1.

Survey:
The goal of a survey is to collect data from a representative sample of a population to draw
conclusions about that larger population.

 The sample of people surveyed is chosen from the entire population of

interest. The goal of a survey is to describe not the smaller sample but
the larger population.
 To be able to generalize about a population from a smaller sample, that
sample must be representative; proportionally the same in all relevant
aspects (e.g., percent of women vs. men).
 Surveys can be distributed by mail, email, telephone, or in-person
interview.
 Surveys can be used in cross-sectional, successive-independent-
samples, and longitudinal study designs.
 Effective surveys are both reliable and valid. A reliable instrument
produces consistent results every time it is administered; a valid
instrument does in fact measure what it intends to measure.

1, Selecting a Sample to Survey

The sample of people surveyed is chosen from the entire population of interest. The goal of
a survey is to describe not the smaller sample but the larger population. This generalizing
ability is dependent on the representativeness of the sample.

There are frequent difficulties one encounters while choosing a representative

sample. One common error that results is selection bias —when the procedures
used to select a sample result in over- or under-representation of some significant
aspect of the population.

Modes of Administering a Survey

There are several ways of administering a survey. The choice between

administration modes is influenced by several factors, including

 costs,
 coverage of the target population,
 flexibility of asking questions,
 respondents’ willingness to participate and
 response accuracy
Different methods create mode effects that change how respondents answer, and
different methods have different advantages. The most common modes of
administration can be summarized as:

 Telephone
 Mail (post)
 Online surveys
 Personal in-home surveys
 Personal mall or street intercept survey
 Hybrids of the above

Types of Studies

Cross-Sectional Design

In a cross-sectional study, a sample (or samples) is drawn from the relevant

population and studied once. A cross-sectional study describes characteristics of
that population at one time, but cannot give any insight as to causes of population
characteristics.

Successive-Independent-Samples Design

A successive-independent-samples design draws multiple random samples from a

population at one or more times. This design can study changes within a population,
but not changes within individuals because the same individuals are not surveyed
more than once. Such studies cannot, therefore, identify the causes of change over
time necessarily.

For successive independent samples designs to be effective, the samples must be

drawn from the same population, and must be equally representative of it. If the
samples are not comparable, the changes between samples may be due to
demographic characteristics rather than time. In addition, the questions must be
asked in the same way so that responses can be compared directly.

Longitudinal Design

A study following a longitudinal design takes measure of the same random sample at
multiple time points. Unlike with a successive independent samples design, this
design measures the differences in individual participants’ responses over time. This
means that a researcher can potentially assess the reasons for response changes
by assessing the differences in respondents’ experiences. However, longitudinal
studies are both expensive and difficult to do. It’s harder to find a sample that will
commit to a months- or years-long study than a 15-minute interview, and participants
frequently leave the study before the final assessment. This attrition of participants is
not random, so samples can become less representative with successive
assessments.
Fieldwork and Observation

Ethnography is a qualitative research strategy, involving a combination of fieldwork

and observation, which seeks to understand cultural phenomena that reflect the
knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group. It was
pioneered in the field of socio-cultural anthropology, but has also become a popular
method in various other fields of social sciences, particularly in sociology.

Ethnographic work requires intensive and often immersive long-term participation in

the community that is the subject of research, typically involving physical relocation
(hence the term fieldwork). Although it often involves studying ethnic or cultural
minority groups, this is not always the case. Ideally, the researcher should strive to
have very little effect on the subjects of the study, being as invisible and enmeshed
in the community as possible.

Participant Observation

One of the most common methods for collecting data in an ethnographic study is
first-hand engagement, known as participant observation. In participant observation,
the researcher immerses himself in a cultural environment, usually over an extended
period of time, in order to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of
individuals (such as a religious, occupational, or sub-cultural group, or a particular
community) and their practices.

Methods

Such research involves a range of well-defined, though variable methods: interviews,

direct observation, participation in the life of the group, collective discussions,
analyses of personal documents produced within the group, self-analysis, and life-
histories, among others.

Interviews can be either informal or formal and can range from brief conversations to
extended sessions. One way of transcribing interview data is the genealogical
method. This is a set of procedures by which ethnographers discover and record
connections of kinship, descent, and marriage using diagrams and symbols.
Questionnaires can also be used to aid the discovery of local beliefs and perceptions
and, in the case of longitudinal research where there is continuous long-term study
of an area or site, they can act as valid instruments for measuring changes in the
individuals or groups studied.

Advantages

The advantage of ethnography as a technique is that it maximizes the researcher’s

understanding of the social and cultural context in which human behavior occurs.
The ethnographer seeks out and develops relationships with cultural insiders, or
informants, who are willing to explain aspects of their community from a native
viewpoint. The process of seeking out new contacts through their personal
relationships with current informants is often effective in revealing common cultural
common denominators connected to the topic being studied.

2. Experiments

Experiments are tests designed to prove or disprove a hypothesis by controlling for

pertinent variables.

 Experiments are controlled tests designed to prove or disprove a

hypothesis.
 A hypothesis is a prediction or an idea that has not yet been tested.
 Researchers must attempt to identify everything that might influence the
results of an experiment, and do their best to neutralize the effects of
everything except the topic of study.
 Since social scientists do not seek to isolate variables in the same way
that the hard sciences do, sociologists create the equivalent of an
experimental control via statistical techniques that are applied after data
is gathered.
 A control is when two identical experiments are conducted and the
factor being tested is varied in only one of these experiments.

Scientists form a hypothesis, which is a prediction or an idea that has not yet been
tested. In order to prove or disprove the hypothesis, scientists must perform
experiments. The experiment is a controlled test designed specifically to prove or
disprove the hypothesis. Before undertaking the experiment, researchers must
attempt to identify everything that might influence the results of an experiment and
do their best to neutralize the effects of everything except the topic of study. This is
done through the introduction of an experimental control: two virtually identical
experiments are run, in only one of which the factor being tested is varied. This
serves to further isolate any causal phenomena.

Of course, an experiment is not an absolute requirement. In observation based fields

of science, actual experiments must be designed differently than for the classical
laboratory based sciences. Due to ethical concerns and the sheer cost of
manipulating large segments of society, sociologists often turn to other methods for
testing hypotheses.

Since sociologists do not seek to isolate variables in the same way that hard
sciences do, this kind of control is often done via statistical techniques, such as
regressions, applied after data is gathered. Direct experimentation is thus fairly rare
in sociology.

Scientists must assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of

those conducting an experiment. It is essential to keep detailed records in order to
facilitate reporting on the experimental results and provide evidence of the
effectiveness and integrity of the procedure.

3. Documents

Documentary research involves examining texts and documents as evidence of

human behavior.

 This kind of sociological research is generally considered a part of

media studies.
 Unobtrusive research involves ways of studying human behavior without
affecting it in the process.
 Documents can either be primary sources, which are original materials
that are not created after the fact with the benefit of hindsight, or
secondary sources that cite, comment, or build upon primary sources.
 Typically, sociological research involving documents falls under the
cross-disciplinary purview of media studies, which encompasses all
research dealing with television, books, magazines, pamphlets, or any
other human-recorded data. The specific media being studied are often
referred to as texts.
 Sociological research involving documents, or, more specifically, media
studies, is one of the less interactive research options available to
sociologists. It can provide a significant insight into the norms, values,
and beliefs of people belonging to a particular historical and cultural
context.
 Content analysis is the study of recorded human communications.

Documentary Research

It is possible to do sociological research without directly involving humans at all. One

such method is documentary research. In documentary research, all information is
collected from texts and documents. The texts and documents can be either written,
pictorial, or visual in form.

The material used can be categorized as primary sources, which are original
materials that are not created after the fact with the benefit of hindsight, and
secondary sources that cite, comment, or build upon primary sources.

Media Studies and Content Analysis

Typically, sociological research on documents falls under the cross-disciplinary

purview of media studies, which encompasses all research dealing with television,
books, magazines, pamphlets, or any other human-recorded data. Regardless of the
specific media being studied, they are referred to as texts.
Media studies may draw on traditions from both the social sciences and the
humanities, but mostly from its core disciplines of mass communication,
communication, communication sciences, and communication studies.

Researchers may also develop and employ theories and methods from disciplines
including cultural studies, rhetoric, philosophy, literary theory, psychology, political
economy, economics, sociology, anthropology, social theory, art history and
criticism, film theory, feminist theory, information theory, and political science.

Content analysis refers to the study of recorded human communications, such as

paintings, written texts, and photos. It falls under the category of unobtrusive
research, which can be defined as ways for studying human behavior without
affecting it in the process. While sociological research involving documents is one of
the less interactive research options available to sociologists, it can reveal a great
deal about the norms, values, and beliefs of people belonging to a particular
temporal and cultural context.

4.Use of Existing Sources

Studying existing sources collected by other researchers is an essential part of

research in the social sciences.

 Archival research is the study of existing sources. Without archival

research, any research project is necessarily incomplete.
 The study of sources collected by someone other than the researcher is
known as archival research or secondary data research.
 The importance of archival or secondary data research is two-fold. By
studying texts related to their topics, researchers gain a strong
foundation on which to base their work. Secondly, this kind of study is
necessary in the development of their central research question.

Using Existing Sources

The study of sources collected by someone other than the researcher, also known
as archival research or secondary data research, is an essential part of sociology. In
archival research or secondary research, the focus is not on collecting new data but
on studying existing texts.

By studying texts related to their topics, researchers gain a strong foundation on

which to base their work. Furthermore, this kind of study is necessary for the
development of their central research question. Without a thorough understanding of
the research that has already been done, it is impossible to know what a meaningful
and relevant research question is, much less how to position and frame research
within the context of the field as a whole.

Types of Existing Sources

Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses,
organizational records, field notes, semi-structured and structured interviews, and
other forms of data collected through quantitative methods or qualitative research.
These methods are considered non-reactive, because the people do not know they
are involved in a study. Common sources differ from primary data. Primary data, by
contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research.

Researchers use secondary analysis for several reasons. The primary reason is that
secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data. In
the case of quantitative data, secondary analysis provides larger and higher-quality
databases that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on his
own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data
essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture
past change and developments.