... lixenrplars ol'a genre exhibit virrious pattenls oisirnilarit)'in
teÍn]s ofstructuIe' st,yle, cotltent and intendcd irurlietrce. II all high prob-
ability expectrltions are rcalized, the exempllr rviJl be viewed as prototypical
by the parcnt discourse conrmunity"'(S$'ales, 1990, p. 58).

5.1' I,ittguístic (l|t(1b,sis o.f various gettres

.Ihe'v
compare the quantity tli severirl lirrguistic Phell()111€1].l in dillercrlt text-
types. These arc usurrlll, corpus-birscd approaches, rvhich nrears that a high
number of tcxts are collectecl, they are coded and anal;'sed with the help of
conrputer tcchnologv. A t-cl' aspects oi comparison (based on Lux & Grabe,
l99J) are provicled here as an example:

(function) rrrrrcls ancl lcxical (conlent)

t'ords (nLrnrlrcr oi lcxical itcnrs
)

80 roprcs rN Appr'rlD LrNGUtslrcs

5.2. Rhetoricnl genre analysis Á(

+ fhis type ofannlysis colrccntrates the role ofscripts (see Chapter l0 3.4.) Ch
in various rhetorical genrcs. 1he most frequently discussed genres in this
paradigm are: narrative, clcscriptive, procedural (descriptions ofprocesses)
and argumentative texts, l(hetorical genre analysis is illustrated with the
narrative text here.
{. The narrative is assumecl to consist of an orientaltion, sctting, characters,
goals, problem irrtd resolution (l.abov, 1972)
Scl/irrg: once upoIr a titlte (titne settíng) t]rere rvas a young prince (c!cr-
aclcr) who livecl in a castle in the desert (spatíal selting\.
Problcnr lle fell in lovc rvith the daughter ofa poor camel-breeder, whom
he was not allowed to rnarry.
Goal: He decided that he will n]arÍy her at any cost. Ta:
ResoIuIiott.. He persuaded his father to buy 10 camels fronr the girl's fáther.
The poor man sold his camels to the prince's father at a high price, and
he became rich.'lhis rvay the prince could marry his daughter because I

she was not poor irny morc.

References:

l'ux' P', & Grabe, W' (I99I)' Multi'\,driL|te dPprod.hes to.o|1|Ías|,ve ,",letor'.. Lenguas Modernas,
t8, 133-160.
Labov, W. (1972).l-drryua|. i the intrr cit)r Oxlbrd: Ilasil lllackwell.
Swales, J. (1990). Gerrrc unalysis. Canrbridger Cartbridge Univcrsity Press.

Recommended reading:

llrown, C. .\ Yule, C. (1981). Discoursc dnttLysis. Cambriclgcr Cambriclgc University Press. pp.
-26.
|

Halliday, ill.A.K. (1989). Spoken and writtcr /arr3ínge. C)xford: Oxford University Press.
f
DlscoURsE ANÁLYSIs ]]. 1.ExT TYPEs 8l

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

l. Elaborate the differences between spoken and written language.

2. List examples for the functions ofspo(en and written language.
3. List some aspects ofcomparison in genre analysis.
4. How do formal genres differ from informal genres?
5. What is rhetorical genre analysis?

Tasks

1. Select a topic. Ask a fellow student to talk about it for approximately

3 minutes. Record his/her speech. Then ask him/her to write approxi-
l
mately 150 words about the same topic. Transcribe his/her speech and
compare the transcript with the written text. What differences can you l

see between the two texts? i

2. Buy either an English or a Hungarian tabloid and a serious paper on the

i
same day. Select and an article from each that is about the same event.
Compare the two articles in terms of lexical density, nominalization,
type/token ratio, repetition and the use of personal pronouns.
3. Design an activity to raise intermediate students' awareness of the char-
acteristics of formal and informal senres.
D!SCOURSE ANALYSIS I!!.
CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

l. ÁBoUT coNvERsATIoN IN GENERAL

Of the many types of communicative acts, conversation has been considered

as the most fundamental means ofconductíng human affairs since this is the
prototypical kind oflanguage usage. Therefore the analysis ofconversation is of
special significance within discourse analysis and pragmatics (Chapter 13).

Purposes of conversation:
* Exchange of information
rrCreating and maintaining social relationships (e.9. friendships)
s Negotiation ofstatus and social roles
* Deciding on and carrying out joint actions (co-operation)

The primary and overriding function ofconversation is clearly the social func-
tion, i.e. the maintenance ofsocial relationships. Most people spend a great deal
of their everyday lives 'thatting". This social aspect of communication is the
one which is least practised in language classrooms andwhich learners find the
most dimcult in real-life communication.

2. coNvERsÁTIoN ANALYSIs
(sÁeR' s-cEEGío-FT; & JEFFERSoN, 1974)

} If we analyse conversation, it turns out that ít is a highly structured activ-

ity, that follows certain patterns and rules. There are rules to determine
who speaks, when, and for how long, thanks to whích the participants in
'a
conversation take turns with astonishing precision: there is hardly any
overlap and simultaneous talk.
84 ToPrcs rN APPr-rED LlNGUrsrlcs

t These conversational rules and conventions are fairly strong and consistent
in a given cultu re: when someone brea(s thern, people can tell irnmediately
that solnething has gone wrong.

2.1. Conversational rules and structure

Conversátion analysis stuclies issues centred around horv conr'ersatiolt is clr-

ganised and what prevents it from continually breaking down jnto a chaos of
interruptior.rs irncl simultaneous talk. Main topics:
* ope níngs:.l}ere are conventional routines for openings' E.g.: greetings,
introduction, opening questions.
* Closíngs: Intentions to close a conversation are usually expressed with clos-
ing signals such as'well', 'so','okay' used with falling intonation.
* Turn-laking mecinnlsns: intention to let the conversational partner speak is
signallcd with low voice, slowing down, putting a question, body novement.
In smooth communication less than five per cent is delivered in overlap.
* Adjacanty paírs: utterances w]rich require an immediate resPonse or reac.
tion from the partner (greeting-greeting, offer-accept, compliment-thank,
question - answer); there are always preferred and non-preferred answers,
and it is dillicult for learners to distinguish between them. Examples for
preferred answers Bye - See you later; Thanks - You are welcome; How are
you - Fine, thank you. Example for non-preferred answersj How are you
- I have not been feeling very well lately.
* Back-channelling: signals that show the speaker that his/her message is
understood and listened to. Examples: Uhhuh, yeah, right.

Reft
2.2. Gricean maxims of communication

Grice
Grice (1975) proposed four criteria for co-operative communicatlonr u
A) Maxim of relevance: In communication, each person's contribution has Sacks
to be relevant to the topic. For example in the following exchange this tr
maxim is not observed;
A: Would you like some cofee?
B: I disagree with thís solution.
 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS III. CONVERSATION ANALYSIS 85

B) Maxim oftruth/u/ress: Contributions in conversations shouldbe truthful

(exceptions are jokes, deliberate lies).
C) Maxim ofquanÍiÍ7; In conversations, talking time should be fairly divided
between interlocutors' and one should strive íor brevity (this maxim is
often not observed).
D) Maxim of clarity: Messages conveyed should not be obscure or ambigu-
ous.

:; Non-observance of maxims:
l. Flouting a maxim means that spea(er blatantly fails to observe the
maxim, because he wants to the hearer to find additional meaning
to the one expressed. This is called conversational implicature. For
examole:

How are you getting there?

We are geÍlling there by car (meaning you are not coming with us
- maxim ofquantity flouted because it would have been enough to
say by car).

Violating a maxim - speaker wants to mislead the listener intention- 'I

i.
ally.
l
3. Infringing a maxim - not observing the maxim because of lack of I

linguistic (nowledge (e.g. L2 learners).

Opting out of a maxim - the speaker is unwillirrg to abide by the
maxrms.
Suspending a maxim - in certain situations it is not necessary to ob-
serve the maxims (e.g. poetry).

References:

GÍice' H. P. (l975). Lo8ic and conversation. In P cole & J' MoÍBan (Eds.), syntax and sefiafitics,
yol3. (pp. 4l-58). New York: Academic Press.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E., & Jefferson, G. (1974). The simplest systematics for the organization of
tuÍn.taking fo. convers^tion. Language, 50, 696-7 35.
I
8ó roptcs IN LINGUIsTlcs
^PPLIED

Recommended reading:

Hatch, E. (1992). Discourse and langttage educalion. Cambri<lge: Cambrirlge Univcrsity press.
pp' 6-aó.

ACTIVITIES
l.
Check questions

l. List the four main purposes ofconversation.

2. What characterises conversations?
3. List some elements ofconversation and give an example for each.
4. List and explain Grice's (1975) four maxims.
5. lVhat are language functions and speech acts?

Tasks
Mr
l. Record a conversation in English between two of your fellow students.
Identify the opening and closing of the conversation and the adjacency
pairs in it. Observe what turn-taking mechanisms they use, ancl how they
shift from one topic to another.
2. Record a conversation between two native speakers of English. Identify
the opening and closing of the conversation and the a jacency pairs in it.
Observe what turn -ta(ing rnechanisms they use, and how they shift from
one topic to another. Compare the conversation between native speakers
and the one between non-native speakers.
3. Discuss what problems you have had in conversations with native speakers
ofEnglish that resulted from different rules for carrying out conversations
in the two languages. 2.
4. Interview a native speaker of English about problems he/she has had in
conversations with native speakers of Hungarian that resulted from dif-
ferent rules for carrying out conversations in the two languages.
f

PRAGMATICS

I. WHAT IS PRAGMATICS?

* Pragmatics is the study of language from a functional perspectiye, that is,

it attempts to explain facets of linguistic structure by reference to non-
linguistic causes (Levinson, 1983). According to a more recent definition,
"pragmatics is the societally necessary and consciously interactive dimen-
síon ofthe study oflanguage'' (Mey' 1993' p. 315).
.i Pragmatics is often sub-divided into pragmalinguistics and. socio -pragmatics.
Pragmalinguistics is the study of"particular resources which a given language
provides for conveying illocutions" (linguistic actions) (Leech, 1983, p. 1l).
Sociopragmatics investigates..the social perceptions undeÜing participants'
performance and interpretation oflinguistic action" (Leech, 1983, p. 10).

Major topics:
* Conversational structure (discussed ín Chapter 12)
{ conversational implicature (see 2.2. in Chápter 12)
+ Deixis
{ Speech acts
* Politeness

2. DEIXIS

2.1. Defnition

g The terms'deixis' can be explained on the basis ofthe notion of gestural

word'Deixis' (and the adjective/noun 'deictic') is borrowed
reference. The
from Gree(, meaning "pointing" or "indicating".
88 roprcs rN APpLIED r.rNcursrrcs

a 'Deixis' is commonly er.nployed nowadays in a much broader sense: "any

referring expression wh ich has the same logical properties as the bodily gesture
in question is, by virtue of tlrát fact, deictic'' (Lyons, l995, p. 303)'
*'lhe deictics (indexicals, pointing expressions etc.) are linguistically real-
ised as personal pronoulls, (e,g. 1, _yol), denonstrative pronouns (e.g. this,
ÍáaÍ)' place adverbs (e.g. /rerc' Ílrere)' time adr,erbs (e'g. nou,, |lrerr)' verbs of
motion (e.g. come, go) and tenses,

2.2. Types o;f deixis

3.!
* Person deixis; usr,rally expressed by personal pronouns and refers to the
role of participants in the speech event.
i
h: ^ thought yourwould do it,"
"l
,.Yes,
B: but I , wanted you,\ to do ít'''

.i. Place (or spatial) deixis: concerns the encoding of locations relative to the
location ofthe participants at the time ofspea(ing. The maín distirrction
is to be made between.close to the spea(er' (proximal) and.awayírom the
speaker' (distal), as indicated by áe re vs. there, or this vs' th.lt.

Why don't you come here? Or shall I go there?

I don't need this. Giye me that one rnsreaa.

*'fime (or tenrporal) deixis: concerns time relative to the time ofspea(ing.
.:.

l,m writing this letter whíIe my parents are abroad'

I was writing this letter while my parents were abroad.

t lf iscourseiei:cis: concerns the "encoding of reference to portions of the

unfolding discourse in which the utterance (which includes the text refer- 4.P
ring expression) is Iocated" (Levinson, 1983, p. 62). In other words, deictic
expressions can refer to chunks ofdiscourse as nell.
*
The most inportant thing is this: don,t ever paníc.

Discourse deixis does not only involve direct reference to a portion of {.

the text, but also ínvolves ways in which an utterance _ most frequently a
 PRAGMATICS 89

conjunct - indicates its relation to the prior discourse (e.g. but, therefore,
howeve4 anyway, etc.).

It w&s raining cats and dogs, and everythingwas wet, and it was dark, there-
fore we decided to stay at home.

+ Social deixis: has to do with the social distinctions and social relations be-
tween speaker and addressee or audience. These are most typically honorifics
(grammatical encoding of rank or respect; e.g. Your Honor Mr President).

3. SPEECH ACTS (AUSTIN, 1962; SEARLE, 1969)

.:. Sometimes statelnents and questions are not made to express statements
or questions, but rarther express actions.
,'l;
I declare war on Zanzíbar. l,
I object.
you six pence it will rain tomorrow.
I bet
ii;
* Austin (1962) and, Searle (1969) showed that it is possible to classify sen-
tences into a lirnited set of functions such as directives (e.g. Could you
1j
please swítch on the Iight), commissives (e.g. I promíse, I'll do it tomorrow)' j

representatives (e.g. I saw an ínteresting Jilm yesterday), declaratives (e.g.

I now pronounce you wfe and husband) and expressives (e.g. Oh, that's I

wonderful).
* Speech acts can be direct (e.g. Please, close the window) and indirect (Ir's
'll
rather cold ín here). -;L,t<;i,, ,

(í,,l '^'j J '| '

t.-llti ,{ '. i-6. l.r4
4.PoLrrENEss ,1.,Y.';,; ';
I

* Politeness is a "strategy employed by a speaker to achieve a variety ofgoals

such as promotirrg and maintaining harmonious relations" (Thomas, 1995,
p. 1s8).
* Politeness can be seen as a set of pragmatic principles (Leech, 1983) such
as the tact, generosity, agreement, sympathy principles.
90 TOPICS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

.:. Politeness can be treated in connection with face. Face is the individual's
feeling of self-worth or se]f-imag€. Positive face is people's desire to be
liked ar.rd approved by others. Negative face is the desire to be independent
and to have the freedom to act as one wishes to (Levinson, 1983). Positive
politeness strategies appeal to a common goal or to friendship.

Hey, lohn, how about letting me use your calculator for the night?

Negative politeness strategies generally apologise for intruding someone's

private sphere and in English they usually contain modalverbs.

I'm sorry to bother yu, but could I use your calculator to solve my maths
assianment?

5. INTERLANGUAGE PRÁGMÁTICs

+ Interlanguage pragmatics is the study of non-native speakers' comprehen-

sion, production and acquisition oflinguistic action in L2.
* Conprelrcnsiotr: Second language learners often fail to understand the
non-literal meaning of utterances and their assessment of politeness is
frequerrtly il-rÍ1uenced by their native culture.
* Productíon: studies have examined how L2 learners peÍform Various sPeech
acts such as requests, apologies, refusals, etc. Findings show that L2learn-
ers often use different strategies to realise certain speech acts than native
speakers do. The diÍIering strategy use can be clue to limited L2 proficiency,
transfer ofnative language strategies or conscious rejection ofthe Ll prag-
matic strategies. Learners might perform certain speech acts more or less R.
directly (e.g. Hungarian learners of English express disagreement more
directly than native-speakers do), might opt for different politeness strate-
gies and might be less or more verbose than native - spearkers.
* Acquisition: even L2 learners with hjgh level of grammatical or linguistic B.
competence attain only a relatively low level of pragmatic cor.npetence (e.g.
Bardovi-Harlig & Hartforci, 1993). Learners in a second language environ
nrent and learners in a foreign larrguage situation were also found to dilTer
as regards their sensitiVity to pragmatic errors (Bardovi.Harlig & Dörnyei'
1998) and the target-like productior.r of speech acts. Bardovi-Harlig and
Dörnyei (l998) argued that the scarcity of available Pragmatic_ilPut both
inside and outside the classroom accounts for their findings that L2 learn- Le
 IrRÁ(;M^'l.I(]s 9-I

els iÍ] il li)rcigI1 latlguage environllletlt (fbr c'xirnlple in Hunglr,v) tl.ct.e less
scnsitiYc to l)l-ilgrllatic Yioliltiorls tl)arl tllcir peers in the Unitcrl Stale's.
* Prtrnttlit: 1r'rui.'/e r; thc influe nce' of I-l on tite procluction ancl conrpre
hension ol lingLlistic action in [.2. I)raqnratic tLansfer can be positive irncl
negirtivc (sc(' ()lrapter 4 on transÍer).
* Prqe tttttIitllttislic.|ilílure (T1rolnas' 19ii3): thc pragmatic fbrcc oI the L2
spealicr's nrcssitee is misnnclerstoocl or the L2 spea(er rlocs nol Lrnclcrstan<l
tI]e l)].J{l]1otic lilrce oÍ.the I,1 spcalier's lnesslgc' l]or exaIllplc' irl I lLIIltirry
if ,vou cooli sonrcthirg for a gLrcst. lrLr oftelt say that the nlcal )()u pre
p.!'ed is not as qootl irs it usuallr,is to 1.r1o1'o(g the pllise of ,vour-coo(ing.
EngJish'spealiing guests rright r)ot un(lcrstand \\,hv vou arc put t ine dorvn
r.ottr cool(iilÍ1. l Iutlgariarl lcattlcrs lll'I-,nglish mieht Illistltltlcrstalrci tIre
qlrcstion "l lou are vou?" iutcl slart colt]plainiug irbout tlteir hcalth, llnan
ci.rl situ at ion etc.
.. Sacio pru!!]tl]Íic.liri1irre (.11lolnirs, l9l]3): the L2 learner l,iolates prituIllatic
norrns beciiLrse hc/she' cloes not knorv rvlr irt can be said to l']rorrr irr pa ftic LLlir r
situ tjons. Irorcxanrple,a HLurgarian lclrner rnight noLkno\\'thatonedoes
not ask ab()tlt collclgtlcs' pltl.ty }rt.cÍi'teIlces irr the U'S.
* lltc'nratol problenr ofinlcrlanguitgc pragrratics is the issuc'ofrrrl/lrr' .spcalcr
rrorrr (KasPcr' Schmiclt, I997):
"\
L sociolinguistic variirtion l ithin the target languarge (see Olraptc'r 14);
2. rro sr.rclr thing irs'idcal niitive'spealtcr';
3. L2 learncrs nright not t ant tLr conlirrrn to I.2 prirgmalic nonns becarLse
it ntight nrcln gii ing up fhc'ir''cLrltLrr-al idenlity'.
'ilrt' soiution nrighl be tl.re c'stittrlisltntcnt ol-'nrultilingurl' or'bilingual
prirgr'nilt rc norrrs'.

Referen ce s:

Ausl in, J. ( 1962). / i orr la (ta things t\,ilh rr?rrls. Oxlo|tL: (llare Llon I)ress.
I]aÍdovi Illrliq. l(.,.\ Dör'rr'vci, Z. (l99|])' l)rl llrrgLragc learrrcrs lccogniz. PId!jn]illic violl
tions? l)rrEnrirtia Ys. !lrinrmatical arvarencss in irr"truclcd L2 lcarning. /1:S()1, Qrrdlcrl,)

I]aÍdo\'i HrÍlig. 1('' & Hlrtlbld' I]- (1993), I,catniIlglhcrulesrliacadenlictLrlk: ,\longitudiüill

\tudv oi praqnrirt ic developmcnl. Slrr/i.-i i,r Sr'r orrl l-,rrrguagr rlc{r/irilirtr. l-;,279-10-1.
Kaspcr, (i.' .\ Sch nl iilt. |(' ( 1996)' DeYeloplncntal issrrc's in interlanguage Plaqntlrlics. .sÍ'/./i.'.
'rr
Secorrrí 1-all.qrrrr.qi. llcg{li.'itio,l, ,Is, l.l9 ló9.
Lcech, G. (l9lll). l)rtt<rplcs ofprag,nttirs. Loncl,rn: l.onunran.
92 roprcs rN AppLrLD r.rNGUIslrcs

1,evinson' S.C. (1983) ' Píagtlatics' CambÍidge: Canrbridge UniveÍsity Pfess. Ta:
Lyons, ). (1995). Li Buistic scnlLt,itics: Ali introcluction. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Píess'
Mey, l. (1993). Pragnd!ics An ittlroductiotr. Oxfordr Blackrvell.
Searle, J. (1969). Sle.clr acls. Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrsity Press.
Thomas. l. (1983)' cÍoss. cull u ral Pragrnat ic Íai|ute. Applied !'it'glli5ti.s,.l,9l-i05.
Thon.rs, J' (l995)' fuíea ihg in i||teraction: An i troÍ]uclio,l to prag' 4li.J. London: l,ongn]án-

Recotnmended reading:

I}ardovi'Harlig, K. & l)órn1,ci, 2' 11993;. po language Iearners recognize Pragmatic violations?
Pragm{tic versus grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly 32,
233 -262.
Hatch, E. (1992). Discoutse nnd lnnguagc educotion. Canrbridge: Cambridgc University Press.
Pp. 12] 1ó3 n'ld pP.209-223'
,tbomas'
J. (1983). Cross.cultLrralpragrrraticÍal|ure. Applied Lilgtlisli.s, 4,9l l l2'
'fhonras, l.(1995).Mea iúg i|1il\tcrdction: An iútroductio,1 to Pfd.q,la'ics. London: l,ongman'
Yule, G' (l996). ,Pra3nraiics- oxlbrd: oxford University PÍess'

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1. What is pragmatics?
2. What is deixis and what are the main types of deixis? Give an example
for each.
3. What are the main types of speech acts?
4. What is politeness?
5. What types ofpoliteness strategies are there?
6. What are some significant aspects ofinterlanguage pragmatics?
7. How might L2 learners' production and comprehension of speech acts
differ from that of native speakers?
8. What is socio-pragmatic and pragmalinguistic failure?
 PRAGMATICS 93

Tasks

l. Record a conversation in English between two of your fellow students.

identify the various speech acts in the conversation. Select a short part
of the conversation and identify the conversational implicature for each
of the utterances.
2. Select a short part ofan interview from an English language magazine or
newspaper. Analyse the deictic expressions in the extÍact'
3. Design a role-play task in whích one ofthe interlocutors needs to make a
request and the other needs to refuse it. Specify the relationship between
the interlocutors (friend, colleague, etc.). Ask two native-speakers of
English and two native speakers ofHungarian as well as two learners of
English to perform the role-play. Compare the politeness strategies used
in English as L1 and L2 and in Hungarian.
I
socloLtNGUtsTtcs

* Sociolinguistics "examines the relationship between language use and the

social world" (Silberstein,200l, p. 100). Sociolinguists examine speech
communities with specific social characteristics such as age, gendel class,
profession, ethnicity, etc.
* The study ofsociolinguistics is important because man is a social being and
the way humans communicate is influenced by social circunstances.
* Sociolinguistics is often sub-divided into trvo branches: micro-sociolin-
guistics, which focuses on linguistic phenornena, and macro - sociolinguis-
tics, which studies the behaviour of speech communities. Among other
sub-Íields, micro-sociolinguistics includes conversation analysis (see
Chapter 12), pragmatics (see Chapter 15) and critical discourse analysis
(see Chapter l0).

r. LANGUAGE VARIATION

* Accent: refers to features of pronunciation

+ Dialect: variety oflanguage used by a group ofpeople
* llegional dialectsr varieties of language spoken in a particular geographi-
cal area
* Social variation can be clue to age, social class, race or ethnicity and gen-
der
n Register: set of language items associated with discrete occupational or
social groups (e.9. pilots, surgeons, jazz fans, etc.)
96 roprcs rN' LrNGUrsrrcs
^Ppl,rf,D

2. BILINGUALISM/MULTILI NGUALISM

2.1. Key terms

* l-ingua frauca: a language rvhich is used to facilitate cornmunication be-

tu,een speakcrs of tlill'erent mother tongues (e.g. in English in the rvorld
ol- fi nance ancl trade).
* Piclgin: piclgin is uo one's first Ianguare, it is a cont.rct Ianguage. Pidgin
has a simple granrmaticai syster'll, vocabulary and has considerable pho-
nological variation (e.g'lbk Pisin bctrveen spea(ers of cliíl.erent languages
in Papua Neu' Guinea).
.!. Creole: a piclgin tlrat has beconte the first language of a generation of
spea(ers (e.g. French,based Haitian Creole in Haiti). Creolisation involves
expansion oí rnorphologv and syntarx, regularisation of plronology.
* Bilingualisnr or n.rrrltilingrralisnt is "the (nowledge or the use of morc
than one la |lruage' by an individual or a cotnrnu D ity" (Sridhar, 1996, p. 47).
Bilingualisnr cnn be an indjvidual phcnomenon (e.g. how languages are J.
Iearnt by children, horv they are representecl in the ntind etc.). Bilingual-
isnr irs :r socie'tal pltenomenon conccrns the status aud roles of languirges
in societr', irttitudes torlirrds lirnguage ctc.
.:. Speech contntunity: "a contmunit;'thirt shares
lhe knowledge ofthe rules
Íilr tile conduct antl itlterpretat itlrl ofspecch'' (Sridlrar, l996, p. a9).
* Verbal repcrtoil'e: "total range oflingu istic resources available to an individ-
ual or contntunity" (Sridhar, 199(r, p. 48). Ir4uJtilingual 1'eople have several
verbirl repertoircs, for exarnpL'it Hungarian ntanagL'r irt an international
company'might spcak Hungarian rvith his colleagues, English rvith his boss
and Gernran rvith h is clicnts. Mr.rlt ilingual speakers do not necessarily have
a high level oIcom;retence in eirch ol'the'languages they speak, their Ievel of
competence is suitcd to the purposc firr l'hicl.r they usc the language.

2.2. Language choice

4.1
.:. An imPortant Íactor iIl deternriIliIlg laIrguage choice is the language use
donrain. f-ishmirn (1978) distinguisJrecl the follorving donrains: the family,
the plal'grouncl and the street, the school, the church, Iite'rirtr.rre, the press,
the' rrilitarr', th!' c()urt and governnt(.ntal adnrinistration.
 sor:roLrtJGursrlcs 97

* Not all lar.rguages in a multilir.rgual community have equari prestige, power

ánd vitalit)r Genera1l;'' tI'" 111'1.l", .ne socia] and econonic beneljts are one
gain b,v speaking the particular ianguage, the higher the prestige of t1.rc
language is.
.r Diglossia: specJtr lisirt iot.t oÍ tlvo varieties of the sarne language (Ferguson,
1972). E.g. standarcl German ancl Srviss German. One of the varieties is
be- rnainly usecl for rvritten and formal spoken purposes and the other tbr
üa ordinary conversatior.r.
* Cocle switci.rjng: sr.r.itchir.rg from one language to the other. Situational
rin code - srvitchir.rg is triggerecl by the situation (e.g. switching fron flnglish to
ho- Hungarian rvhen a proÍcssiona1 rneeting is offrciaily Írnished). Metaphori.
les cal code - srvitchit-tg has stylistic oÍ textual functiot.t (e.g. quotation, joke)'
Code switching often ta(es pJace u'ithout the speal(er's noticing it.
oI .t Coclc mixir.rg: switching of languages within sentences and can involve
!'es every level oflexical and syntactic structure. lt is ofrcn vic\\'cci negiitively.

JIC
47 ).
are 3. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
ual'

* In the l8'r' century, Ronantics believed that language ancl culture irre
rles inseparabie. 'Ihey argued that people spea( dillerently because specch ls
cleternrined b1' thought, arrd thoughts are inherently influenced by culture.
vicl- 'Ii-ris is callec1
línguistic te]ati\'ity.
3ral * At the beginning ofthe 20'r' centur-y, th is line ofthought rvas picked up by
rnal Franz Boirs irnd his fol]owers: F,dlvard Sapir and Benjamin Lee !Vhor-Í' ]te
)oss strong version of the Strpir Whorf hypothesis clairns tl.rat the structure of
rave orre's native language tleternines thc rvay one thinks and behaves. ln thc
:l of lveak versicllt, rr,lrich has gairlc'cl ernpiricirl support, lar.rguage íufuences
one's thoughts, bul does not determine thern.
.i The construction ofthe meaning of trn utterance always takes place in the
context oíthe situation, which is embedded in the context ofculture.

4. LANGUAGE AND GENDER

use
mrl)',
)ress, *'Ihe diÍIerence between how male and female spea(ers use the language
started to gain considerable attention in 1980's. Many ofthe studies have
98 roprcs rN APPr-rED LrNGUrs'flcs

provided either inconclusive or contradictory results, but there seems to

be ir consensus in the following issues:
l. In tlany languages there is a phonological diÍIerence between the
spcech of men and women. In these lar.rguages \\'omen pronounce
certain sounds differently front men.
2. In many languages certain words tend to be used more frequently by
men than by rvomen (e.g' in English charnting, klyeb,, and J /ecÍ are
commonly used by rvornen, but not by men)
3. lhe intonation patterns ofnren and women are different.
4. lVomen ancl nert niight use differ.ent body language.
* A Variety oí explanations exists concerning the difference betweetr ttlen.'s
ancl wome n',s Ianguage use. The two main inter- relateci causes of the di11-er-
el]ce seeÍn k) be thc diíIelent upbringing and the diferent ro]es men and
Re
wornen have in society.

5. LANGUAGE PLANNING ÁND PoLICY Fisi

l{uí:
a. "Language planning includes the formation and irnplementation of a
silb
policy designed to prescribe or influence, the language(s) and varieties of
language that lviil be used and the purposes lor.rvhich they will be used"
(Wiley, 1996, pp. 108-109).
Srid
* Language planning has three distinct components:
1. corpus planrring; includes creatiorl or modification of the spo(en or
wit,
$'l itten language code (e.g. spelling reform);
2, status plirnning: the decisions of authorities concerning the status
of various languages; (e.g. decisions on the languages to be used in
schools, courts);
3. language acquisition planning: is concerned with the teaching and
lea rn ing of languages.
.i Language plan ning can be explicit (official politicirl dccisions) and impiicit Re,
(institutional practices).
* There are three basic orientations in language planning (Ruíz, l982):
Hol
l. language as a problem: language planners are concerned with the iden- llicl
tiÍ1cation ofJarrguage problen.rs (e.g. sociaI problelns that arisebecause
of a r.ninority's linguistic problenls);
2. languagc as right: language use is related to social rights, therefore
l'ru
language planning also lteeds to address social issues;
 so croLrNC u rsTlc s 99

3. language as resource;the aim oflanguage planning is to raise the status

of minoríty 1anguages and resolve conflicts between the majority and
m innrit v . nnr m, r n ir ip<

* The goals oflanguage planning can be the following:

1. language related goals: language shift policy, language maintenance
policy, language enrichment policy;
2. political goals: promoting national unification;
3. economic goals: promoting international trade, increasing productiv-
rty etc.

ReÍerences:

Fergusor'r, C. A. (197z\. L.lnguage structürc and language ase. Stanford: stanford University
Press,
Fishman, J. A' (Ed.)' (I978). Arlvallces ín the study of societal multilihgualism'The HagLIe: MoLI
ton.
Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. N,4BE /ourn al, 8 (2),15-34.
l Silberstein, S' (2001). Sociolinguis|ics' In R' CarteÍ, & D' Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide
f to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 100-106). Cambndge: Cambridge
L" UniveÍsity Press'
Sridhar, K. K. (1996). Societal multilingualism. In S. L. McKay, & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), So'
ciolillguistics and language teaching(pp.47 70). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
I Wiley, T.c. (1996). Language planrTing and policy In S. L. McKay, & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.),
Saciolinguistics and language teaching (pp. i03 147). Cambridge: Cambridge University
s Press.
n

d
Recommended reading:
it

Holmes, I. (1994). Áx it]tfoductio|1 ta sociolinguistics. London: Longman.

n- R.ickford, J. R. (1996). Regional and social variation. In S. L. McKay, & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.),
]e Sociolinguistics and language teaching (pp. 151-194). Cambridger Cambridge Unive.sity
Press,
Ttudgill, P. (1995). Sociolixglisfics. Harmondsworthr Penguin.
Wardaugh, R. (1998). An i troductiotl to saciolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
100 roptcs IN APPLTED LrNGUIsrrcs

ACTIVITIES P.

Check questions

l. What is sociolinguistics and what are its two main branches?

2. What types oflanguage variation are there?
3. What is bilingualism/multilingualism?
4. What is a speech community?
5. What characterises the verbal repertoire of multilingual people?
6. What are the most important factors that determine language choice?
7. What is the diglossia?
8. What is the difference between code-switching and code rnixing?
9. What is language planning?
10. What are the basic components oflanguage planning?

Hert
Tasks of Li

l. Discuss how many different regional and social varieties of Hungarian

and how many verbal repertoires do you use on a typical day? I. T.
2. lnterview members ofa bilingual family concerning the factors that de-
termine their language choice.
3. Observe when university students of English switch or mix codes. *
4. Collect data on the major issues oflanguage planning in Hungary.

*'l
(
I.

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

,r Psycholinguistics is "the use of language and speech as a window to the

nature and structure ofthe human mind" (Scovel, 1998, p. a).
+ Psycholinguistics aims to answer the following questions:
1. how are languages learnt - the study ofLl and L2 acquisition;
2. how are languages forgotten - the study oflanguage loss;
3. how is language produced - the study of language production;
4. how is language comprehended - the study of comprehension.

Here we will discuss Questions 2-4, for Question 1 see the cognitive accounts i,il
of L2 learning in Chapter 2.

I. THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE LOSS lrl

* Language loss is also called attrition, which means the loss of linguistic
abilities.
+ Language loss can ta(e various forms depending on what language is lost
and in what environment.
1. Loss ofll in Ll environment - can be brought about by brain damage il
(e.g. aphasia) and aging - this is the subject of neurolinguistics.
2. Loss of L1 in L2 environment - immigrantt loss of Ll knowledge - most
frequently certain vocabulary items are forgotten.
3. Loss ofL2 in L1 enyironment - foreign language loss.
4. Loss ofL2 in L2 environment - e.g. language loss ofaging or brain-
lr
damaged immigrants.
i
$ The basic theoretical question offoreign language loss is whether loss means I

complete forgetting or whether it is just retrieval failure.

.

i
102 roprcs lN ATI,LIED LlNGUrsllLs

.:. Two basic theoretical stancls:

l. regression theory: loss is the mirror image ofacquisition - what rvas
learrrt lust is [orgolten frrst;
2. critical nrass theory: ifa certaitr proficiency level is reached in L2,
forrct ti rl!' lrccorrcr lr'rr \lt[)slill]t i,ll.

2. THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

l. Language production is assumed to have four sequentia I stages (Levelt, 1989).

1. Conceptualisation: planning the message
2. Formulation: grrrnnratical, lcxical and phonological encoding of the
message
J. Articulalion:
productiorr ofspeech sounds
4. Self-monitoring: checking tl.re correctness and appropriateness ofthe
pÍoduced output
.1. Fol Ll speakers, Stages 2 and 3 do not require attention and are automatic,

thus the processes cJn rlrn parallel which means that the production of
speech ir eÍlbrlless attd fasl.
* In L2 speech these st.rges require attention, thus if the speakers are not
proficient, speech is processed serially.
.l. DiÍ.Ierences betwecl-t l,1 atrc1 ['2 speech production:

1. L2 speech is slow irnd hesitant.

2. L2 speech carIies t]-!e traces oí Ll (see error-analysis, interlanguage
theory for the influence ofLl in Chapter 3). ReJ
3. L2 speakers often neecl to compensate for tl.reir lac( of knowledge
(comn)uDicJtion strJtegies - see Chapter 6).
Har

I-ev€
3. STUDY OF COMPREHENSION Se'icl
)

* The schelre ofthe comprchension process (based on Harrington, 2001):

A) segmenting sounds into strirrgs oílinguistic urrits;
B) accessing individual lexical items in the segmented strings: Rec
C) assigning syntactic structure to the word string;
D) deriving rneanir.rg tirr the rvords and syntactic structure as a unit;
E) establishing thc real-lif-e referent ofthc string;
F) recovering tJre speaker's intention.
 PSYCHOLTNGUISTICS -I03

* Note that people do not comprehend speech in a linear fashion. Listeners

and readers process chun(s/units of information and often wait to make
decisions on how to interpret what they read or heard until they encounter
additional information. ']his is calle d Parallel Distributed ProcessíngPDP
is a model which allolvs for the simultaneous processing oftop-down and
bottorn up information (Seidenberg & McClelland, 1989).
* The comprehension of phonemes is aided by a process called, categorial
perception. Categorial perception is an inuate ability that helps people
categorise minute phonetic difference (e.g. differences between 'p' and 'b')
in a binary fashion (e.g. voiced-voiceless distinction).
.r The comprehension ofwords and sentences is also h e\ped,by the phoneme
restoration eÍect, LisÍeneÍs do not hear every phon€me' but they are able
to substitute the phoneme they rnissed on the basis ofthe context.
* Research on the comprehension of sentences has shown that the number
of grammatical transformations a sentence contains does not predict how
difficult it is to understand a sentence. For exanple it was found that in
English negative sentences are more difficult to understand than passive
sentences.
.t In comprehending sentences, readers or listeners always have expectations
on the basis of the already-processed information what might come next
and use these expectations for prediction.
* It has also been shown that contextual information helps the understanding
oftexts (for the role ofbackground knowledge see Chapter 10).

References:

Harrington, M. (2001). Sentence processing. In P. Ilobinson (Ed.), Cognitiofl and secohd langltage
acquisition (pp. 9l-I24). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
l,evelt, W. l, (1989). Speaking Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Seidenberg, M., & Mcclelland, J. (1989). A distributed developmental lnodel ofword recognition.
P syc h o lo gi ca I Rev i ew, 9 6. 523 -5 68.

Recommended reading:

Scovel, T. (I998). Pslc holinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

104 Toprcs tN ApplrED LtNcursr'rcs

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

l. What are the main topics ofresearch in psycholinguistics?

2. Under what circumstances can language loss take place?
3. What theories oflanguage loss are there?
4. What stages does language production consist of?
5. How does L2 production differ from Ll production?
6. What is parallel distributed processing?
7. What mechanisms help the comprehension of phonemes and words?

Tasks

1. If you teach, ask one ofyour students (ifyou do not teach, ask one ofyour
fellow-students) to tell a story in English and in Hungarian. Record the
stories. Compare the fluencyofthe two stories by counting the numberof
pauses and by measuring the speech rate (total number ofsyllables spoken
divided by the total time spent speaking in seconds).
2. Ifyou teach, ask one ofyour students (ifyou do not teach, ask one ofyour
fellow.students) to tell a story in English. Record tlre stories. Immedíately
after the participant ofthe research finishes the story, play it back to him/
her, and stop the tape-recorder at long hesitations. As( about the reasons
for hesitating. Analyse the problems the participant had in delivering
his/her message. ln which phase of speech production did he/she have
the most problems?
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

I. WHAT IS RESEAI{CH?

.t "l(csearch is ir s,vste'nrittic approlch Lo searching lirr rrnsrvet-s k) qLrcslions"

(llatch & Lirzirrirlon, 1991, p. 9). Scientihc rescarclr is ir s1'stematic and
disciplined inquir1,.
- .!'lhcle
are trvo basic t,vpes ofreserrch:
L Sccondary rcseirrch which is basccl on seconclary sourccs, that is, other
resezrLchers'books and ilrticlcs - litrrary rcscarch, literature rcvicw.
2. Plirrarl'rcscirrch rvhich is bascci on primary and ernpirical clata (e.g.
interviews, qu!'stionnaires, obsclvations).
I)rimary research can be quirntitativc and quirlitirtive.

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

2.
METHODOLOGIES

2. 1. Qu an tit ati\/ e re s earch

*A llua titltí\,t sItrrl,1,aitlls

to test a l])'pothesis thrrlttgh the use oíobjectir'e
inslrunrents (luestionnirires) ancl appropriate statistical analysr's.'lhe
(c.!1.
aitlr ofIlost quatltÍtxti\'e studies is ltl nlake ir suthcicttI t-tumbet tl] obscrva
tions in orcler to bc rrbie to rra(c generalisations. li.g. survevinu tltc Iuo-
tivation of 1000 primary school-children in Ilungary to be ablc to nrake
gcnerirlisations for all the prirrirrl'scl.tool-chilclrr,'rr in the countr)'.
* ln quantitirtivc studies it is ir.nportant that thc rcsearch should Lre vrlid
and le'liable.
-106 loprcs IN AppLIED LlNcurslrcs

l. External validity: to what extent the lindings of the study can "'r 3.(
plied or generalised to situations outside the research.
lnternal vaiidity: whether the results are caused by the factors identi-
fied by thc researcher and not factors that were not controlled in the 3.l.
research.

2. 2. Qualit atir e re se arch

* The prototypical qualitative methodology is an ethnographic study in

which the researchers do not set out to test hypotheses, but rather to
observe rvhat is present with their focus free to vary during the course of 3.2. 1

observation (hypothesis generation). Qualitative studies aim to under-

stand the process of langutrge learning and teaching from rhe perspec-
tive ofthe participants. Qualitative studies are not generalisable because .:. 'l
their ai:n is to oLrscrve and understarrd the phenomenon under study
(e.g. the behaviour ofa problematic group). It is the task ofthe reader oí
the study to decide to what extent the findings aÍe lelevant for his/her t
clrcunstances.
* Typical research tools include: field-notes, observations, diaries, inter
views. 3
* In qualitative research the term used for va]i d'íty ís credibílity. Credibility
can be enhanced in the foJlowing rval s: .:. Inl
l. Prolonged engagement and persistent observation (e.g. ifthe aim is lnt
to describe the behaviour of a language learning group one needs to
observe a number ofclasses, not iust a few).
2. Triangulation: the use ofnrultiplc soulces (e.g. curriculum guide-
lines, sarnples of students' writing, held notes), methods (e.g. irr 3.3. Te.
terviews and observatior.rs) and investigirtors (e.g. presence of two
observers).
3. 'Ihrck description: detailed description of the research methods and * Tex
the observations made. to t,
4. Audit trail: storing and organising all the data girthered so that they
are irvailable fcrr furtl.tcr stud;'.
 scrENTrFrc REsEARcH rrerHoooLocy J07

)- 3. ORIENTATIONS IN APPLIED LINGUISTIC RESEARCH

1-

.e 3.1. Analysis of learners' Ianguage

* The aim of this orientation is to describe the language system used by L2

learners. For example: interlanguage analysis, acquisition order studies,
how L2 learners express various pragmatic functions, how L2 learners'
performance varies in various types oftasks.

ln
to
rof 3.2. Verbal reports on language behaviour
ler-
)ec-
use * There are three types ofverbal reports:
rdy L
self-report questionnaires e.g. motivation questionnaire, learning
rof strategy questionnaÍre;
'her 2. introspection/think- aloud - participants have to think aloud while
solving a tas( (e.g. reading tas(, multiple choice test) and verbalise
rter- every thought that comes to their mind;
3. retrospection - participants provide information on their mental
ilitY strategies after the completion ofthe task.
* Introspection and think-aloud are often used as complementary research
mis instruments.
ls to

uide-
I.in- 3. 3. Text/ discour se an aly sis
'two

; and .1. Text analysis describes texts that L2 learners produce and often compares them
to texts produced by native spea(ers (for further details see Chapter 10).
theY
 108 roprcs IN AppLIED LrNGUrs.l.rcs

3.4. Cla ssro om int e raction analy si s

t "lnteraction analysis describes and categorises various aspects of the

in-
structional practices arrd verbal interactions that take plirce betlveen teirch_
crs ancl studcnts in language clirssrooms" (Spada, 1994, p. fig5).
+ Jhe most frequently r.rsed methods are the application oiclirssroom obser_
virtion schemes and liled-notes taken by thc researcher.

3. 5. Ethnographic research
I

i
.:. Ethnrgraphy "seeks to describe the set of understandings ancl specific (
knou'lecigc shared arnong participants that guide their behaviour rn that
specific context" (Hornberger, 199a, p.6SS).
*'Ihe sub.ject ofethnographic research can be the culture ofa community,
il clitss. an evclt or a progr.1n.
* lithnographic researcll atternpts to describe the phenonrenon under study
as the pir rt iciDants sc!' it.

3.6. Action research

.:. Áction researcl-t is research doIlc by ciassloonr teachers, rvho assume tbc
role of the researcher, u'ith the ainr of understirnding an aspect ofteaching
or learning that is relevant in their situation. Action research is considered
an integral part of reflective teaching practice. 5

4. THE RoLE oF TIME IN APPLIED LINGUISTIC RESEÁRCH

t

* Cross-sectiotwl approach: thelinguistic performance ofa large number of

participants at diÍlérent levels of proficiency is studied, the performance
data are collected at one session using controlled measurement. Usually
quantitat ive methods are used.
 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODOLOCY I09

* Longitudínal approacy'r; observing the development oflinguistic perform-

ance of a group of students or of individual learners over a longer period
of time. Often oualitative methods are used.

5. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

5.1. Production data elicitation (performance)

Researchers have to make participants produce the items they are interested
in, still it is often important that the participants are not aware of the explicit
objectives ofthe research. Data elicitation procedures;
- Reading aloud
- Structural exercises (transformation, fill-ín-the-gaP, sentence rewrite)
- Text completion task
-
I

Elicited imitation (understanding a long sentence and reconstructing it) l

- Elicited translation Jl
- Guided cornposition (words or picture sequences given)
- Question and answer ji
- Reconstruction (reconstruction after listening, watching or reading)
- Communication games (conversation with native spea(er during a game)
- Role play ii
-
I

Oral interview
ri
I

- Free composition
rl

5.2. lntuitional data elicitation

Data elicitation procedures:

- Error recognition and correction (participants have to find errors and
correct them)
- Grammaticality judgements (participants are asked whether or not the
f given utterance is grammatically well-formed)
- Other judgement tas(s (participants are asked whether or not the given ut
; terance is well-formed concerning politeness, easy understanding, etc.)
- Card-sorting (sentences on cards, and participants have to categorise or
rank order them)
I 10 Toptcs rN APPLIDD LINGUIsr lcs

3.2. Questionnaires

+ Questionnaires are used to get information about the fbllowing (Brown,

2001):
1,. Language bchavioul i.e, what students do in specific situations. E.g.:
!Vhat do you do if you do not understand a word in a reading text?
2. Opinion. E.g.: What is your opinion about language games?
3. Feelings. E.g.: I low do you feel when the teacher corrects you?
4. Knowletlge. E.g.: What languages are spoken in Hungary?
5. l\ackground inJornatíolt E.g.: How old are you?

l. The responses to questions can be given in two forms:

l. Open-ended questions require the respondents to provide an answer
in their own words.
2. Closed-response questions require the respondent to select from an-
swers provicled by the researcher.

+ Types of closed-response questions

l. A lternative- answer questions

Did you learn any other languagc before coming to this course? yÉsNo

Which skill causes the most dificultíes for you?

A) reading B) writitrg C) spcaking D) Iistening

2. Likert-scale questions

Strongly Strongly
agree disagree
Learning English can be important to me.
- -
3. Senlant ic diÍlerential scale 6,

What are your classmates líke? friendly _ _ _ _ unfriendly

4. Ilanking questions

Please indicate by rank order which skill is the most important Íor
you in your current job?
T-
scr ENTrFrc REsEARcH uernooorocy Lll

Listening
Reading
Writing
Speaking

5.4. Interviews

* Interviews can be ofthree types:

l. Structured interview - interview questions are written in advance and
questions are always as\ed in the same order.
2. Semi-structured interview - interview questions are written in advance
but their order and content can be modified in the light ofwhat the
respondent says.
3. Open interview - only very broad questions are put to interviewees
who are free to express their thoughts without being guidedby specific
0uestlons.

5.5. Other research instruments

Diaries (see Chapter 17)

Retrospection and think-aloud (see 3.2. above)
Classroom observation schedules (see Chapter 17)
Field-notes (see Chapter 17)

6. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

,, In experimental research the effects of specific and controlled treatment

given to subjects are studied. Treatment can mean a specific language
teaching method (e.g. the use ofcomputers) or material (e.g. vocabulary,
certain grammar items, communication strategies) taught under controlled
circumstances. In an experiment, the researcher wants to establish cause
and effect relationships.
I l2 roptcs IN APPLTED LrN(;ursrrcs

* Participants íor the cxpcrinlcntaI stud1, catl bc ratldomly selccted (true

experinrental tlesign) or cxisting language leirrning groups cirn be used
(quasi-expcrirnental clc'sign). Most studies in appliccl lir.rguistics and lar.r-
guage pedagogv usc a quasi-experinrental design. flrc typical experlrnental
desiglr involves nrinimum tu'o groups: a control gloup, lvl.ricl.r does not
reccive ir treatment irncl an experinrcntirl group, rvhich is exposed to the
trentrncrlt. lt is inrportant that the treatnrent .rnd control groups should
be sinrilar irs regards age, level of proliciency, distribution of rnales and
fe males, motivation etc.
.} ln order to meásure the ef}-ect oftreattneIrt both the control ancl the experi.
t-neItta1 groups irre |ested betilre ancl after thc inteÍVel]tion. lhc treatment
can be considered elTectir.e ifthe experimr'ntal grorrp improvcs signilicantll'
rrore fron] thc pr!' tcst to the post tcst tlran thc control group.

References:

llrorvn, I. l). (2001). Usirg survc),s in language programs. Oanrbriclge: (lanrbriclge University

] |atch' ['' & LilZtrillon. Á ' ( l99l)' 7l. rch ntanual: Dcsi!n alkI s!d!isti(sÍot ap?licÍí 1i;r3rrisÍrr.s'
'"J.t?
[]{)ston, I IeiDle & Ileinle.
llornbelger, ^1ass.:
N. (J994). Ethnography. TESOI Qr./rrrlcrl),,28. 685 637.
spada' N. (l994)' C1assIoon] inteÍirctio]] irnalysis. TE.SOL Quarldr|',2.s' 6B8.69()'

lle c o m nt e n d e d r ea tl i n g

l]aile,v' K' i\'1.' & l). (ljds.)' (l995). ljo irts ÍÍo|11lhr la sl|alt classtoon: Qtutli!aIire rasearth
^vunan,
rn satotrd languagc nc4rri-srlion. Nerr'York: Canrbridqe Universitv Pless.
(]urn Injng, A. (l994). in 'l.Esol- rcseLlÍch: I)escriPlive, interpÍet ive lnd ideologicll
^lteInati\,cs
oricnlations. J llsol. Qudt turlf, 2E,673 7A3.
l)avis, K. A. (1995). Qualitativc thoory ancl mcthods in rppliecl linguistics research. T ESOI
{) u o r t L: rty, 29, 12 t- - 153.
l-arscn Fleerlran, I)',&Long'N'l.(l991).1rtíodu.Iia]lloscro]1lll.l'l]llír3.í].qllisiiio'?.NewYor|(:
i,oDgrDan. pp. l0-45.
Maykut' l)', & lvÍorelrouse, l1' (l994). /]e!i'lll)r.g!]l/dlitL|ti\,e rese rcll' /\ pltilosophic antlpractical
guidc. Londonrlhe Falner Press.
 licI!]N].l|](] RLsI]r\RcII tíET}IoD()l,()G\ ]]3

NlcDonough, 1., & 1\'lcDonoLrgh' S. (1997)- /icsr"rr-clr rrtcllrols lor L)tglislr lrugrtuS'
l'rr"crr' Lon-

don:;\rnolcl.
C)xlorcl Uni
seliger, |l'' \\., & shohanl,v, E' (l9s9). s..ottrllrtlt.gtt,Ige resrnrcll rrretlrorls- oxÍórd:
I vcrsity Prcss. PP. 95 ll(>; 135-152.
t

l
1

1 ACTIVITIES
i-
t Check questions

1. What is rcsearch?
2. What is thc dillerence betrveetr qualitative and qual:titativc rcscirrch?
3. What is validit)'in quantitatiYe research ilnd what is cre(iibilit)'in quaii-
lative research?
4. )Jxplain cross scctiorlirl and longitu(iinal leseirrch ill your o\vr1 lvords'
5. List rnethods for production data elicitation
rf 6. List methocls 1'or inttlitional data elicitation'
7. What are verbirl reports atld hotv cirll the)'be used?
8. What cart we gair.r irl lbr-r.natiotr on wjth the he)p ol-questionnaires?
9. What t1'pcs of questions cirn be usecl in a questiotltririre?
10. What tyl.rr"'s of itrtervier','s are tl'lcre?
11. What are lhe contpollents ofexpetitllentalresearch?

'ch l Design an it.lstrument for procluction data elicitatiorl' lf you teach' try it
out riith your students. Otherrvise ask a f'eu'fellow studcllts to conlplete
ail the instruntent. Report on how the itrstrunrent l'orkcd to the {:rouP
2. l)esign an instrument for intttitional data elicitirtiotr' If vou tcach'
try it
ot. out liith your stuclcnts. C)t}rer wise aslr a lcu' Ícl]orv stucicllts to cotllplete
the instrurtlent. Report on how the itlstrtttllent \\'orked to the grotlP'
rhr l. Choose three methods for pr-oductiot.l data elicitation Compare then.t
as regirrcls the type oi data ,vou will get. \\rhat are their rrdvirntaqes arnd
ul disaclvantages?
114 Toprcs rN AppLIED LINcuts'r'rcs

4. Design a short questionnaire on any aspect of language learning you

are interested in. Show the questionnaire to a fellow student and discuss
whether the wording of the questionnaire is appropriate and whether
you rvill be able to obtain the information you intended to gain with the
help of the questionnaire. Revise the questionnaire on the basis of the
discussion.
5. Choose a short multiple-choice test from a test boo(let. Ask a fellow
student to complete the test and report on her mental processes while
doing the test. Report your observations about how this research method
wor(ed to the class.
Design an experiment that focuses either on teachers or learners in a
classroom setting (specify the research question, participants, the type
oftreatment and methods ofdata collection).
c

2.
(Y

cl

2.,
CLASSROOM-ORI ENTED RESEARCH

I. WHAT IS CLASSROOM.ORIENTED RESEARCH?

Class roonr - oriented reseirrch "either derives its data from genurne langtrirgc
classrooms or is carriecl out irr order to address issues ofdirect relevrnce to the
languirge classroom" (Nunan, 1991, p.250).

2. SOMEAIMS AND ISSUES IN CLASSROOM RESEARCH

(WHAT TO INVESTIGATE)

Classroom research [ocuses on

- teachers;
- learners;
- instructional methods;
- interaction between teachers, learners and methods.

2.1. Classroom research on teachers

.}classroom decision making processcs oíteachers

* teacher tirlk
(inds of questions
- amount and type oftalking
- type and amount oferror correction
- type and amount of feedback
 116 foprcs lN Appr.rED LtN(;urst rcs

type and amount ofspeech modification teachers make rvhen talking

to seconcl Ianguage lcarners
t)'pes itnd number o[instructiorrs and directions

2.2. Classroont research on lear ers

* devc.loprncntal aspects of learner language

* learning styles and strategies used by learners
.. learncr chirracteristics and their cÍ}bcts on classroonr behaviour

2.3. Classroom research on teacher-learner interactiotr

.:-.lt't)oltnt ilnd type of interaction

bctrveen learners
.:.c-Í}-e cts <lf iIlteraction on learne'rs'
language der,elopment
{. group procr'sses and group deve,lopnrent
+ eff.ects oÍ-dilterent t)'Pes ofclássr(lJIn orgaIrisation and grou;lrng patrerns
on lnteraction and language cleveloprnent

2.4. Classroon research ofi i structional methods

* the eÍiiciency ol.different instructional methods

.:.
tlre eÍ]icicncy of dill-erent learninll tlsks irn<l activitics
* thc cfiect oí fornlal instruction oI] the rate or route of language
acquisi.
nort
':'sinrilarities ancl dirlerences betweea i.terilctio'i.side anci outsicle the
cl.lsst'ool'tl
 cI,ÁssRoo]\'l-oRIEN,t.Ll) REsE^lrcl l l -l7

3. RESEARCH METHODS (HOW TO INVESTIGATE)

3.1. Production tlata elicitation;from learners (see Chapter 16)

3.2. Experintents (see Chapter 16)

3.3. Interaction and discourse analysis (see ttlso Chapter 12)

These usually involr'e a 1]]ixttlIe oi.1íalltlfuiliyc and qllolitati\,e nlethods' 11rey

focus on the teacher-studcnt and studcnt strl(lcl1t interaction in the classroom,
either front a social, group pcrspcctivc (e.r., investigating coll rn Ll nication pat_
terI]s, clássrool]l organisation aIlcl nlanagentellt) or írtlnl a lirlgttistic pt'l.s1rcctir,e
(analysing the actual trirnscriptions of classroom taik).

3.4. Ethnographic analysis / cnse studies (see also Chapter J6)

'fhis approach is alntost strictly qualitatj\.e

ancl stems irom sociolosical and an-
tlrropologicaI traclitions' lt attcÍI]})ts to illteI.pret thc obserr'e<l behar,iour fronl the
perspectile ol-thc pa lticipa nts' d i f)-erent u nderstancling oftite situation rather than
fronr the obsen'cr-'s or anall'st's supposedlr"'objective" analvsis ofit.'llrc result of
such an in\€st igatiot-l is usual11.a detailed description oIthe research itse)faIld gives
an account oíthc principles or rules ofillteraction that guide the
Participants.

3. 5. CLassroon observation

* Observations cxatnir':e a pl.renomenotr or. a behar.iour rlhile it is goine on.

Observatiolrs are uscful for understanding phentxtena and behaviours
because they are clole in the coittext \\'hcre theY occrlr.
.} Observations can be done bv i:tsiclers (Partjcipa1rt
observátion) al]d out-
siders (non -participa nt observation). Rias is an irnportilnt issue in both
ca ses.
I l8 'r'oprcs rN r.rN(lLrls rrcs
^ppr-nrD

* Observatiotls can VaI). degrce of explicitness:

í11 theit.

- stmctured obseryirlior.rs: Leseatchers cletermine in irclvancc wltat tlte,v

rill obsclve, in this casc, arbscrvirtion schedu]es rre olien usctl (e.g.
checltlisls, r'ating scales);
- open obscrvtilions: the researcher cloes not clecide thc focus ofobserva-
tiorl beÍbt e visiting the classrooll-t' ln thjs case fie]cL llcrtes are taken and
thc icsson observecl is olien lccorcle'cl so tl.rat later the transcript oi thc
lesson can be analyserl.
.t It is rccommendecl that the various obsc'r'r'ational procedures shoulcl bc
combinecl in orcler to get a contprehcnsive picture of the cl:rssroont.

3.6, Interyíews (see Chapter 16)

3.7. Questionnaires (see Chapter 16)

3.8. Diaries

ln a diary the participtrnts (teachers or learners) or the researcher rccord in

u'riting various aspects of teaching and learning. I)iaries trre analyseil rvitl.t
qualitative data analysis methocts.

References

Nunan,D.(1991). trlcthocls in secon.l languirge classroonr orientcclrcscarch: Acritical revjew.

sludies i|| scca dLd]\yage A.|]uisitio}l, Í3,)19 274'

Recornrn e n de d re ading:

All$'right' I),, & I]ailcy' K' (l99I)' Fo. s o7t the 1anguage cla sv.otú}l' A|1i]ttta(lllct1a to c]LtssroL)|1l

research '|ór Iallguage lcnclrers. Canlbridgc: (]ánlbIidge Ljniversilv Prcss' PP' l 8]'
F
CLASSROOM.ORIENTEDRESEARCH I]9

Cbaudron, C. (1988). Secondlanguage classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.

McDonough, )., & McDonough, S. (1997). Research nethods for English la,lguage teachers. Lon'
donr Arnold.
Wallace, M. (1,99a). Action reseatch Jor language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1. What is classroom-oriented research?

2. What are the fields that one can investigate in classroom-oriented re-
search?
jl
3. What methods can be used in classroom research? i
4. What characterises ethnographic classroom research?
5. What types ofobservations are there?

Tasks

l. Design in a classroom
a study that focuses either on teachers or learners
setting (sPecify the research question, PaÍticiPants and methods of data
collection).
Design an observation sheet for studying one particular aspect oflanguage
classrooms. observe á class and fill in the observation sheet. Report both
on the observations you made and how the instrument worked.
Select one particular aspect of language learning in classroom setting.
Observe a lesson and take field-notes. Report both on the observations
you made in the classroom and on your experíence ta(ing field-notes.
LANGUAGE TESTING

A test is a sample of an individual's behaviour/performance on the basis of

which inferences are made about the more general underlying competence of
that individual. Language tests refer to any kind of measurement/exatnination
technique which airns at describing the test taker's foreign language proficiency,
e.g. oral interview, Iistening comprehension task, free composition writing.

l.KINDS OF TESTS AND TESTING

l I
'''' Prnfirienrtt
^'"J'-'- ''I Íp<t<
'"""

* Proficiency tests aim to measule students'L2 competence regardless oí

any training they previously had in the language. In these tests, designers
specify what the candidates should be able to do to pass the test. Exam-
ples: Cambridge First Certificate, Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency
Examinations, TOEFL, OlllGO exam

1.2. Achievement tests

a Achievement tests assess whether learners have acquired specific elements

oflanguage that they were taught in the language course they took part in.
There are two types ofachievement tests: final tests at the end ofthe course
and progress tests during the course.
1,22 lot'tcs lN AppLrED LlNGUrsrrcs

1. j. Diagnostic tests

* Diagnostic tests help identify learners' strengths and rveaknesses in L2.

ll.reir main aim is to help teachers decide what needs to be taught to stu-
dents.

1.4. Placettent tests

{. With the help of placements tests students can be p}aced in the learning
group that is appropriate for their level ofcompetence.

1.5. Direct versus indirect testit'tg

.i In direct tests candidates are required to perfor;n the skillthe test intends
to measure. For example ifthe departn.rent wants to test holv well students
can write essays, exam candidates have to write essays.
* Indirect tests wánt to meásure skills that underlie performance in a par-
ticuiar task. For example, pronunciation skills can be measured by a written
test in which students have to transcribe words phonetically

1.6. Discrete point versus integrative testing

.1. In discrete point tests every item focuses on one clear-cut segrnent ofthe
target language without involving the others (except for the particular item
in question, everything is restricted to the minimum). Typical test format:
written multiple-choice test.
* In integrative tests candidates need to use a number of language elements
at the same time in completing the test tasks. For example: essay writing,
dictation, cloze test.
f
I,ANGUÁG!]'I.EsTlN(; ]2J

1.7. Norm-referenced versus cri terion -referenced testing

.:.n nornr - reterenced tests, candidates performance is assessed in compirrison

I

with that ofthc other cirndidates. For these reasons the cut-olfpoints (line
betrr.ecll fail and pass) are determineci .,ÍcI the test t'esulls irre obtained
trorn thc group ofstudents birsed on the distribution ofthc scores.
* (lriter-ion - refc rc'nced tcsts compare allthe testees to a predelcrmined crite-
rion. ln sucl.r tcsts everybod,v whose achievenrcnt comes up to the pre set
criterion rvill receive a pass mark, while those under it will fail.'[he crite-
ria are often set in terms of tasks that students have to be able to perform
(e.g. to interact with an interlocutor with e.rse; to ask for information and
understand i:rstructions).

1.8. Objective testing versus subjective testing

+ The scoring ofa tas( is objective ifthe rater does not have to rnake a judge-
nent because the scoring is unanbiguous. For example: multipJe choice
test.
.:. ln sub.jective test tasks, raters have to rnakc a iudgelnent rvhcn assessing
candidates' performance. For example: marking of an essay.

2. VALIDlTY AND REI,IABILITY

T1le quality of every test can be described by determining two charac teristjcs,
relíability t.tnd yalídit),. These scientifrc measures are crucial \'hen we want to
decide r.r'hether a particular test is an appropriate measuring inslrument.

* Reliability is tl)e extcnl to which a test is free ol random r]reasurement

erroL irnd produces'rconsiitent ."rultq whcn admit.tistered under similar
conditions.'1his mcans tl.rat a reliirble test isrnot affectetl bv circumstances
outsidc t1-re tesü (e'g. t)rc people who administer and rnark the test, the tinle
and place of the test)
- internal consistency; rvhether the test iterns are related to each other
and rneasure the same abiiity
124 roptcs rN APpr,rED LrNGUrsrrcs

parallel or alternate form reliability: hou'well parallel or alternate forms ,

of the same test measure the sarre ability
test-retest rcliability: \vhether test-takers perform sinrilarly each time
they cornplete the test
intra rater reliability: whether the same rater assesses the test-takers'
perÍbrnlance in the same way each time he/she cvaluates tl]e tesl
inter-rater reliability; whether two ratels assess the test-takers' períorm-
ance in the same way

* Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to rneas

ure and nothing eise.
- content validity: rvhether the test measures thltUltllf it intends to
n-leasure;
- concurrent validity: whether the test takers'performance in a test cor-
relates with lheir re:Lrlts in a diícretlI lVDc oí te\ll
* predictive validity: whether,f-r" ir;;*.rtely predict future
perforrnrrrce: "rt-*l*"
- construct validity: whether the test appropriately represents the.theory
L[l44page cornpetcnce it is based on;
- face validity; whether the test looks as ifit measures what it is supposed
to lneasure.

3. TYPES OF FREQUENTLY USED OBJECTIVE TEST TASKS

* Multiple choice.
It consists of a sÍellt: 1. He three Ietters
since 9 otloc(.
And opÍlolrs, one of which is correct anc' the others are distractors.
A. writes
B. has written
C. has been written
D. had written

* Cloze test
It is a continuous text in which every Nth word is mechanically deleted.
N is usually between five and ten. The examinees have to fill in these
blanks. It aims to test reading comprehension, syntax and vocabulary.
f
LANGUACE I'T:STING 125

.1. C-test
In the C-test the second halfofevery second word is left out. C-tests carr
provide a rough measure of Jearners' global levei of proliciency.

.l Dictatior'l
The basis oI the pIoceduIe is that eách individual dictated chunk is long
enough (10-25 words) to exceed the Iearner's short-term memory, and so
the forgotten itenrs have to be filled in from the context and the learner's
knorvledge ofthe lirnguage. Scoring: each mistake (i.e. extra word, omitted
word, wrong word order, incomprehensible word substitution, spelling
mistake) subtracts one point from the total, which equals the number of
words.

* Editing
The editing test is the ls.reverse of the cloze test.
For example:
extra words extra are inserted put placccl gone into to a text, and testees
arc is required to crossing cross these out.

* Matching
Candiclates are given a list ofpossible answers rvhicl.r they have to match
rvith another list ofrvords.
For example:
Match the words on the left rvith those on the right to ma(e other English
words.
t head A partn€r
2 room B wife
3 business C master
4 house D nrate

* Ordering
ln ordering tasks, candidates have to put a group of words, sentences or
paragraphs in order.
For example:
Put the following words in order to complete the sentence:
I \\'ent .

ye5lerday cinema friend with.

126 ToPI(:s l.\- I-1.\''GUIsll(ls
^Pl,l.llll)

4. THE ORAL PROFICIENCY INTERVIEW

Itlealli' the oral plofi cicncy intervietv cortsisls firur- phascs,

L \\'attr trp LrsLralll not markecl;

1-r'r'c/ cli'i(: gcttir'r.q an approxiit).ltc ideir ofthe l!'afrlcr's ProficielrcY lcvcl
and the topics he/she feeis conlirrtable irt;
3. /rroÜc.r: nctual ratjllg slarls only at fhis stage, the itttcrviovee is pushed
up to or bnrntl his/her levcl of conrirctcnce;
.1. \\'itd - u p. roLrnrlinq olfthe intcrvictv by' tu rnittg bacli to itctivilics u'jthitr
the learncr''s abilitv so.rs r'rot to scn(l hirn/her iruay'l'ilh a lecling oflnil
Lllc.

5. ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS

llre three most sirnplc analvses oftcst rr'sults irre the follou'irtg:
|. DíslrilluIiott.ltri'c - shotfs thc nLtttlbcr ofstudeIlts sc()Iing \\'ithin a }raI.
ilcLllar riirlgc.

20[

Scorc - 0,0 1,0 1,0 6,0 S,0 10,0 12,0 l-1,0

Sld. l)ev = -1,15

Nleln = 8,.]
l.'= 61,00

I:acilit: vLtlut' explesses tl.lc pr()l)()rtion ofstu(l!'rtts tl'lto responded col-

rectlY to illl rtcnr.
ra
r-^NGUAGE I TiSTTNG 127

For example: ií 10o stuc1ents took paIt i]] a test, aI]d 5'1 of tlrenl got the
itern right, the facility, r'aluc is 0.54.
3. Discrínínatiottiltrle't - expresses horv lve|l an itel]t can discriminate be-
twecn goocl ancl bird studcnts. The par ticipants are rirnked according to
their total scorc in the tesl. lhe third ofthe students who have the high-
est scores is collsidered the top group, and the third of the students who
havc the lorvest scores is considered the bottom group. The ntean score
of thc bottorn group is declucted from the mean score of the top group.
For cxan]ple, if 3o students took the tcst, irnd out of the l0 top students
7 get n itenr right (0.7) and out of l0 bottom students only 2 (0.2), the
discliminalion indcx is 0.5. The discrint ittation inclcx might bc negative if
the bottom stuclents scole beltcr thall the top studcrtts. In this case therc
is sonrethir.rg se'riousll' rv rong rv ith thc' iten.r.

Characteristics of goocl tcsts:

- Thc clistribution curve shoulcl be bell-shaped.
- Facility values should be betu'r-'en 0.3 and 0.7 (of in more lenient app:-oaches
to test design 0.2 - 0.8).
- Discrimi natior.t inclices should be above 0.4 (or in ntore lenient approaches
to test design above 0.3).

6. WASHBACK

Washback is ellect tests have on teaching and learning. This ell'ect car.t bc
tl.re
both beneÍjcia] and ]rirt.nlfu]' A lrerleficial washback effect can bc if a so far
rueglected skill (e.g. listcning) is put into the lbcus ofteaching as ir result ofthe
introcluction of a tcst $ here scorcs ir.r this skill are inrportant in cletermining
the car.rdidates' grades. A negative lvashb rck effect can bc if rnosl of the time in
lessons in secondary schools is spcnt ot.r practising multiple clloice tests. Tests
hirve effect on those tho take the test, the tc'achers rvho prePare the students
for the tests, the teaching materi.lls (e.g. course books), the society and the
educationill systern,

1 ''l ('
.. ,,,.í tl'l
'r, lc..', ! i ,(
,

) ,,1 t-
(' j
(-
. ,..) ,' ' --\ -
.Í

) .' tl'J
]28 roptcs IN ÁPPLIED LINGUISI lcs

Recommended reading:

Alderson, C., Clapham, C., & lvall, D. (19 95). Language test canstru.tion and evdluation. Ca]|n'
J.
bridge: (lanrbriclge University Press.
Hughes, A' (|9tJ9). Testingfor Iafigungc |.ír.lle6- canlbridge: Can]bridge Uni\'ersity Press-
Ilachnran, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considcralions i languige leslitg. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Prcss.

ACTIVITIES

Check questions

1. Explaln the difference between

a) prolicier.rcy and achievement tests;
b) diagnostic and placemeut tests;
c) direct and indirect tests;
d) subjective and objective tests;
e) nornr - referenced and criterion referenced tests;
f) integrative and discrete poillt tests.
2. What is reliabiiity? Ljst the various types ofreliability.
3. What is valiclity? List the various types of validity.
4. What are the most frequently used objective test tasks?
5. What are the most frequent statistical measures oftest performance?
6. What effects can tests have on teaching and learning?

Tasks

l. Select a language test (lntermediate Hungarian State Language Examina-

tion, Carnbridge First Certificate, university proficiency exam, etc.). Look
at each task trnd decide whether it is direct or indirect, subjective or objec-
tive, integrative or discrete poirlt.
2. Ifyou were to design an entrance test for a specialisation class in a second-
ary school, how would you ensure that the test is valicl and reliable?
 LÁNcUAGE TEsTlNG l29

3. Ifyou teach, analyse the test results ofone ofthe progress tests you have
ardministered to students. Drarv the distribution curve, calculate the dis-
crimination index and the facility values for items.
,AIl1' 4. Discuss the washback eÍiect of one ofthe commonly used tests in Hungary
(e.g. Interrnediate Hungarian State Language Examination, school leaving
exam) or ofthe tests used at your university/college.
Uni-

545q6

.na-
;ok

nd-
A kiadó az
Jn urur Kfr. szottvereit használ.ja'

ISNB 96i .163 6,17 0

EL'l H llltrds: Kiadri

Fclelős kiadó: PÍl]di Andlás
szeIkosZ1clte: Hrrtt)'aciv Anrlr:iís
K(jnvvterv: Sornogvi Cyula
,Iö|delés:
KijtahYll Bf'

N]'onlta és kijlijl1c: l\'1olldilt Kíl'

F!le}ős vcZető: Nagr LÍszló
l SI]\ 96]'{ó3-ó'{7.0

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