Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2016, 15(8): 1763–1769

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

The influence of selected agronomic factors on the chemical

composition of spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.) grain

Wioletta Biel1, Slawomir Stankowski2, Anna Jaroszewska2, Stanislaw Pużyński2, Paulina Bośko1
1
Department of Pig Breeding, Animal Nutrition and Food, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Szczecin
71-460, Poland
2
Department of Agronomy, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Szczecin 71-459, Poland

Abstract
The increase of spelt crop area is a result of overproduction of the basic cereals and the introduction of environmental-
ly-friendly cultivation methods. Due to high interest in healthy lifestyle, healthy food and intensive development of organic
agriculture, it was necessary to thoroughly examine the newly-formed cereal strains in order to register the best ones as
varieties in the future. The experimental factors included: two weed control methods (mechanical and chemical), two sizes
of sowing rate (300 and 500 seeds m–2) and the strains of spelt: three new breeding strains (STH 28-4609, STH 28-4614,
STH 28-4619) and Oberkulmer Rotkorn cultivar. The research did not show protein diversity depending on a genotype,
mean protein content reached 13% in grain dry mass. The plants weeded mechanically showed the significantly highest
crude fat content (2% dry matter (DM)). Mean value of crude fibre for all plants equalled 3.3% DM. The increase of neutral
detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin fractions was directly proportional to the increase in crude
fibre content, which is beneficial for civilisation diseases prophylaxis. The studied agronomic factors did not significantly
influence the essential amino acids content or total amino acids. The harrowed plants had grain with significantly increased
nutrient content (crude protein, ether extract, crude fibre, acid detergent fibre (ADF), cellulose, sulphur amino acids, leucine,
and sum of essential amino acids) which is very important for organic farming.

Keywords: new breeding strains, sowing rate, spelt, weed control

forgotten, but later it was noted again and appreciated. The

1. Introduction
Spelt (Triticum aestivum var. spelta), is one of the oldest
cultivated grains, preceded only by Emmer (T. dicoccum)
and Einkorn (T. monococcum). For a long time it remained
Received 29 July, 2015 Accepted 30 October, 2015
Correspondence Wioletta Biel, Tel: +48-91-4496725,
E-mail: Wioletta.Biel@zut.edu.pl
© 2016, CAAS. All rights reserved. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(15)61211-4
recent interest in this wheat species is due to the devel-
opment of alternative farming and aspirations to preserve
biodiversity. Additionally, the increase in spelt crop area
is a result of overproduction of the basic cereals and the
introduction of environmentally-friendly cultivation methods
as well as high interest in new foods pro-health. Currently,
spelt is cultivated mainly at organic farms in such countries
like: Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, Italy, France,
Chech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia as well as on other
continents (Capouchova 2001). Spelt cultivation area tends
to increase, which is associated with high interest in healthy
lifestyle and healthy food as well as the increase in organic
farming development. Spelt is valued due to its high nu-
1764 Wioletta Biel et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2016, 15(8): 1763–1769
tritional value, health-promoting qualities and agronomical
advantages, such as high pest resistance and the fact that it
can be cultivated on low fertility, poorly drained soils (Bona-
faccia et al. 2000). Total protein in its grain ranges between
13 and 19% of dry matter (DM) (Abdel-Aal et al. 1995; Ran-
horta et al. 1996; Bojňanská and Frančaková 2002). There
are numerous opinions on the amino acid composition of
spelt protein. Smolková et al. (2000) showed that there are
no significant differences between amino acid composition
of spelt protein and common wheat protein. Crude fibre
content in grain of various cultivars of spelt ranges from
10.5 to 14.9% of DM (Marconi et al. 1999). The difference
between soluble and insoluble fibre in grain is very important
for its nutritional quality because each fibre component has
an individual effect on physiological processes and offers
different benefits as a part of a diet (Jenkins et al. 1995).
Spelt wheat is also unique because of its fat content, espe-
cially unsaturated fatty acids (Escarnot et al. 2012), which
has positive effect on the heart and circulation. Therefore
it decreases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as:
coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, atherothrombotic
endopoints, allergies or certain cancer types (Rediger et al.
2009). Unsaturated linolenic acid is a major fatty acid in spelt
(Suchowilska et al. 2009). Grela (1996) demonstrated that
spelt contains twice as much crude fat as common wheat.
Spelt also contains more vitamins: B1, B2, PP, A, E, and D
(Grela 1996; Ranhorta et al. 1996; Capouchová 2001). Spelt
grain contains rhodanide, a biologically active natural antibi-
otic, which can also be found in blood, saliva and breast milk
(Zöllner et al. 2000). It protects a breastfed baby against
infections, supports its immune system and stimulates blood
formation processes as well as body mass gain. It also pro-
tects against complications during pregnancy and stabilises
predispositions to hereditary diseases (Chandler and Day
2012). Spelt can be used in extensive farming conditions
as it has low habitat and agronomical requirements. In less
advantageous conditions the difference in yield between
spelt and common wheat decreases, whilst in humid and
cold regions spelt yield is even higher than that of common
wheat (Castagna et al. 1996). Because of this, the cereal
is highly valued in organic farming. In the literature there
is little information about the optimal agronomic factors for
currently cultivated spelt varieties. A variety, time, depth
and density of sowing, nitrogen fertilization as well as weed
control methods are some of the basic agronomic factors
determining the plants’ growth and yielding as well as their
nutritional value. Currently, the methods for combining the
positive features of both spelt and common wheat are sought
for. Due to this fact, it is necessary to thoroughly examine
the newly-formed cereal strains in order to register the best
ones as varieties in the future.
With respect to the mentioned aspects the aim of the
research included determination of the influence of select-
ed agronomic treatments, such as a weed control method
and the size of sowing rate, on the chemical composition of
spelt grain of three new breeding strains and Oberkulmer
Rotkorn cultivar.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Experiment characteristics and plant materials
Spelt samples derived from the field experiment carried out
in 2011–2013 on sandy clay soil type at Lipnik Experimen-
tal Station (53°12´N; 14°27´E), Poland. The soil on which
the experiment was conducted belongs to the typical rusty
soils group (CPS 2011) and is classified as Haplic Cambi-
sol (IUSS Working Group WRB 2006). The experiment
was set on light, good rye complex soil of a IVa soil class
(arable soil of average quality-better, according bonitation
soil class). The soil is classified as brown soil developed
from light loamy sands, with slightly acidic pH (pH 1 mol L–1
KCl=6.5), moderate content of phosphorus (103 mg P2O5
kg–1 of soil) and potassium (117 mg K2O kg–1 of soil) and
low magnesium (28 mg MgO kg–1 of soil). The forecrop for
grain crops was mixture of oat and vetch. The plot size
was 15 m2, 12 rows per plot. The treatments included: two
weed control methods (mechanical, double harrowing at the
three leaves phase and chemical, Legato Plus herbicide,
application of a herbicide containing, active ingredient (a. i.),
diflufenican+isoproturon, 1.25 L ha–1), two sizes of sowing
rate (300 and 500 seeds m–2) and the strains of spelt: three
new breeding strains (STH 28-4609, STH 28-4614, STH
28-4619) and one cultivar (Oberkulmer Rotkorn, selection
of an old Swiss landrace).
2.2. Climatic demand
The weather conditions during the experiment are presented
in Table 1. The study years were warmer compared to the
multi-year average, with air temperatures during the veg-
etation period higher by 2°C. Of the three years of study
only in the first year the precipitation was higher than that
in analogical period of the multi-year (by 2.7 mm), whilst the
years 2012 and 2013 were drier (by 29.7 mm, on average).
The total precipitation in all of the study years was lower
than that in the multi-year in May and June, which is the
time of the highest water dem and in plants.
2.3. Chemical analysis
The chemical composition of grain samples were determined
by the following procedures of Association of Official Ana-
lytical Chemists (AOAC 2006): DM, by drying at 105°C to
 Wioletta Biel et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2016, 15(8): 1763–1769 1765

Table 1 Sum of rainfall (mm) and mean air temperature (°C) in 2011–2013 years
Long-term average 1961–1994 Rain (mm) Temperature (°C)
Month
Rain (mm) Temperature (°C) 2011 2012 2013 2011 2012 2013
4 37.8 7.2 11.6 23.4 23.2 11.4 8.3 11.4
5 51.1 12.5 28.0 18.4 42.5 14.1 14.1 17.5
6 61.3 15.9 32.3 31.2 14.4 17.5 15.5 20.3
7 63.2 17.4 150.5 111.3 56.6 17.4 18.2 21.2
8 56.1 17.0 40.5 94.2 72.6 18.0 17.7 18.6
9 46.8 13.2 56.1 20.0 65.6 15.0 14.3 12.8
4–9 316.3 13.8 319.0 298.5 274.8 15.6 14.7 17.0

constant weight; ether extract, by Soxhlet extraction with
diethyl ether; crude ash, by incineration in a muffle furnace at
580°C for 8 h; crude protein (crude protein by Kjeldahl meth-
od using the conventional nitrogen (N) to protein conversion
factor 6.25 (N×6.25)), by Kjeldahl method using a Büchi
Distillation Unit B-324 (Büchi Labortechnik AG, Switzerland),
crude fiber was determined with a fiber analyzer – ANKOM
220 (ANKOM Technology, USA); Nitrogen-free extract (NFE)
was calculated as: NFE (g kg–1 DM)=100−(Moisture+Crude
protein+Crude fat+Crude ash+Crude fibre). The fibre
components were determined using the detergent method
according to Van Soest et al. (1991) performed with a fibre
analyzer ANCOM 220. Determination of neutral detergent
fibre (NDF) was on an ash-free basis and included sodium
dodecyl sulphate (Merc 822050). Determination of acid
detergent fibre (ADF) included hexadecyl-trimethyl-ammo-
nium bromide (Merc 102342), while acid detergent lignin
(ADL) was determined by hydrolysis of ADF sample in 72%
sulfuric acid. Hemicellulose was calculated as the difference
between NDF and ADF, while cellulose, as the difference
between ADF and ADL. The content of β-glucans was
determined using a Megazyme Kit K-BGLU (McCleary
and Cood 1991). All the tests were conducted on DM of
grain. Amino acids were determined using an AAA 400
automatic amino acid analyzer (INGOS, Czech Republic).
Samples were subjected to acid hydrolysis in the presence
of 6 mol L–1 HCl at 105°C for 24 h. Sulfur-containing amino
acids were determined separately in 6 mol L–1 HCl after
oxidative hydrolysis (formic acid+hydrogen peroxide, 9:1
v/v, 20 h at 4°C). Tryptophan was determined according
to the method described in AOAC (2006). The amino acid
composition was expressed as grams per 16 grams of
nitrogen (g 16 g–1 N).
2.4. Statistical analysis
The results of the chemical composition analysis of spelt
and common wheat were processed statistically by means
of a variance analysis for long-term experiments, and the
significance of differences with LSD of 0.05 was evaluated
with the Tukey’s test. The statistical analysis was carried
out using the ANALWAR-5.1.FR Programme. The analysis
of the correlation of the characteristics significantly differen-
tiating the interaction of experimental factors was performed
using the STATISTICA V.10 Programme.
3. Results and discussion
The chemical composition, which depends mainly on
genetic and environment and factors, is the main determi-
nant of cereals’ nutritional value. Spelt wheat has lower heat
requirements than common wheat, which makes it suitable
for cultivation in colder regions. It is a source of genes
deciding on grains’ nutritional quality. Stallknecht et al.
(1996) examined types of spelt and demonstrated a high
diversity of protein content in grain (18–40%) depending on a
genotype and location, and so agronomic factors and
habitat conditions. During the study years the protein
content in grain was lower than reported in the literature
and reached only 11.43% DM (Table 2). Grela (1996)
and Gomez-Becerra et al. (2010) obtained similar results.
Of all examined research factors, only a method of weed
control influenced protein content significantly. The me-
chanical weed control method vs. no treatment increased
protein content by 31%. Better response was observed
in Oberkulmer Rotkorn cv., then in STH 28-4609 strain.
Protein content in grain tends to decrease proportionally
to the increase in sowing density, but no statistically signif-
icant differences were observed. The habitat conditions
modify the quality traits of cereals, including the content of
proteins, β-glucans and phenols (Oliveira 2001; Abdel-Aal
and Choo 2014). The fat concentration in grains is influ-
enced by all of the studied factors. Crude fat was modified
by a weed control method: the mechanical method signifi-
cantly increased crude fat (by 6%). The best response
was observed in Oberkulmer Rotkorn cultivar, where
the content of the nutrient reached 20.1 g kg–1 DM. Sowing
rate had a small, but significant influence on fat content in
spelt grain. The increase in sowing rate reduced crude fat
content. The plants growing in lower density in general
1766 Wioletta Biel et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2016, 15(8): 1763–1769

accumulated more fatter (4% percentage points) compared
to the plants growing in higher density. The crude ash of
grains is an important criterion deciding on grain usefulness
for milling. The content of mineral compounds in a form
of ash was influenced by a method of weed control. The
chemical weeding increased crude ash by 16%. Cacak-Pi-
etrzak et al. (2013) demonstrated higher ash content in grain
of spelt than that of common wheat (19 g kg–1 DM). It can
be justified by a smaller grain size and a bigger seed coat
to endosperm ratio in grain. Crude fibre and dietary fibre
are carbohydrates determining dietary properties of food.
Crude fibre includes fibrous substances (cellulose, lignin,
partly hemicelluloses) resistant to digestive enzymes. A
genetic factor as well as a weed control method significantly
influenced levels of crude fibre. Its mean content in spelt
grain reached 33.4 g kg–1 DM and was 20% higher than in
the research by Grela (1996). The mechanical weed con-
trol method vs. no treatment significantly increased crude
fibre content (by 9%). The best response was observed
in STH-4609 spelt. Sowing rate did not significantly alter
crude fibre content, but it tended to increase proportionally
to sowing density.
Dietary fibre contains both the fractions included in crude
fibre and soluble non-starch polysaccharides. Consuming
high quantities of fibre is advised in preventing gastrointes-
tinal disorders as dietary fibre probably decreases diabetes
type II development, prevents obesity and cholelithiasis and
decreases risk of colon cancer (Vitolo et al. 2007). Content
of acid detergent fibre (ADF), which includes cellulose and
lignin, was significantly increased by harrowing (19.6%)

Table 2 Chemical composition of mean spelt grains (g kg–1 dry matter (DM)) for 2011–2013 years
Factor Dry matter Ash Crude protein Ether extract Crude fibre NFE1)
Weed control (W)
Mechanical 876.1 18.0 129.8 20.1 34.8 796.2
Chemical 875.5 20.9 98.9 18.9 32.0 799.0
Cultivar (C)
STH 28-4609 873.6 19.7 112.2 18.5 36.5 798.8
STH 28-4614 877.7 19.8 110.1 19.5 33.8 803.8
STH 28-4619 874.4 18.6 110.8 20.0 30.6 805.3
Oberkulmer Rothkorn 877.6 19.8 124.2 20.1 32.8 782.5
Sowing rate (S) (grains m–2)
300 875.3 19.7 116.8 19.9 32.7 795.7
500 876.3 19.2 111.8 19.1 34.2 799.5
Mean 875.8 19.4 114.3 19.5 33.4 797.6
LSD0.05 for
W ns 1.3 9.9 0.6 2.7 ns
C 2.2 ns ns 1.0 4.9 6.5
S ns ns ns 0.6 ns 3.5
1)
NFE, nitrogen free extract.
ns, not significant difference. The same as below.

Table 3 Components of mean dietary fibre of tested spelt grains (g kg–1 DM) for 2011–2013 years1)
Factor NDF ADF ADL HCEL CEL β-glucans
W
Mechanical 126.6 44.5 10.8 82.1 33.7 7.4
Chemical 125.5 37.2 10.5 85.9 30.5 7.4
C
STH 28-4609 130.6 40.8 10.8 86.6 32.7 7.3
STH 28-4614 123.7 41.4 11.3 81.6 33.9 6.7
STH 28-4619 123.5 39.4 9.6 85.1 28.8 7.6
Oberkulmer Rothkorn 126.5 41.8 10.9 82.6 32.9 7.9
S (grains m–2)
300 124.7 40.5 10.6 83.2 31.5 7.4
500 127.4 41.2 10.7 84.8 32.7 7.4
Mean 126.0 40.8 10.7 83.9 32.1 7.4
LSD0.05 for
W ns 2.6 ns 3.9 2.4 ns
C ns ns 1.6 ns 4.5 0.5
S ns ns ns ns ns ns
1)
NDF, neutral detergent fibre; ADF, acid detergent fibre; ADL, acid detergent lignin; HCEL, hemicellulose; CEL, cellulose.
 Wioletta Biel et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2016, 15(8): 1763–1769 1767

(Table 3). Acid detergent fibre includes only cellulose and
acid detergent lignin (ADL). Cellulose is hardly digested in
the small intestine, but it promotes peristalsis. Lignin exhibits
similar properties. The major component of ADF fraction
was cellulose (32.1 g kg–1 DM, on average). Its amount was
influenced by a genetic factor and a weed control method.
The mechanical method increased ADF level by almost
20%. Acid detergent lignin was in turn significantly modified
only by a cultivar factor (mean content 10.7 g kg–1 DM).
Hemicellulose, apart from pectins, are capable of absorbing
heavy metals and thus they improve health quality of foods
and constitute an important component of dietary fibre in
cereal products. High hemicelluloses concentration is very
beneficial as they are capable of swelling and absorbing
water in the human alimentary canal and therefore have a
positive physiological influence (Andersen et al. 2004; Naw-
irska 2005). Additionally, hemicelluloses promote bacteria
proliferation in the colon. Hemicelluloses were significantly
increased by the chemical weeding method (by 5%). The
mean value of hemicelluloses reached 84 g kg–1 DM. Similar
results for fibre fractions were demonstrated by Grela (1996).
The prevention of chronic diseases focuses on dietary
fibre content in foods, paying special attention to soluble
fraction of fibre. Soluble dietary fibre, especially β-glucans,
has the ability to reduce levels of low density lipoproteins
(LDL) and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) fractions of
cholesterol and at the same time it stabilises the desired
ratio of high density lipoproteins (HDL) to LDL and VLDL.
β-Glucans also inhibit hydrolysis and absorption of nutri-
ents (Lia et al. 1997). In the present research the levels of
β-glucans were only dependent on a cultivar and reached
7.4 g kg–1 DM on average, whilst according to Laroche
and Michaud (2007), content of β-glucans in cereal grains
depends not only on a species but also on a variety and
cultivation conditions. In the present research the lowest
β-glucans content was observed in STH 28-4614 strain and
the highest in Oberkulmer Rotkorn cv. (mean values 6.7 and
8.0 g kg–1 DM, respectively). Demirbas (2005) demonstrated
β-glucans content ranging from 6 to 12% in spelt cultivated
in Eastern Turkey. Therefore it can be concluded that crude
fibre and dietary fibre concentration are mainly a varietal
characteristic, which is influenced by agronomic factors
only to a limited extent.
Also amino acid composition is an important factor
determining cereal grain’s nutritional value. Especially the
essential amino acids are considered important, as they
cannot be synthesized within organisms and have to be
supplied with food. Most of mammals should be provided
with the following amino acids: lysine, threonine, cysteine,
methionine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, and phenylalanine.
The influence of the examined factors on essential amino
acids content in spelt is presented in Table 4. Contents of
methionine, tryptophane, leucine, phenylalanine, and total
sulphur amino acids were altered by a weed control method.
The mechanical weeding significantly increased levels of
sulphur amino acids and leucine (by 7 and 3%, respectively),
whilst the chemical weeding increased levels of the remain-
ing amino acids mentioned above. The present research
shows significant varietal differences in content of lysine,
which is usually the amino acid limiting protein synthesis in
cereal grain, as well as phenylalanine, valine and sulphur
amino acids (Met+Cys). There were no significant differ-
ences in total essential amino acids (EAA) or total amino
acids (AA) (Table 5). Content of individual amino acids as
well as EAA and AA in protein did not change in response
to sowing density. It should be emphasized that despite
relatively high amino acids content in spelt grain protein,
it still remains incomplete. Similarly to other cereal, spelt
grain is low in lysine (mean content in the present research
–2.6 g 16 g–1 N), which is confirmed by the research of Ra-

Table 4 Essential amino acid composition of mean protein of the tested spelt grains (g 16 g–1 N) for 2011–2013 years
Factor Lys Met Met+Cys Thr Ile Trp Val Leu His Phe Tyr
W
Mechanical 2.6 1.4 3.1 2.5 2.9 1.0 3.8 6.6 1.8 4.4 2.4
Chemical 2.6 1.8 2.9 2.4 3.0 1.1 3.7 6.4 1.9 4.7 2.4
C
STH 28-4609 2.6 1.6 3.1 2.4 2.9 1.1 3.8 6.5 1.9 4.6 2.5
STH 28-4614 2.7 1.6 3.1 2.5 3.0 1.1 3.8 6.5 1.9 4.6 2.5
STH 28-4619 2.6 1.7 3.1 2.5 2.9 1.1 3.7 6.4 1.8 4.4 2.4
Oberkulmer Rothkorn 2.4 1.5 2.9 2.4 2.9 1.1 3.6 6.6 1.8 4.6 2.4
S (grains m–2)
300 2.6 1.6 3.1 2.5 2.9 1.1 3.8 6.5 1.9 4.6 2.4
500 2.6 1.6 3.0 2.4 3.0 1.1 3.7 6.5 1.9 4.5 2.4
Mean 2.6 1.6 3.0 2.5 2.9 1.1 3.7 6.5 1.9 4.5 2.4
LSD0.05 for
W ns 0.1 0.1 ns ns 0.03 ns 0.1 ns 0.1 ns
C 0.1 ns 0.1 ns ns ns 0.1 ns ns 0.2 ns
S ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
1768 Wioletta Biel et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2016, 15(8): 1763–1769

Table 5 Effect of weed control treatment and cultivar on the protein level and lysine content. The varieties with higher
mean essential amino acids (EAA) and total amino acids (AA) protein content had lower lysine levels.
for 2011–2013 years (g 16 g–1 N)
Factor EAA (g 16 g–1 N) AA
W
4. Conclusion
Mechanical 31.3 90.1
Chemical 26.3 89.1 Taking the results of the research into consideration, it can
C be concluded that a method of weed control influenced the
STH 28-4609 29.9 89.4 nutrients which determine the nutritional suitability of grain.
STH 28-4614 29.4 90.5
Higher concentration of nutrients (protein, fat and fibre) was
STH 28-4619 28.6 89.9
observed in spelt grown on the crops weeded mechanically.
Oberkulmer Rothkorn 27.4 88.6
S (grains m–2) The results do not allow an unequivocal determination of
300 28.9 89.7 the influence of the studied factors on the analysed dietary
500 28.7 89.6 fibre fractions. In contrast it should be emphasised that
Mean 28.8 89.6 the participation of NDF, ADF and ADL fractions increased
LSD0.05 for
directly proportionally to an increase of crude fibre content,
W 1.7 ns
C ns ns
which is beneficial in prevention of civilisation diseases.
S ns ns The present research confirms the results obtained by other
authors, who show that levels of the main limiting amino
acid, lysine, are inversely proportional to protein content.
Table 6 Correlation coefficiens between chemical compositions The harrowed plants had grain with significantly increased
in examined grains
nutrient content, which is very important for organic farming.
Trait Correlation coefficiens
Crude protein Lys –0.55
Crude protein Met+Cys –0.04 Acknowledgements
Crude fibre NDF 0.81
Crude fibre ADF 0.82 The authors wish to thank Strzelce Plant Breeding Limited
Crude fibre ADL 0.43
Liability Co., Poland, for providing strains for research. This
Crude fibre β-glucans –0.38
study was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and
Data in bold are significant.
Higher Education (MNiSW) of Poland (NN 310436938) in
2010–2013.
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