Chapter 2: Methods of Educational Research

2.1 Descriptive research

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population
or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research
subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.

In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the
subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a
popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the demographic
segment.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This
uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their
behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different
sections belonging to the same group are studied.
4. Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be
further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the
types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research

Descriptive research Methods

1. Observational Method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and both
quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method.

Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on numbers and
values – it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity”. Results of quantitative
observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any
entity that can be associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale etc.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective.
 2. Case Study Method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a
hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be
used to determine cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make accurate predictions
because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher.

3. Survey Research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or polls. They are a popular
market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to gather good quality
data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced mix of open-ended
questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducting online or offline which is
makes it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is very large.

Example
Example of where descriptive research can be used is if a school district that wishes to evaluate
teacher’s attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their
comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what the
can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issues. This also helps in understanding
if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

2.2 Experimental research

Experimental research is any research conducted with a scientific approach, where a set of variables are
kept constant while the other set of variables are being measured as the subject of experiment.
Experimental research is one of the founding quantitative research methods.

Characteristics
 Manipulation: The researcher will purposefully change or manipulate the independent variable,
which is the treatment or condition that will be applied to the experimental groups. It is
important to establish clear procedural guidelines for application of the treatment to promote
consistency and ensure that the manipulation itself does affect the dependent variable.
 Control: Control is used to prevent the influence of outside factors (extraneous variables) from
influencing the outcome of the study. This ensures that outcome is caused by the manipulation of
the independent variable. Therefore, a critical piece of experimental design is keeping all other
potential variables constant.
 Random Assignment: A key feature of true experimental design is the random assignment of
subjects into groups. Participants should have an equal chance of being assigned into any group
in the experiment. This further ensures that the outcome of the study is due to the manipulation
of the independent variable and is not influenced by the composition of the test groups.
 Random selection: In addition to randomly assigning the test subjects in groups, it is also
important to randomly select the test subjects from a larger target audience. For example, if a
researcher wanted to look at the impact of sleep on the test scores of 5th graders in a particular
city, a sample of 5th graders would need to be randomly selected from the city’s population in
such a way that any 5th grader would have an equal chance of being selected for the study.

Types
1. Pre-Experimental Research Design: This is the simplest form of experimental research design. A
group, or various groups, are kept under observation after factors are considered for cause and effect. It
is usually conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to be carried out on the target
group/s, due to which it is considered to be cost-effective.

2. True Experimental Research Design: True experimental research is the most accurate form of
experimental research design as it relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis. It is the
only type of Experimental Design that can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group/s

3. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: The word “Quasi” indicates resemblance. A quasi-experimental

research design is similar to experimental research but is not exactly that. The difference between the
two the assignment of a control group. In this research design, an independent variable is manipulated
but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned as per conditions. The independent variable is
manipulated before calculating the dependent variable and so, directionality problem is eliminated.

Advantages of Experimental Research

 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
 Subject or industry is not a criterion for experimental research due to which any industry can
implement it for research purposes.
 Results are extremely specific.
 Once the results are analyzed, they can be applied to various other similar aspects.
 Cause and effect of a hypothesis can be derived so that researchers can analyze greater details.
 Experimental research can be used in association with other research methods.

2.3 Historical research

Historical research enables you to explore and explain the meanings, phases and characteristics of a
phenomenon or process at a particular point of time in the past. We differentiate historical research as a
research strategy from the research of history, which refers to research in the discipline of history.

The variable focus of your research is time. Your essential aim is to identify appearances of your chosen
phenomenon in a temporally defined situation and environment. The strategy of historical research is
also suitable in other disciplines as it enables you to focus on exploring the historical appearances of
phenomena.

The strategy of historical research is linked to the strategy of hermeneutics, as defining and explaining
events in the past are based on interpretations. Qualitative analysis is the norm, but quantitative
analysis can also explain the past.

Principal use
Historical research is used to compare records of historical events and the activities surrounding them.
This type of research also helps to organize historical events sequentially, and to preserve historical data
so it doesn’t get lost.

Advantages
 The research is not involved in the situation that is studied
 The researchers do not interact with the subjects of study
 Analysis of historical data may help explain current and future events

Shortcomings
 Historical data is incomplete and vulnerable to time (documents can be destroyed by wars or over
time)
 It can also be biased and corrupt (e.g. diaries, letters, etc. are influenced by the person writing
them)
 Historical research is a complex and broad category because the topics of research are affected by
numerous factors that need to be considered and analyzed.

2.4 Case study

Case study can be defined in a variety of ways. As case study is a specific instance that is frequently
designed to illustrate a more general principle.

Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used

Case studies are particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic and rely heavily on inductive reasoning in
handling multiple data sources ‘as ‘it tries to illustrate a decision or set of decisions: why they were
taken, how they were implemented, and with what result’. It can be defined as an intensive, holistic
description and analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unit, as it is based on

In-depth, detailed data from wide data source.

Case studies observe effects in real contexts, recognizing that context is a powerful determinant of both
cause and effects.

THE PURPOSE OF CASE STUDY

Case study can be a useful research method that can enable readers to understand how ideas and
abstract principles can fit together.

Wallace suggest that case study research is aimed at:

 Solving particular problems

 Applying theories into practice
 Generating hypotheses
 Providing illustrations
The case study is concerned with the antecedents of such complex phenomena as delinquency or
reading disability. This is most frequently used in a clinical rather than a research setting; it become
research only to the extent that it permits the deviation of generalizations of relatively broad
applicability. In general case studies serve the greatest research functions through the suggestion of
hypotheses that can be investigated more adequately by more rigorous techniques.
The purpose of case study is not to represent the world, but to represent the case. Case study has been
one of important research methodologies in the category of empirical inquiry. Research is ‘empirical’
when it employs observation, description, and case study as research techniques. On the other hand,
Researchers from different disciplines view the term “case”, more or less, in different meanings. Case
study is intended to portray, analyze and interpret the uniqueness of real individuals and situations
through accessible accounts and to present and represent reality.

In education practitioners study schools or groups of schools; curricula; the effect of innovations; the
implementation of materials; classrooms; teachers; students. And in

Language learning, researchers often study mother tongue acquisition and developments by looking at
individual learners, and at what they have in common.

Case studies can be either single or multiple-case designs.

Single cases are used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a unique or extreme case. Single-
case studies are also ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have access to a phenomenon
that was previously inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to avoid
misrepresentation and to maximize the investigator’s access to the evidence. These studies can be
holistic or embedded the latter occurring when the same case study involves more than one unit of
analysis.

Multiple-case studies follow replication logic. This is not to be confused with sampling logic where a
selection is made out of a population, for inclusion in the study. This type of sample selection is
improper in a case study. Each individual case study consists of a “whole” study, in which facts are
gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts

CHATECTORISTICS OF THE CASE STUDY

1. Descriptive study
a. (I.e. the data collected constitute descriptions of psychological processes and events, and of the
contexts in which they occurred (qualitative data).

b. The main emphasis is always on the construction of verbal descriptions of behavior or experience but
quantitative data may be collected.

c. High levels of detail are provided.

2. Narrowly focused.
a. Typically a case study offers a description of only a single individual, and sometimes about groups.

b. Often the case study focuses on a limited aspect of a person, such as their psychopathological
symptoms.

3. Combines objective and subjective data

a. i.e. the researcher may combine objective and subjective data: All are regarded as valid data for
analysis, and as a basis for inferences within the case study.

i. The objective description of behavior and its context

ii. Details of the subjective aspect, such as feelings, beliefs, impressions or interpretations. In fact, a case
study is uniquely able to offer a means of achieving an in-depth understanding of the behavior and
experience of a single individual.

4. Process-oriented.
a. The case study method enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes, which
occur over time.

b. In contrast to the experimental method, which basically provides a stilled ‘snapshot’ of processes,
which may be continuing over time like for example the development of language in children over time

2.5 Action research

The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to
guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research.
In schools, action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative, and analytical research
methods designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses—whether organizational, academic, or
instructional—and help educators develop practical solutions to address them quickly and efficiently.
Action research may also be applied to programs or educational techniques that are not necessarily
experiencing any problems, but that educators simply want to learn more about and improve. The
general goal is to create a simple, practical, repeatable process of iterative learning, evaluation, and
improvement that leads to increasingly better results for schools, teachers, or programs.
Action research may also be called a cycle of action or cycle of inquiry, since it typically follows a
predefined process that is repeated over time. A simple illustrative example:

 Identify a problem to be studied

 Collect data on the problem
 Organize, analyze, and interpret the data
 Develop a plan to address the problem
 Implement the plan
 Evaluate the results of the actions taken
 Identify a new problem
 Repeat the process
Unlike more formal research studies, such as those conducted by universities and published in peer-
reviewed scholarly journals, action research is typically conducted by the educators working in the
district or school being studied—the participants—rather than by independent, impartial observers from
outside organizations. Less formal, prescriptive, or theory-driven research methods are typically used
when conducting action research, since the goal is to address practical problems in a specific school or
classroom, rather than produce independently validated and reproducible findings that others, outside
of the context being studied, can use to guide their future actions or inform the design of their academic
programs. That said, while action research is typically focused on solving a specific problem or answer a
specific question action research can also make meaningful contributions to the larger body of
knowledge and understanding in the field of education, particularly within a relatively closed system
such as school, district, or network of connected organizations.