Artificial Intelligence

Chapter 1: Introduction
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Definition of AI
• It is an ability of a machine to learn, understand and act as a human. It is a way of
making a computer system, a controlled robot or any software which thinks intelligently
like human beings.
• There are different definitions of Artificial Intelligence given by different people.
• All the definitions broadly come under four characteristics:
✓ Thinking Humanly
✓ Thinking Rationally
✓ Acting Humanly
✓ Acting Rationally
Thinking humanly
• This characteristic signifies that system thinks like humans. i.e. computational models or
programs are being designed in such a way that they think like human.
• Many people have given the definition of Artificial Intelligence considering this
characteristic.
• These definitions are:
• 1. The automation of activities of activities that we associate with human thinking,
activities such as decision-making, problem solving, learning etc. [Bellman,1978]
• 2. The exciting new effort to make computers think like machines, in the full and literal
sense. [Haugeland,1985]
Thinking Rationally
• This characteristic signifies that system thinks rationally. i.e. computational models or
programs are being designed in such a way that they make decisions based on clear
thoughts, logic and reason.
• Many people have given the definition of Artificial Intelligence considering this
characteristic.

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 • These definitions are:
• 1. The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models. [Charniak and
McDermott,1985]
• 2. The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason, and act.
[Winston,1992]
Acting humanly
• This characteristic signifies that system behaves like humans. i.e. computational models
or programs are being designed in such a way that they behave like human.
• E.g. Turing test approach
• Many people have given the definition of Artificial Intelligence considering this
characteristic.
• These definitions are:
• 1. The art of creating machines that perform functions that require intelligence when
performed by people. [Kurzweil,1990]
• 2. The study on how to make computers do things at which, at the moment, people are
better. [Rich and Knight,1991]
Acting Rationally
• This characteristic signifies that system behaves rationally. i.e. computational models or
programs are being designed in such a way to take the correct or best action to achieve
the goals based on knowledge and belief.
• Many people have given the definition of Artificial Intelligence considering this
characteristic.
• These definitions are:
• 1. Computational Intelligence is the study of the design of intelligent agents.
[Poole,1998]
• 2. AI is concerned with the intelligent behavior in artifacts. [Nilsson,1998]
• Artifacts: an object which is made by a person

Turing Test
• Turing test was introduced by Alan Turing in 1950.

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 • In this a human questioner will first ask some series of written questions or typed
questions to the computer respondent and human respondent.
• The test will run for some time and after that results will be out which will contain
answers.
• If the questioner cannot decide whether the responses are from computer respondent
or human respondent, then the computer has passed the Turing Test

FOUNDATIONS OF AI
• The core foundations of AI consider the following areas:
✓ Philosophy
✓ Mathematics
✓ Economics
✓ Neuroscience
✓ Psychology
✓ Computer Engineering
✓ Control theory and cybernetics
✓ Linguistics
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 ✓ …. And many more
1. Philosophy
▪ It is the study of logic, different methods of reasoning, mind as physical system,
learning, language and rationality.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?
o How does mind arise from a physical brain?
o Where does knowledge come from?
o How does knowledge lead to action?
2. Mathematics
▪ It is the study of formal representation, proofs, algorithms, computations,
probability, decidability, (un)decidability etc.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?
o What can be computed?
o How do we reason with uncertain information?
3. Economics
▪ It is the study of decision making, utility, payoff(profit), taking independent
decision etc.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff(profit)?
o How should we do this when others may not go along?
4. Neuroscience
▪ It is the study of nervous system of human particularly the brain.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o How does the brain process the information?

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 5. Psychology
▪ It is the study of human behavior, feelings, processing of their cognitive
information and how do they represent knowledge.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o How to living beings think and act?

• 6. Computer Engineering
▪ It is the study of building fast computers and programmable, query solving and
analytical systems.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o How can we build efficient computer?
o How can we build query solving systems?
o How can we build systems with artificial intelligence?
• 7. Control Theory and Cybernetics
▪ It is the study of design systems that maximize the objective function over time.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o How machines are controlled by itself?
o How do the systems behave optimally?
Note: Cybernetics is a study of communication and control in which human and animal brains
are compared with machines and electronic devices
• 8. Linguistics
▪ It is the study of language, knowledge representation and grammar.
▪ It deals with certain questions like:
o How does language relate to language related to thoughts?
o How knowledge and grammar is represented in artificial intelligent
systems?

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History of artificial intelligence
✓ Evolution of Artificial Intelligence [1943-1955]
▪ Boolean Circuit Model of Brain [Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts]
▪ Turing Machine [Alan Turing]
✓ Emergence of Artificial Intelligence [1956]
▪ The term Artificial Intelligence was coined [John McCarthy]
✓ Artificial Intelligence Reality [1966 - 1973]
▪ The use of computational complexity was discovered and neural network
research disappeared.
✓ Knowledge Based Systems [1969 - 1979]
▪ Development of Knowledge based systems came into existence
✓ Artificial Intelligence an Industry [1980 - Present]
▪ Artificial Intelligence became an Industry
✓ Reappearance of Neural Networks [1986 - Present]
▪ Neural networks research started and became popular once again in the field of
Artificial Intelligence
✓ Artificial Intelligence a Science [1987 - Present]
▪ Artificial Intelligence started taking up scientific methods, mathematical models
and data mining technologies for problems solving.
✓ Emergence of intelligent agents [1995 - Present]
▪ Generation of Artificial intelligent agent came into existence.

State of art of artificial intelligence

• State of Art talks about the areas where Artificial Intelligence is leading today.
• Few of Them will be discussed:
➢ Gaming
▪ AI plays an important role in gaming where machine has to think about large
number of possibilities to take up next step of the game using trial and error
method.

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 ▪ This method of AI is useful for playing games such as poker, chess, tic-tac-toe
etc. on computer.
➢ Vision Systems
▪ To understand, interpret and get the visual inputs of the computer screen, vision
systems are used.
▪ For e.g., photographs captured through satellite, which are then used to figure
the spatial information [ locational information] or map of the areas using AI
systems.
▪ Computer software used by cops to recognize the face of the criminal to
compare it with stored portrait made by forensic artist.
➢ Speech Recognition
▪ This system takes human’s speech/voice as input and is able to listen and
understand the language in terms of sentences, grammar and their meaning.
▪ It is capable of handling different accents, any change in person’s voice due to
bad health.
➢ Handwriting Recognition
▪ This system is able to recognize handwriting on paper, the shapes of letter, and
different styles and formats applied on the text.
▪ Software can read the written text on paper by a pen or from a screen.
▪ It is able to convert different shapes into textual forms.
➢ Natural Language Processing
▪ This artificial intelligence based system allows user to interact with computer
that understands human natural language.
➢ Expert Systems
▪ These systems are mainly used for reasoning and advising. It provides
explanation and advice to the users.
➢ Intelligent Robots
▪ Controlled by humans and are able to perform all the tasks given by human.
▪ These Robots have sensors to detect light, heat, temperature, movement, sound
and pressure.

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 ▪ The follow unsupervised learning also which means they learn from their
mistakes and experiences.
▪ They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory to exhibit
intelligence.
➢ AI in e-commerce
▪ Online shopping is very popular today.
▪ In e-commerce AI software automatically identifies, organizes and visually
searches the content by labelling features provided or searched by the user.
▪ It enables to discover associated products based on the size, color, shape or even
brand of the product.
➢ Intelligent Cybersecurity
▪ AI systems allows to detect vulnerabilities or anomalous behavior of user in
business applications as well as Financial systems.
➢ Virtual Assistant or Chatbot
▪ These are intelligent software agents which understands natural language of
user and performs tasks for user and performs tasks for users as an assistant.
▪ It takes input as text, voice etc.
▪ Some of the examples are Apple’s Siri, Google Assistant, Amazon Alexa,
Microsoft Cortana etc.