CHAPTER 9: INTELLIGENCE AND MEASUREMENT

INTELLIGENCE
-a multifaceted capacity that manifests itself in difference ways across the life
span

Intelligence defined: Views of the Lay Public

Research by STENBERG (1981)

-In general, the researchers found a surprising degree of similarity between the
experts’ and laypeople’s conception of intelligence
-However, in terms of academic intelligence
-Experts put emphasis on motivation, while laypeople stressed the importance
of social aspects

Research by SIEGLER and RICHARDS (1980)

-There’s a different conceptions of intelligence as a function of developmental
stage

Research by YUSSEN and KANE (1980)

-Suggested that children also have notions about intelligence as early as first
grade

Intelligence defined: Views of Scholars and Test Professionals

1. FRANCIS GALTON
-first person to published on the heritability of intelligence, thus framing the
contemporary nature-nurture debate
-he believed that the most intelligent persons were those equipped with the
best sensory abilities
-attempted to measure this sort of intelligence in many of the sensorimotor and
other perception-related tests he devised

INTERACTIONISM
(Heredity + Environment = Intelligence)

2. ALFRED BINET
-components of intelligence: reasoning, judgment, memory and abstraction
-more complex measure of intelligence

3. DAVID WECHSLER
-intelligence as “aggressive” or “global” capacity
-considered other factors (traits and personality) in assessing intelligence
-at first, he proposed two qualitatively abilities: Verbal and Performance
-then, he added other factors: Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory,
Perceptual Organization, Processing Speed

4. JEAN PIAGET
-intelligence is evolving biological adaptations to the outside world
-focused on the development of cognition in children
-schema (or schemata) -an organized action or mental structure that when
applied to the world, leads to knowing and understanding
-the basic mental operations:
-Assimilation -actively organizing new information so that it fits in what
already perceived and thought
-Accommodation -changing what is already perceived or thought so that it
fits with the new information
-Disequilibrium -causes the individual to discover new information perceptions
and communication skills

FACTOR ANALYSIS THEORIES

5. CHARLES SPEARMAN
-Theory of General Intelligence / Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
-(g) - general intellectual ability
-(s) - specific components
-(e) - error components
-The greater the magnitude of g in a test of intelligence, the better the test was
thought to predict overall intelligence
-g factor is based on some type of general electrochemical mental energy
available to the brain for problem solving
-Abstract Reasoning were thought to be the best measures of g in formal test
-Group Factors - an intermediate class of factors common to a group of
activities but not at all
Ex: Linguistic, Mechanical, Arithmetical

6. JOY PAUL GUILFORD

-Intelligence is a systematic collection of abilities or functions for the
processing of information of different kinds in various ways
-de-emphasized (g)
-research on US Army Air Corps during the War, and he was able to identify 25
important mental ability factors
-Structure of Intellect Model (SI Model)

7. LOUIS LEON THURNSTONE

-intelligence is considered as mental trait. It is the capacity for abstraction,
which is inhibitory process
-seven primary abilities
-word fluency
-verbal comprehension
-spatial visualization
-number facility
-associative memory
-reasoning
-perceptual speed

8. HOWARD GARDNER
-intelligence is the ability to solve problems or to create products, that are
valued within one or more cultural settings
-theory of multiple intelligence:
-logical-mathematical
-bodily-kinesthetic
-linguistic
-musical
-spatial
-interpersonal
-intrapersonal

9. RAYMOND CATTELL
-two major types of cognitive abilities:
-Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)
-acquired skills and knowledge that are dependent on exposure to a
particular culture as well as on formal and informal evaluation
(Example: Vocabulary)

-Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

-nonverbal, relatively culture-free and independent of specific instruction
(Example: Encoding of Short Term Memory)

10. JOHN HORN

-Addition of several factors to his mentor’s, Raymond Cattel, work
-Gv - Visual Processing
-Ga - Auditory Processing
-Gq - Quantitative Processing
-Gs - Speed Processing
-Grw - Reading and Writing
-Gsm - Short Term Memory
-Glr - Long Term Storage and Retrieval

11. JOHN CARROLL

-Three Stratum Model of Human Cognitive Abilities
-Stratum III -the general level/general intellectual ability
-Stratum II -the broad level; 8 factors
-Stratum I -the specific level; more specific factors

12. MCGREW AND FLANAGAN

-Cattel-Horn-Carroll Models (CHC)
-10 Broad Stratum
-Over 70 narrow stratum

INFORMATION-PROCESSING VIEW

13. ALEKSANDR LURIA

-Information-Processing Approach -focuses on the mechanisms by which
information is processed -”how it is processes and what is being processed”
-two basic types:
-simultaneous (parallel)
-information is integrated at all time
 -successive (sequential)
-each bit of information is individually processed in sequence
-Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition rely heavily on this
concept

14. ROBERT STERNBERG

-Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
-Metacomponents -planning, monitoring, evaluating
-Performance Components -performing the instructions of
metacomponents
-Knowledge Acquisition -learning something new

15. Others
-PASS Model
-Planning -strategy development for problem solving
-Attention/Arousal -receptivity to information
-Simultaneous and Successive -the type of information processing
employed

Measuring Intelligence

Some tasks used to measure intelligence

A. Infancy (Birth to 18 months)
-measuring sensorimotor development
-techniques:
-testing alerting response
-assessing responsiveness
-focusing a light on the eyes of the infant
-testing orienting response
-assessing the ability in turning in direction of stimulus
-ringing of bell
B. Child
-measuring of verbal and performance abilities

C. Adult
-according to Wechsler, abilities such as retention of general
information, quantitative reasoning
-expressive language and memory, and social judgment
-obtain during clinical evaluation or corporate assessment

Some tests used to measure intelligence

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition (SB5)

1st Edition
-The first published intelligence test to provide organized and detailed
administration and scoring instructions
-The first American test to employ the concept of IQ. And it was the first test to
introduce the concept of an alternate item, an item to be substituted for a
regular item under specified conditions
-Criticism: lack of representativeness of the standardization sample

Revisions:
1937
-Included the development of two equivalent forms, labeled L (for Lewis) and
M (for Maud)
-New types of tasks for use with preschool-level and adult-level testtakers
-Adequate standardization sample
-Criticism: lack of representation of minority groups during the test’s
development

1960
-consisted of only a single form (labeled L-M) and included the items
considered to be the best from the two forms of the 1937 test, with no new
items added tot he test
-the use of the deviation IQ tables in place of the ratio IQ tables

1972
-the quality of the standardization sample was criticized
-norms may also have overrepresented the West, as well as large urban
communities

4th Edition - Stanford-Binet: Fourth Edition (1986)

-previous versions used age scale, but the 4th edition uses Point scale
-Point Scale -a test organized into subtests by category of item, not be age
at which most testtakers are presumed
-Test Composite -a test score or index derived from the combination of,
and/or a mathematical transformation of, one or more subtest scores

5th Edition - SB5 (2003)

-designed for administration to assessees as young as 2 and as old as 85 (or
older)
-yields a number of composite scores, including a Full Scale IQ derived from
the administration of ten subtests
-subtest scores (mean = 10; sd = 3)
-composite scores (mean = 100, sd = 15)
-In addition, the test yields five Factor Index scores corresponding to each of
the five factors that the test is presumed to measure
-It was based on CATTELL-HORN-CARROLL Theory of intellectual abilities

SB5 Factor Name

Fluid Reasoning (FR)

-novel problem solving, understanding of relationships that are not culturally
bound

Knowledge (KN)
-skills and knowledge acquired by formal and informal education

Quantitative Reasoning (QR)

-knowledge of mathematical thinking including number concepts, estimation,
problem-solving and measurement

Visual Spatial Processing (VS)

-ability to see patterns and relationships and spatial orientation as well as the
gestalt among diverse visual stimuli

Working Memory (WM)

-cognitive process of temporarily storing and then transforming or sorting
information in memory

-Routing Test
-A task used to direct or route the examinee to a particular level of
questions
-Direct an examinee to test items that have a high probability of being at an
optimal level of difficulty

-Teaching items
-designed to illustrate the task required and assure the examiner that the
examinee understands

-Floor -lowest level of the items on a subtest

-Ceiling -highest level of the items on a subtest

-Basal Level -A stage in a test achieved by a testtaker by meeting some preset

criterion to continue to be tested for example, responding correctly to two
consecutive items on an ability test that contains increasingly difficult items
may establish a “base” from which to continue testing

-Ceiling Level -A stage in a test achieved by a testtaker as a result of meeting

some preset criterion to discontinue testing for example, responding incorrectly
to two consecutive items on an ability test that contains increasingly difficult
items may establish a presumed “ceiling” on the testtaker’s ability

-Testing the Limit -A procedure that involves administering test items beyond
the level at which the test manual dictates discontinuance

-SB5 has a test administration protocol that could be characterized as adaptive

in nature

-Extra-test Behavior -Observations made by an examiner regarding what the

examinee does and how the examinee reacts during the course of testing

Measured IQ Range Category

145-160 Very gifted or highly advanced
130-144 Gifted or very advanced
120-129 Superior
110-119 High average
90-109 Average
80-89 Low Average
70-79 Borderline impaired or delayed
55-69 Mildly impaired or delayed
40-54 Moderately impaired or delayed

The Wechler Tests

Wechsler-Bellevue (W-B1) or Wechsler-Bellevue (W-B) 1939

-Point Scale
-Items were classified by subtest
-Organized into six verbal subtests and five performance subtests and five
performance subtests, and all the items in each test were arranged in order of
increasing difficulty

-Wechsler-Bellevue 2 (W-B 2) - 1942; an alternative form

-Criticisms:
-The standardization sample was rather restricted
-Some subtests lacked sufficient inter-item reliability
-Some of the subtests were made up of items that were too easy
-The scoring criteria for certain items were too ambiguous

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - 1955

-organized into Verbal and Performance scales
-Scoring yielded a Verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a Full Scale IQ

-WAIS-R (1981)
-new norms and materials
-alternate administration of verbal and performance tests

-WAIS-III (1997)
-contained updated and more user-friendly materials
-test materials were made physically larger to facilitate viewing by older adults
-some items were added to each of the subtests that extended the test’s floor
in order to make the test more useful for evaluating people with extreme
intellectual deficits
-extensive research was designed to detect and eliminate items that may have
contained cultural bias
-norms were expanded to include testtakers in the age range 74-89
-yielded a full scale (composite) IQ as well as four Index Scores - Verbal
Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Working Memory, and Processing
Speed -used for more in-depth interpretation of findings

-WAIS-IV (2008)
-It is made up of subtests that are designated either as core or supplemental
-Core subtest is one that is administered to obtain a composite score
-Supplemental Subtest is used for purposes such as providing additional
clinical information or extedning the number of abilities or processes
sampled
-Intended for use with individuals ages 16 to 90 years and 11 months
-contains ten core subtests (Block Design, Similarities, Digit Span, Matrix
Reasoning, Vocabulary, Arithmetic, Symbol Search, Visual Puzzles,
Information and Coding)
-and five supplemental subtests (Letter-Number Sequencing, Figure Weights,
Comprehension, Cancellation and Picture Completion)
-more explicit administration instructions as well as the expanded use of
demonstration and sample items - this in an effort to provide assessees with
practice in doing what is required, in addition to feedback on their performance
-all of the test items were thoroughly reviewed to root out any possible cultural
bias
-Floor = 40, Ceiling = 160

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

-1st edition 1949
-currently in its 5th edition

-WISC-V (2014)
-ages 6 years old to 16 years and 11 months
-FSIQ, Primary Index Scores and Ancillary Index Scores
-21 subtests; 15 composite scores
-completion time: 60 minutes

Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

-1st edition 1967
-currently in its 4th edition

-WPPSI (2012)
-ages 2 years and 6 months up to 7 years and 7 months
-completion time:
-ages 2:6 to 3:11 = 30-45 minutes
-ages 4:0 to 7:7 = 45-60 minutes

Short Forms of Intelligence Test

-Short form refers to a test that has been abbreviated in length, typically to
reduce the time needed for test administration, scoring and interpretation
-In 1958, David Wechsler endorsed the use of short forms but only for
screening purposes. Years later, perhaps in response to the potential for
abuse of short forms, he took a much dimmer view of reducing the number of
subtests just to save time
-From a psychometric standpoint, the validity of a test is affected by and is
somewhat dependent on the test’s reliability. Changes in a test that lessen its
reliability may also lessen its validity

-Wechsler Abbreviated Scaled of Intelligence (WASI) 1999

-designed to answer the need for a short instrument to screen intellectual
ability in testtakers from 6 to 89 years of age
-the test comes in a two-subtest form (consisting of Vocabulary and Block
Design) that takes about 15 minutes to administer and a four-subtest form that
takes about 30 minutes to administer
-WASI-2 2011
-making the test materials more user friendly, and increasing the psychometric
soundness of the test

Group Tests of Intelligence

-1917 World War 1

-Army Alpha Test -administered to Army recruits who could read. It
contained tasks such as general information questions, analogies, and
scrambled sentences to reassemble
-Army Beta Test -designed for administration to foreign-born recruits with
poor knowledge of English or to illiterate recruits. It contained tasks such
as mazes, coding and picture completion
-An original objective of the Alpha and Beta tests was to measure the
ability to be a good soldier. However, after the war, that objective seemed
to get lost in the shuffle as the tests were used in various aspects of civilian
life to measure general intelligence. An Army or Beta test was much easier
to obtain, administer and interpret than a Stanford-Binet test, and it was
also much cheaper

-World War 2
-Army General Classification Test (AGCT) -administered to more than 12
million recruits

-Today
-group tests are still administered to prospective recruits, primarily for
screening purposes
-Screening tool -an instrument or procedure used to identify a particular
trait or constellation of traits at a gross or imprecise level

-Group Test in School Setting

-Group intelligence test results provide school personnel with valuable
information for instruction-related activities and increased understanding of the
individual pupil
-Group intelligence tests in the schools are used in special forms as early as
the kidergarten level. The tests are administered to groups of 10 to 15 children,
each of whom receives a test booklet that includes printed pictures and
diagrams. For th most part, simple motor responses are required to answer
items. Oversized alternatives in the form of pictures in a multiple-choice might
appear on the pages, and it is the child’s job to circle or place an X on the
picture that represents the correct answer to the item presented orally by the
examiner. During such testing in small groups, the testtakers will be carefully
monitored to make certain they are following the directions
-Some group intelligence test for school settings:
-California Test of Mental Maturity
-Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence Test
-Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Ability
-Cognitive Abilities Test
-Otis-Lennon School Ability Tests (OLSAT) (formerly Otis-Lennon Mental
Ability Tests - OLMAT)
-the first group intelligence test to be used in US schools
-designed to measure abstract thinking and reasoning ability and to assist in
school evaluation and placement decision-making
-a multiple choice test commonly used in the US to identify gifted children
-completion time: max 75 minutes
-age range: k to 12
-in general, group tests are useful screening tools when large numbers of
examinees must be evaluated either simultaneously or within a limited time
frame

Other Measures of Intellectual Abilities

-Cognitive Styles
-a psychological dimension that characterizes the consistency with which one
acquires and processes information
-Examples:
-Field Dependence vs Field Independence
-Reflection vs Impulsivity
-Visualizer vs Verbalizer

-Meaures of Creativity:
-Originality -the ability to produce something that is innovative or nonobvious
-Fluency -the ease with which responsesare reproduced and is usually
measured by the total number of responses produced
-Flexibility -the variety of ideas presented and the ability to shift from one
approach to another
-Elaboration -the richness of detail in a verbal explanation or pictorial display
-A criticism frequently leveled at group standardized intelligence tests (as well
as at other ability and achievement tests) is that evaluation of test performance
is too heavily focused on whether the answer is correct
-The heavy emphasis on correct response leaves little room for the evaluation
of processes such as originality, fluency, flexibility and elaboration
-Convergent thinking
-a deductive reasoning process taht entails recall and consideration of facts as
well as a series of logical judgments to narrow down solutions and eventually
arrive at one solution
-Divergent thinking
-a reasoning process in which thought is free to move in many different
directions, making several solutions possible
-requires flexibility of thought, originality, and imagination

-Remote Associates Test (RAT)

-developed by Sarnoff Mednick in the 1960s
-presents the testtaker with three words; the task is to find a fourth word
associated with the other three
-a test used to measure creative convergent thinking
-a possible weakness of this test is its focus on verbal associative habits -
meaning it might be more difficult for non-native speakers of English. Also, it
may not favor those who are more comfortable with visual thinking
-Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT)
-developed by E. Paul Torrance in 1960s
-consist of word-based, picture-based and sound-based test materials
-each subtest is designed to measure various characteristics deemed
important in the process of creative thought

-It is interesting that many tests of creativity do not fare well when evaluated by
traditional psychometric procedures

Intelligence: Some Issues

Nature vs Nurture
-Preformationism
-all living organisms are preformed at birth
-all of the organism’s structures, including intelligence, are preformed at birth
and therefore cannot be improved
-it is like a cocoon turned into butterfly

-Predeterminism
-one’s abilities are pre-determined by genetic inheritance and that no amount
of learning or other intervention can enhance what has been genetically
encoded to unfold time
-Arnold Gesell
-”training does not transcend maturation”
-mental development as a progressive morphogenesis of pattern of behavior
-behavior patterns are predetermined by “innate process growth”

-Francis Galton
-believed that genius was hereditary

-Richard Dugdale
-argued that degeneracy (being immoral) was also inherited

-Henry Goddard
-role of hereditary in feeblemindedness
-feeblemindedness is the product of recessive gene

-Lewis Terman
-the father of the American version of Binet’s test
-based on his testing he concluded that Mexican and Native American are
inferior

-Karl Pearson
-”Jews are somewhat inferior physiologically and mentally”

-Wendy Johnson
-VPR Model -strong genetic influence on mental ability
-In general, the proponents of the nurture side of nature-nurture controversy
emphasize the crucial importance and post-natal environment, socioeconomic
status, educational opportunities and parental modelling with respect to
intellectual development

-Interactionist View
-we are free to become all that we can be

The Stability of Intelligence:

-Intelligence does not seem to be stable for much of one’s adult life
-Full scale IQ may seem to remain the same over time, although the individual
abilities assessed may change significantly
-Verbal Intellectual skills to be highly stable over time
-Young adulthood intelligence is the most suitable determinant of cognitive
performance
-Terman, suggested that gifted children tended to maintain their superior
intellectual ability
-In contrast, Winner (2000) writes that child prodigies may become “frozen into
expertise”

The Construct Validity of Tests of Intelligence

-the evaluation of a test’s construct validity proceeds on the assumption that
one knows in advance exactly what the test is supposed to measure
-It is essential to understand how the test developer defined intelligence

Other issues:
-Flynn effect
-intelligence inflation/10 years

-Personality
-Street efficacy -perceived ability to avoid violent confrontations and to be safe
in one’s neighborhood

-Gender
-males have the edge when it comes to g factor in intelligence especially when
only the highest-scoring group on the ability test is considered
-males also tend to outperform females on tasks requiring visual spatialization
-girls may general outperform on language-skill related task, although
differences may be minimized when assessment is conducted by computer

-Family Environment
-divorce may have significant consequences in the life of child ranging from
impaired school achievement to impaired social problem solving ability

-Culture
-Culture loading -a test incorporates the vocabulary, concepts, traditions,
knowledge, and feelings associated with a particular culture
-Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
-designed to minimize the influence of culture with regard to various aspects of
the evaluation procedures
CHAPTER 10: TESTS OF INTELLLIGENCE

Measuring Intelligence

Some tasks used to measure intelligence

A. Infancy (Birth to 18 months)
-measuring sensorimotor development
-techniques:
-testing alerting response
-assessing responsiveness
-focusing a light on the eyes of the infant
-testing orienting response
-assessing the ability in turning in direction of stimulus
-ringing of bell
B. Child
-measuring of verbal and performance abilities

C. Adult
-according to Wechsler, abilities such as retention of general
information, quantitative reasoning
-expressive language and memory, and social judgment
-obtain during clinical evaluation or corporate assessment

Some tests used to measure intelligence

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition (SB5)

1st Edition
-The first published intelligence test to provide organized and detailed
administration and scoring instructions
-The first American test to employ the concept of IQ. And it was the first test to
introduce the concept of an alternate item, an item to be substituted for a
regular item under specified conditions
-Criticism: lack of representativeness of the standardization sample

Revisions:
1937
-Included the development of two equivalent forms, labeled L (for Lewis) and
M (for Maud)
-New types of tasks for use with preschool-level and adult-level testtakers
-Adequate standardization sample
-Criticism: lack of representation of minority groups during the test’s
development

1960
-consisted of only a single form (labeled L-M) and included the items
considered to be the best from the two forms of the 1937 test, with no new
items added tot he test
-the use of the deviation IQ tables in place of the ratio IQ tables
1972
-the quality of the standardization sample was criticized
-norms may also have overrepresented the West, as well as large urban
communities

4th Edition - Stanford-Binet: Fourth Edition (1986)

-previous versions used age scale, but the 4th edition uses Point scale
-Point Scale -a test organized into subtests by category of item, not be age
at which most testtakers are presumed
-Test Composite -a test score or index derived from the combination of,
and/or a mathematical transformation of, one or more subtest scores

5th Edition - SB5 (2003)

-designed for administration to assessees as young as 2 and as old as 85 (or
older)
-yields a number of composite scores, including a Full Scale IQ derived from
the administration of ten subtests
-subtest scores (mean = 10; sd = 3)
-composite scores (mean = 100, sd = 15)
-In addition, the test yields five Factor Index scores corresponding to each of
the five factors that the test is presumed to measure
-It was based on CATTELL-HORN-CARROLL Theory of intellectual abilities

SB5 Factor Name

Fluid Reasoning (FR)

-novel problem solving, understanding of relationships that are not culturally
bound

Knowledge (KN)
-skills and knowledge acquired by formal and informal education

Quantitative Reasoning (QR)

-knowledge of mathematical thinking including number concepts, estimation,
problem-solving and measurement

Visual Spatial Processing (VS)

-ability to see patterns and relationships and spatial orientation as well as the
gestalt among diverse visual stimuli

Working Memory (WM)

-cognitive process of temporarily storing and then transforming or sorting
information in memory

-Routing Test
-A task used to direct or route the examinee to a particular level of
questions
-Direct an examinee to test items that have a high probability of being at an
optimal level of difficulty
-Teaching items
-designed to illustrate the task required and assure the examiner that the
examinee understands

-Floor -lowest level of the items on a subtest

-Ceiling -highest level of the items on a subtest

-Basal Level -A stage in a test achieved by a testtaker by meeting some preset

criterion to continue to be tested for example, responding correctly to two
consecutive items on an ability test that contains increasingly difficult items
may establish a “base” from which to continue testing

-Ceiling Level -A stage in a test achieved by a testtaker as a result of meeting

some preset criterion to discontinue testing for example, responding incorrectly
to two consecutive items on an ability test that contains increasingly difficult
items may establish a presumed “ceiling” on the testtaker’s ability

-Testing the Limit -A procedure that involves administering test items beyond
the level at which the test manual dictates discontinuance

-SB5 has a test administration protocol that could be characterized as adaptive

in nature

-Extra-test Behavior -Observations made by an examiner regarding what the

examinee does and how the examinee reacts during the course of testing

Measured IQ Range Category

145-160 Very gifted or highly advanced
130-144 Gifted or very advanced
120-129 Superior
110-119 High average
90-109 Average
80-89 Low Average
70-79 Borderline impaired or delayed
55-69 Mildly impaired or delayed
40-54 Moderately impaired or delayed

The Wechler Tests

Wechsler-Bellevue (W-B1) or Wechsler-Bellevue (W-B) 1939

-Point Scale
-Items were classified by subtest
-Organized into six verbal subtests and five performance subtests and five
performance subtests, and all the items in each test were arranged in order of
increasing difficulty

-Wechsler-Bellevue 2 (W-B 2) - 1942; an alternative form

-Criticisms:
-The standardization sample was rather restricted
-Some subtests lacked sufficient inter-item reliability
-Some of the subtests were made up of items that were too easy
-The scoring criteria for certain items were too ambiguous

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - 1955

-organized into Verbal and Performance scales
-Scoring yielded a Verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a Full Scale IQ

-WAIS-R (1981)
-new norms and materials
-alternate administration of verbal and performance tests

-WAIS-III (1997)
-contained updated and more user-friendly materials
-test materials were made physically larger to facilitate viewing by older adults
-some items were added to each of the subtests that extended the test’s floor
in order to make the test more useful for evaluating people with extreme
intellectual deficits
-extensive research was designed to detect and eliminate items that may have
contained cultural bias
-norms were expanded to include testtakers in the age range 74-89
-yielded a full scale (composite) IQ as well as four Index Scores - Verbal
Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Working Memory, and Processing
Speed -used for more in-depth interpretation of findings

-WAIS-IV (2008)
-It is made up of subtests that are designated either as core or supplemental
-Core subtest is one that is administered to obtain a composite score
-Supplemental Subtest is used for purposes such as providing additional
clinical information or extedning the number of abilities or processes
sampled
-Intended for use with individuals ages 16 to 90 years and 11 months
-contains ten core subtests (Block Design, Similarities, Digit Span, Matrix
Reasoning, Vocabulary, Arithmetic, Symbol Search, Visual Puzzles,
Information and Coding)
-and five supplemental subtests (Letter-Number Sequencing, Figure Weights,
Comprehension, Cancellation and Picture Completion)
-more explicit administration instructions as well as the expanded use of
demonstration and sample items - this in an effort to provide assessees with
practice in doing what is required, in addition to feedback on their performance
-all of the test items were thoroughly reviewed to root out any possible cultural
bias
-Floor = 40, Ceiling = 160

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

-1st edition 1949
-currently in its 5th edition

-WISC-V (2014)
 -ages 6 years old to 16 years and 11 months
-FSIQ, Primary Index Scores and Ancillary Index Scores
-21 subtests; 15 composite scores
-completion time: 60 minutes

Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

-1st edition 1967
-currently in its 4th edition

-WPPSI (2012)
-ages 2 years and 6 months up to 7 years and 7 months
-completion time:
-ages 2:6 to 3:11 = 30-45 minutes
-ages 4:0 to 7:7 = 45-60 minutes

Short Forms of Intelligence Test

-Short form refers to a test that has been abbreviated in length, typically to
reduce the time needed for test administration, scoring and interpretation
-In 1958, David Wechsler endorsed the use of short forms but only for
screening purposes. Years later, perhaps in response to the potential for
abuse of short forms, he took a much dimmer view of reducing the number of
subtests just to save time
-From a psychometric standpoint, the validity of a test is affected by and is
somewhat dependent on the test’s reliability. Changes in a test that lessen its
reliability may also lessen its validity

-Wechsler Abbreviated Scaled of Intelligence (WASI) 1999

-designed to answer the need for a short instrument to screen intellectual
ability in testtakers from 6 to 89 years of age
-the test comes in a two-subtest form (consisting of Vocabulary and Block
Design) that takes about 15 minutes to administer and a four-subtest form that
takes about 30 minutes to administer

-WASI-2 2011
-making the test materials more user friendly, and increasing the psychometric
soundness of the test

Group Tests of Intelligence

-1917 World War 1

-Army Alpha Test -administered to Army recruits who could read. It
contained tasks such as general information questions, analogies, and
scrambled sentences to reassemble
-Army Beta Test -designed for administration to foreign-born recruits with
poor knowledge of English or to illiterate recruits. It contained tasks such
as mazes, coding and picture completion
-An original objective of the Alpha and Beta tests was to measure the
ability to be a good soldier. However, after the war, that objective seemed
 to get lost in the shuffle as the tests were used in various aspects of civilian
life to measure general intelligence. An Army or Beta test was much easier
to obtain, administer and interpret than a Stanford-Binet test, and it was
also much cheaper

-World War 2
-Army General Classification Test (AGCT) -administered to more than 12
million recruits

-Today
-group tests are still administered to prospective recruits, primarily for
screening purposes
-Screening tool -an instrument or procedure used to identify a particular
trait or constellation of traits at a gross or imprecise level

-Group Test in School Setting

-Group intelligence test results provide school personnel with valuable
information for instruction-related activities and increased understanding of the
individual pupil
-Group intelligence tests in the schools are used in special forms as early as
the kidergarten level. The tests are administered to groups of 10 to 15 children,
each of whom receives a test booklet that includes printed pictures and
diagrams. For th most part, simple motor responses are required to answer
items. Oversized alternatives in the form of pictures in a multiple-choice might
appear on the pages, and it is the child’s job to circle or place an X on the
picture that represents the correct answer to the item presented orally by the
examiner. During such testing in small groups, the testtakers will be carefully
monitored to make certain they are following the directions
-Some group intelligence test for school settings:
-California Test of Mental Maturity
-Kuhlmann-Anderson Intelligence Test
-Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Ability
-Cognitive Abilities Test
-Otis-Lennon School Ability Tests (OLSAT) (formerly Otis-Lennon Mental
Ability Tests - OLMAT)
-the first group intelligence test to be used in US schools
-designed to measure abstract thinking and reasoning ability and to assist in
school evaluation and placement decision-making
-a multiple choice test commonly used in the US to identify gifted children
-completion time: max 75 minutes
-age range: k to 12
-in general, group tests are useful screening tools when large numbers of
examinees must be evaluated either simultaneously or within a limited time
frame

Other Measures of Intellectual Abilities

-Cognitive Styles
-a psychological dimension that characterizes the consistency with which one
acquires and processes information
-Examples:
 -Field Dependence vs Field Independence
-Reflection vs Impulsivity
-Visualizer vs Verbalizer

-Meaures of Creativity:
-Originality -the ability to produce something that is innovative or nonobvious
-Fluency -the ease with which responsesare reproduced and is usually
measured by the total number of responses produced
-Flexibility -the variety of ideas presented and the ability to shift from one
approach to another
-Elaboration -the richness of detail in a verbal explanation or pictorial display
-A criticism frequently leveled at group standardized intelligence tests (as well
as at other ability and achievement tests) is that evaluation of test performance
is too heavily focused on whether the answer is correct
-The heavy emphasis on correct response leaves little room for the evaluation
of processes such as originality, fluency, flexibility and elaboration
-Convergent thinking
-a deductive reasoning process taht entails recall and consideration of facts as
well as a series of logical judgments to narrow down solutions and eventually
arrive at one solution
-Divergent thinking
-a reasoning process in which thought is free to move in many different
directions, making several solutions possible
-requires flexibility of thought, originality, and imagination

-Remote Associates Test (RAT)

-developed by Sarnoff Mednick in the 1960s
-presents the testtaker with three words; the task is to find a fourth word
associated with the other three
-a test used to measure creative convergent thinking
-a possible weakness of this test is its focus on verbal associative habits -
meaning it might be more difficult for non-native speakers of English. Also, it
may not favor those who are more comfortable with visual thinking

-Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT)

-developed by E. Paul Torrance in 1960s
-consist of word-based, picture-based and sound-based test materials
-each subtest is designed to measure various characteristics deemed
important in the process of creative thought

-It is interesting that many tests of creativity do not fare well when evaluated by
traditional psychometric procedures
CHAPTER 11: PRESCHOOL AND EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT

Infant Scales

Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale (BNAS)

-3 days to 4 weeks of age
-provides an index of a newborn’s competence
-47 scores: 27 behavioral, 20 elicited
-widely used research tool
-drawbacks:
-no norms
-poor test-retest reliability
-does not predict future intelligence

Gesell Development Schedules (GDS)

-2.3 to 6.3 years of age
-provide an appraisal of the developmental status of children
-five areas:
-gross motor
-fine motor
-adaptive
-language
-personal-social
-produces developmental quotient (DQ)
-drawbacks:
-standardization sample inadequate
-no evidence of reliability or validity in test manual
-problem with directing and scoring
-does not predict future intelligence

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development - Third Edition

(BSID-III)
-age range 2 to 30 months
-purports to measure cognitive and motor functions
-two scales: motor and mental
-psychometrically rigorous
-predicts well for retarded infants
-does not predict future intelligence

Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale (CIIS)

-age range 2 to 30 months
-purports to measure infant intelligence
-age scale
-uses mental age and IQ concepts
-downward extension of Binet scale
-drawbacks:
-outdated
-psychometrically unsound
-does not predict future intelligence
Major tests for Young Children

McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA)

-age range 2 years old to 8 years old
-present a carefully constructed individual test of human ability
-its battery of 18 tests samples a wide variety of functions long held to be
related to human intelligence. Of the 18 scales, 15 are combined into a
composite score known as the general cognitive index (GCI), a standard score
with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16
-GCI: Verbal Scale, Perceptual-performance, Quantitative
-Additional Scales: Memory and Motor

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

2nd Edition (KABC-II)
-Age range 3 to 18 years old
-Individual ability test
-18 subtest; 5 global scales
-sequential processing
-simultaneous processing
-learning
-planning
-knowledge
-based on Aleksandr Luria’s theory, Roger Sperry’s split-brain and Ulric’s
information processing

General Individual Ability Tests for Handicapped and Special

Populations

Columbia Mental Maturity Scale - Third Edition (CMMS)

-purports to evaluate ability in normal and variously handicapped children from
3 through 12 years of age
-multiple-choice format
-no time limit
-contains 92 different cards grouped into eight overlapping levels, or scales,
according to chronological age
-coefficients range between .85 and .90 for both split-half and test-retest
reliabilities
-highly vulnerable to random error
-a reliable instrument that is useful in assessing ability in many people with
sensory, physical or language handicaps

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Fourth Edition (PPVT - IV)

-age range of 2 through 90 years
-PPVT-IV is not usually used with the deaf, because the instructions are
administered aloud
-the test purports to measure hearing or receptive (hearing) vocabulary,
presumably providing a nonverbal estimate of verbal intelligence

Leiter International Performance Scale - Revised (LIPS-R)

-a performance scale
-age range of 2 to 18 years
-purports to provide a nonverbal measure of general intelligence by sampling a
wide variety of functions from memory to nonverbal reasoning
-can administer it without using language and it requires no verbal response
from subjects
-often used when assessing children with autism
-one can apply it to a large range of disabled individuals, particularly the deaf
and language-disabled

Porteus Maze Test (PMT)

-a popular but poorly standardized nonverbal performance measure of
intelligence
-consists of maze problems, specifically, it includes 12 mazes that increase in
complexity across age levels
-the participant is required to trace the maze from the starting point to the goal
while following certain rules
-can be administered without verbal instruction and thus can be used for a
variety of special populations

Testing Learning Disabilities

Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA-3)

-assumes that failure to respond correctly to a stimulus can result not only from
a defective output (response) system but also from a defective input or
information-processing system
-designed for use with children ages 2 through 10
-widespread use and interest among educators, psychologists, learning
disability specialists and researchers

Woodcock-Johnson III
-designed as a broad-range individually administered test to be used in
educational settings
-it assesses general intellectual ability (g), specific cognitive abilities,
scholastic aptitude, oral language and achievement
-the Woodcock-Johnson III’s cognitive ability standard battery includes 10
tests such as verbal comprehension, visual-auditory learning, spatial relations,
and visual matching
-has relatively good psychometric properties
-based on CHC Model

Visuographic Test

Benton Visual Retention Test - Fifth Edition (BVRT-V)

-assumes that brain damage easily impairs visual memory ability
-designed for individuals ages 8 and older
-consists of geometric designs briefly presented and then removed
-the subject must then reproduce the designs from memory

Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT)

-also used in the assessment of brain damage, the BVMGT has a variety of
uses and is one of the most popular individual tests
-in consists of nine geometric figures (such as a circle and a diamond) that the
subject is simply asked to copy

Memory-for-Designs (MFD) Test

-simple drawing test that involves perceptual-motor coordination
-requiring only a 10-minute administration
-individuals 8 to 60 years of age
-15 drawings
-drawings are scored from 0 to 3, depending on how they compare with
representative drawings from normal controls and people with varying degrees
of brain injury

Achievement, Aptitude and others

RTL Model
Response to intervention model as a multi level prevention framework applied
in educational settings that is designed to maximize student achievement
through the use of data that identifies students at risk for poor learning
outcomes combined with evidence-based intervention and teaching that is
adjusted on the basis of student responsiveness

Achievement Tests
• Designed to measure accomplishment
• A test of achievement may be standardized nationally, regionally, or
locally, or it may not be standardized at all
• A sound achievement test is ong that adequately samples the targeted
subject matter and reliably gauges the extent to which the examinees
have learned it
• Curriculum-based assessment (CBA)
- a term used to refer to assessment of information acquired from
teachings at school
- Curriculum-based measurement (CBM)
- a type of CBA, is characterized by the use of standardized
measurement procedures to derive local norms to be used in the
evaluation of student performance on curriculum-based tasks

Aptitude Tests
• Tend to focus more on informal learning or life experiences
• Also referred to as prognostic tests, are typically used to make
predictions

Pre-School Level
• Checklist - a questionnaire on which marks are made to indicate the
presence or absence of a specified behavior, thought, event, or
circumstance
• Rating Scale - a form completed by an evaluator (a rater, judge, or
examiner) to make a judgment of relative standing with regard to a
specified variable or list of variables
 • Apgar number - "everybody's first test"
o A score on a rating scale developed by physician Virginia Apgar
(1909-1974), an obstetrical anesthesiologist who saw a need for
a simple, rapid method of evaluating newborn infants and
determining what immediate action, if any, is necessary
• Informal evaluation - a typically nonsystematic, relatively brief, and
"off-the-record" assessment leading to the formation of an opinion or
attitude conducted by any person, in any way, for any reason, in an
unofficial context that is not subject to the ethics or other standards of an
evaluation by a professional
• At risk - children who have documented difficulties in one or more
psychological, social, or academic areas and for whom intervention is or
may be required

Diagnostic Tests
• a tool used to identify areas of deficit to be targeted for intervention
• Evaluative Information
o typically applied to tests or test data that are used to make
judgments (such as pass-fail)
- Diagnostic Information
• Typically applied to tests or test data used to pinpoint a student's
difficulty, usually for remedial purposes

Performance, Portfolio, and Authentic Assessment

• Performance assessment will be defined as an evaluation of
performance tasks according to criteria developed by experts from the
domain of study tapped by those tasks
o Performance Task
▪ A work sample designed to elicit from a particular domain
of study values
• Portfolio Assessment - refers to the evaluation of one's representative
knowledge, skills, and work samples/portfolio
• Authentic Assessment- evaluation of relevant, meaningful tasks that
may be conducted to evaluate learning of academic subject matter but
that demonstrate the student's transfer of that study to real-world
activities

Peer Appraisal Techniques

• Peer Appraisal - One method of obtaining information about an
individual is by asking that individual's peer group to make the evaluation
o nominating technique is a method of peer appraisal in which
individuals are asked to select or nominate other individuals for
various types of activities
• Sociogram - One graphic method of organizing data results of peer
appraisal

Continuation… Information eming from KAPLAN

Group Achievement Tests

Stanford Achievement Test (SAT)
 • It evaluates achievement in kindergarten through 12th grades in the
following areas: spelling, reading comprehension, word study and skills,
language arts, social studies, science, mathematics, and listening
comprehension
Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT)
• Measures achievement in reading by evaluating vocabulary.word
recognition, and reading comprehension
• Also measures mathematics by evaluating number concepts, problem
solving and computation
• Now in its eighth edition, the MAT-8 was renormed in 2000, and
alternate versions of the test including Braille, large print, and audio
formats were made available for use with children having visual
limitations

Group Tests of Mental Abilities (Intelligence)

• Kuhlmann-Anderson Test (KAT)-Eighth Edition
• Henmon-Nelson Test (H-NT)
• Cognitive Abilities Test (COGAT)

College Entrance Test

• SAT Reasoning Test (SAT-1)
• American College Test (ACT)

Graduate and Professional School Entrance Test

• Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
• Miller Analogies Test
• Law School Admission Test

Nonverbal Group Ability Tests

Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM)
• One of the best known and most popular nonverbal group tests
• Although used primarily in educational settings, the Raven is a suitable
test anytime one needs an estimate of an individual's general
intelligence (Spearman's g)
• Group or Individual
• 5 years and Older
• 60 matrices, graded in difficulty
• Minimize the effect of language Better measure of intelligence than
Wechsler
• Worldwide Norms

Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (G-HDT)

• One of the quickest, easiest, and least expensive to administer of all
ability tests
• Group or Individual
• The subject is instructed to draw a picture of a whole man and to do the
best job possible
• Scored by items included
• 70 points possible in drawing (ex.clothing)
• Works best with children and younger children
 • Good psychometrics but outdated norms (not standardized)

Culture Fair Intelligence Test

• Designed to provide an estimate of intelligence relatively free of cultural
and language influences
• A paper-and-pencil procedure that covers three levels
o ages 4-8 and mentally disabled adults
o ages 8-12 and randomly selected adults
o high-school age and above-average adults
• Two Parallel forms are available Standardization varies to age levels
• Normative data from US, Western European Countries, and Australia
• Culture Fair Test is viewed as an acceptable measure of fluid
intelligence
• RPM is still better because CFIT requires more work and norms are
outdated
Chapter 12: Introduction to Personality

Terms
Personality - Individual's unique constellation of psychological traits that is relatively stable
over time
Personality Assessment - the measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states,
values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral
styles, and/or related individual characteristics
Personality Traits - Any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual varies
from another
Personality Type - a constellation of traits that is similar in pattern to one identified category of
personality within a taxonomy of personalities
Personality States - relatively temporary predisposition

The self as the primary referent

• Self-Report-a process wherein information about assessees is supplied by the
assessees themselves
• Self-Concept measure - an instrument designed to yield information relevant to how
an individual sees him or herself with regard to selected psychological variables
• Self-Concept Differentiation - the degree to which a person has different
self-concepts in different roles

Testtaker Response Style

• Response style refers to a tendency to respond to a test item or interview question in
some characteristic manner regardless of the content of the item or question
o Socially desirable responding - present oneself in a favorable light
o Acquiescence - agree with whatever is presented
o Nonacquiescence - disagree with whatever is presented
o Deviance - make unusual or uncommon responses
o Extreme - make extreme, as opposed to middle, ratings on a rating scale
o Gambling/cautiousness - guess-or not guess-when in doubt
o Overly positive - claim extreme virtue through self presentation in a
superlative manner
• Impression Management - a term used to describe the attempt to manipulate others'
impressions through the selective exposure of some information (it may be false
information) coupled with suppression of other information

Procedures and item formats

• Structured interview - the interviewer must typically follow an interview guide and has
little leeway in terms of posing questions not in that guide
• Graphology/Handwriting analysis

Frame of Reference
• Frame of Reference - defined as aspects of the focus of exploration such as the time
frame (the past, the present, or the future) as well as other contextual issues that
involve people, places, and events
• Q-sort Technique - an assessment technique in which the task is to sort a group of
statements, usually in perceived rank order ranging from most descriptive to least
descriptive

Acculturation and Related Considerations

• Acculturation is an ongoing process by which an individual's thoughts, behaviors,
values, worldview, and identity develop in relation to the general thinking behavior,
customs, and values of a particular cultural group
• Rokeach (1973) differentiated what he called instrumental from terminal values
o Instrumental Values - are guiding principles to help on attain some objective
 o Terminal Values - guiding principles and a mode of behavior that is an
endpoint objective
• Also intimately tied to the concept of acculturation concept of personal identity
o Identity - a set of cognitive and behavioral characteristics by which individuals
define themselves as members of a particular group
o Identification - process by which an individual assumes a pattern of behavior
characteristic of other people, and referred to it as one of the central issues
that ethnic minority groups must deal with
o Worldview is the unique way people interpret and make sense of their
perceptions as a consequence of their learning experiences, cultural
background, and related variables

Strategies of Structured Personality Test Construction

• Deductive Strategies -Logic and reasoning
o Logical-content strategy - uses reason and deductive logic in the
development of personality measures
o Theoretical strategy - begins with a theory about the nature of the particular
characteristic to be measured
• Empirical Strategies data collection, statistics, experiments
o Criterion-Group strategy
o Factor analytic strategy

Chapter 13.1: Personality Tests Part 1

Objective Methods
Logical-Content

Woodworth Personal Data Sheet

• The first personality inventory ever
• Developed during World War I and published in its final form after the war
• Its purpose was to identify military recruits who would be likely to break down in combat
• Contained 116 questions to which the individual responded "Yes" or "No"
• The items were selected from lists of known symptoms of emotional disorders and from
the questions asked by psychiatrists in their screening interviews

Early Multidimensional Logical-Content Scale

Bell Adjustment Inventory

• Attempted to evaluate the subject's adjustment in a variety of areas such as home life,
social life, and emotional functioning

Bernreuter Personality Inventory

• Could be used for subjects as young as age 13 and included items related to six
personality traits such as introversion, confidence, and sociability

Mooney Problem Checklist

• Contains a list of problems that recurred in clinical case history data and in the written
statements of problems submitted by approximately 4000 high-school students

Criterion-Group Strategy

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

• MMPI
• It contained 566 true-false items and was designed as an aid to psychiatric
diagnosis with adolescents and adults 14 years of age and older
• T-score
• 10 Scales:
 • Hypochondriasis (Hs) Depression (D)
• Hysteria (Hy)
• Psychopathic deviate (Pd)
• Masculinity-femininity (M)
• Paranoia (Pa)
• Psychasthenia (Pt)
• Schizophrenia (Sc)
• Hypomania (Ma)
• Social Introversion (Si)
• Lie Scale (L.) - 15 items
• Infrequency Scale (F) - 64 items (faking bad)
• K-Scale - 30 items (defensiveness)
• Cannot Say Scale (?)

• MMPI-2
o More representative standardization sample (normal control group) used in the
norming
o Items were rewritten to correct grammatical errors and to make the language
more contemporary, nonsexist, and readable
o 567 true-false items, including 394 items that are identical to the original MMPI
items, 66 items that were modified or rewritten, and 107 new items
o 18 years old and older
o The TRIN scale is designed to identify acquiescent and non acquiescent
response patterns. It contains 23 pairs of items worded in opposite forms

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)-Third Edition

• Attempts to evaluate personality in normally adjusted individuals and thus finds more
use in counseling settings
• The test contains 20 scales, each of which is grouped into one of four classes
• 434 items
• 13 years old and older

Factor Analytic Strategy

16PF
• Assesses various primary personality traits in order to setting and more recently by
recruitment consultants and provide feedback about an individual's disposition,
traditionally used by psychologists in a clinical or research prospective employers
• 16 years old and older
• 185 multiple choice items

Theoretical Strategy

Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS)

• One of the best-known and earliest examples of a theoretically derived structured
personality test
• The theoretical basis for the EPPS is the need system proposed by Murray
• Ipsative Scoring
• Used in counseling centers
• 16 years to 85 years old

Combination Strategy

Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R)

• Widely used in both clinical applications and a wide range of research that involves
personality assessment
 • A measure of the five major domains of personality as well as the six facets that define
each domain
• Based on the OCEAN
• The NEO PI-R is designed for use with persons 17 years of age and older and is
essentially self-administered
• Participants are asked to respond to 240 items using a 5-point scale
• Has a Filipino Translation

Chapter 13.2: Personality Tests Part 2

Projective Methods

Projective Method - technique of personality assessment in which some judgment of the

assessee's personality is made on the basis of performance on a task that involves supplying
some sort of structure to unstructured or incomplete stimuli

Projective Hypothesis - holds that an individual supplies structure to unstructured stimuli in a

manner consistent with the individual's own unique pattern of conscious and unconscious
needs, fears, desires, impulses, conflicts, and ways of perceiving and responding

Rorschach Inkblot Test

• Hermann Rorschach developed what he called a "form interpretation test" using
inkblots as the forms to be interpreted
• The Rorschach consists of 10 bilaterally symmetrical (or, mirror-image If folded in half)
inkblots printed on separate cards.
o Five inkblots are achromatic (meaning without color, or black-and-white)
o Two inkblots are black, white, and red.
o The remaining three inkblots are multicolored
• The test comes with the cards only, there is no test manual or any administration,
scoring, or interpretation instructions
• There is no rationale for why some of the inkblots are achromatic and others are
chromatic (with color)

Holtzman Inkblot Test

• Alternative to Rorschach
• both forms, A and B, of the Holtzman contain 45 cards. Each response may be scored
on 22 dimensions

Thematic Apperception Test

• The TAT was originally designed as an ald to eliciting fantasy material from patients in
psychoanalysis The 30 picture cards, all black-and-white, contain a variety of scenes
designed to present the testtaker with certain classical human situations"
• Some of the pictures contain a lone individual, some contain a group of people, and
some contain no people,
• Some of the pictures appear to be almost as real as photograph; others are surrealistic
drawings
• Apperception is derived from the verb apperceive, which may be defined as to perceive
in terms of past perceptions

Word Association Test

• A semistructured, individually administered, projective technique of personality
assessment that involves the presentation of a list of stimulus words, to each of which
an assessee responds verbally or in writing with whatever comes immediately to mind
first upon first exposure to the stimulus word
 • Kent-Rosanoff Free Association represented one of the earliest attempts to develop a
standardized test using words as projective stimuli. The test consisted of 100 stimulus
words, all commonly used and believed to be neutral with respect to emotional impact

Sentence Completion Test

• a semi structured projective technique of personality assessment that involves the
presentation of a list of words that begin a sentence and the assessee's task is to
respond by finishing each sentence with whatever word or words come to mind
• Sacks Sentence Completion Test
o a 60-item test that asks respondents to complete 60 questions with the first
thing that comes to mind across four areas: Family, Sex, Interpersonal,
Relationships and Self concept

Figure Drawing Test

• Draw-a-Person Test - the subject, most often a child, is asked to draw the picture of a
person. Later the child is asked to tell a story about the person
• House-Tree-Person Test - the subject draws a picture of a house, tree, and person and
then makes up a story about it
• Kinetic Family Drawing Test - the subject draws a picture of his or her family
CHAPTER 14: OTHER SETTINGS OF ASSESSMENT

I. CLINICAL AND COUNSELING ASSESSMENT

Clinical Psychology – the branch of psychology that has its primary focus the
prevention, diagnosis, and the treatment of abnormal behaviour

The Diagnostics of Mental Disorders:

-Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5)
-published by APA
-lists all the criteria that have to be met in order to diagnose each of the
disorders listed

-International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10)

-published by World Health Organization

-Biopsychosocial Assessment
-a multidisciplinary approach to assessment that includes exploration of
relevant biological, psychological, social, cultural, and environmental variables
for the purpose of evaluating how such variables may have contributed to the
development and maintenance of a presenting problem

The Interview in Clinical Assessment

-An interview will guide decisions about what else needs to be done to assess
an individual. If symptoms or complaints are described by the interviewee in a
vague or inconsistent manner, a test designed to screen in a general way for
psychopathology may be indicate
-Therapeutic Contract – an agreement between client and therapist setting
forth goals, expectations, and mutual obligations with regard to a course of
therapy

TYPES OF INTERVIEW:
A. Structured Interview
-a highly structured interview is one in which all the questions asked are
prepared in advance
-an advantage of a structured interview is that it provides a uniform method of
exploration and evaluation
-example:
-Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID) is a semi structured
interview designed to assist clinicians and researchers in diagnostic
decision-making
-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS) is a
standardized interview designed to detect schizophrenia and disorders of affect
-Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms-2 (SIRS-2) is used primarily in
efforts to detect malingering

B. Stress Interview
-the general name applied to any interview where one objective is to place the
interviewee in a pressured state for some particular reason
-the stress may be induced to test for some aspect of personality (such as
aggressiveness or hostility) that might be elicited only under such condition

C. Hypnotic Interview
-conducted while the interviewee is under hypnosis
-may be conducted as part of a therapeutic assessment or intervention when
the interviewee has been an eyewitness to a crime or related situations

D. Cognitive Interview
-rapport is established and the interviewee is encouraged to use imagery and
focused retrieval to recall information

E. Collaborative Interview
-allows the interviewee wide latitude to interact with the interviewer

Mental Status Examination

-used to screen for intellectual, emotional, and neurological deficits, typically
includes questioning or observation with respect to each area discussed in the
following list:
-Appearance: Are the patient’s dress and general appearance appropriate?
-Behavior: Is anything remarkably strange about the patient’s speech or
general behavior during the interview? Does the patient exhibit facial
tics, involuntary movements, difficulties in coordination or gait?
-Orientation: Is the patient oriented to person? That is, does he know
who he is? Is the patient orient to the place? That is, does she know
where she is? Is the patient oriented to time? That is, does he or she
know the year, the month and the day?
-Memory: How is the patient’s memory of recent and long-past events?
-Sensorium: Are there any problems related to the five senses?
-Psychomotor activity: Does there appear to be any abnormal
retardation or quickening of motor activity?
-Affect: Is the patient’s emotional expression appropriate? For example,
does the patient (inappropriately) laugh while discussing the death of an
immediate family member?
-Mood: Throughout the interview, has the patient generally been angry?
Depressed? Anxious? Apprehensive?
-Personality: In what terms can the patient best be described?
Sensitive? Stubborn? Apprehensive?
-Thought content: Is the patient hallucinating - seeing, hearing, or
otherwise experiencing things that aren’t really there? Is the patient
delusional?

-Addiction Severity Index (ASI)

-200 items
-raters assess severity of addiction in 7 problem areas: medical condition,
employment functioning, drug use, alcohol use, illegal activity, family/social
relations and psychiatric functioning

-Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST)

-24 items
-lifetime alcohol-related problems

Emotional Injury
-or psychological harm or damage, is a term sometimes used synonymously
with mental suffering, pain and suffering and emotional harm

Profiling
-a crime-solving process that draws upon psychological and criminological
expertise applied to the study of crime scene evidence

Custody Evaluations
-a psychological assessment of parents or guardians and their parental
capacity and/or of children and their parental needs and preferences – usually
undertaken for the purpose of assisting a court in making a decision about
awarding custody

Child Abuse – the creation of conditions that may give rise to abuse of a child
(a person under the state-defined age of majority) by an adult responsible for
the care of that person
Child Neglect – a failure on the part of an adult responsible for the care of a
child to exercise a minimum degree of care in providing the child with food,
clothing, shelter, education, medical care, and supervision

Anatomically detailed dolls (ADDs)

-dolls with accurately represented genitalia
-an aid on assessment of sexually abused children

Elder Abuse – the intentional affliction of physical, emotional, financial, or

other harm on an older individual who meets the statutory age requirement for
an elder
Elder Neglect – a failure on the part of a caregiver or service provider to
provide for the elder what was reasonably needed to prevent physical,
emotional, financial or other harm

Suicide Assessment
-a person who has attempted suicide in the past and who currently has a plan,
along with the means (such as access to a firearm), is at very risk for suicide
-numerous other variables are also relevant in terms of assessing suicidal risk

Psychological Report
Elements:
-Demographic profile
-Reason for referral
-Test administered
-Findings
-Recommendations
-Summary

Barnum Effect
-the finding that people tend to accept vague personality descriptions as
accurate descriptions of themselves

Clinical Predictions vs. Mechanical Predictions

Clinical Predictions
-the application of a clinician’s own training and clinical experience as a
determining factor in clinical judgment and actions

Mechanical Predictions
-the application of empirically demonstrated statistical rules and probabilities
(as well as computer algorithms) to the computer generation of findings and
recommendations

II. NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL SETTING

Neuropsychology
-branch of psychology that focuses on the relationship between brain
functioning and behavior

Neuropsychological Assessment
-the evaluation of brain and nervous system functioning as relates to behavior

Behavioral Neurology
-a subspecialty within the medical specialty of neurology that also focuses on
brain-behavior relationships

Neurotology
• a branch of medicine that focuses on problems related to hearing,
balance, and facial nerves

acalculia - inability to perform arithmetic calculations

acopia - inability to copy geometric designs
agnosia - deficit in recognizing sensory stimuli
agraphia - deficit in writing ability
akinesia - deficit in motor movements
alexia - inability to read
amnesia - loss of memory
amusia - deficit in ability to produce or appreciate music
anomia - deficit associated with finding words to name things
anopia - deficit in sight
anosmia - deficit in sense of smell
aphasia - deficit in communication due to impaired speech or writing ability
apraxia - voluntary movement disorder in the absence of paralysis
ataxia - deficit in motor ability and muscular coordination

Neuropsychological Tests:

A. Test of General Ability

 -pattern analysis - the examiner looks beyond performance on individual
tests to a study of the pattern of test scores
-example: Wechsler

B. Test to measure the ability to abstract

-Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 Card Version
-requires the testtaker to sort a pack of 64 cards that contain
different geometric figures printed in different colors
-the test may be useful in screening for neurological impairment
with or without suspected injury of the frontal lobe

C. Test of Executive Function

-Executive function - defined as organizing, planning, cognitive flexibility,
and inhibition of impulses and related activities associated with the
frontal and prefrontal lobes of the brain
-Tower of Hanoi
-a puzzle that made its first appearance in Paris in 1883
-it is set up by stacking the rings on one of the pegs, beginning with
the largest-diameter ring, with no succeeding ring resting on a
smaller one
-Porteus Maze Test
-Clock-drawing test
-the task in this test is for the patient to draw the face of a clock,
usually with the hands of the clock indicating a particular time
-observed abnormalities in the patient's drawing may be reflective of
cognitive dysfunction resulting from dementia or other neurological
or psychiatric conditions, Poor performance on the CDT has also
been associated with visual memory deficits, mild cognitive
impairment, and losses in function that ostensibly result with
examined performance on the clock drawing task in elderly
individuals with and without Alzheimer's disease, while observing
each group's brain functioning by means of special imaging
equipment
-Trail Making Test
-the testtaker's task is to connect the dots in a logical fashion
-Field of Search
-after being shown a sample stimulus, the testtaker's task is to locate
a match as quickly as possible
-Identification Task - a task that involves what is known as confrontation
naming
-Picture Absurdity
-the testtaker answers questions such as "What's wrong or silly
about this picture?"

D. Tests of Perceptual, Motor, and Perceptual-Motor Function

-perceptual test is a general reference to any of many instruments and
procedures used to evaluate varied aspects of sensory functioning,
including aspects of sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste, and balance
 -motor test is a general reference to any of many instruments and
procedures used to evaluate varied aspects of one's ability and mobility,
including the ability to move limbs, eyes, or other parts of the body
-perceptual-motor test is a general reference to any of many instruments
and procedures used to evaluate the integration or coordination of
perceptual and motor abilities
-Ex. Ishihara test
-Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test
-measuring deficit in auditory functioning
-Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency
-designed for use with children aged 4 to 14, this instrument
includes subtests that assess running speed and agility, balance,
strength, response speed, and dexterity
-Purdue Pegboard Test
-measure manual dexterity
-Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test

E. Tests of Verbal Functioning

-Controlled Word Association Test (formerly the Verbal Associative
Fluency Test)
-The examiner says a letter of the alphabet and then it is the
subject's task to say as many words as he or she can think of that
begin with that letter. Each of three trials employs three different
letters as a stimulus and lasts one minute; the testtaker's final
core on the test reflects the total number of correct words
produced, weighted by factors such as the gender, age, and
education of the testtaker
-Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test (AST)
-measure aspects of aphasia
-Multilingual Aphasia Examination
-for Hispanic decent

F. Tests of Memory
-Memory is a complex, multifaceted cognitive function that has defied
simple explanation

-Procedural Memory
-memory for things like driving a car, making entries on a keyboard, or
riding a bicycle
-Declarative Memory
-memory of factual material
a. Semantic Memory - facts
b. Episodic Memory - memory for facts in a particular context or
situation
-Implicit Memory
-"unconscious memory"

-California Verbal Learning Test-II (CVLT-II)

-Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS-IV)
 G. Neuropsychological Test Batteries

-fixed and flexible

-Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery
-classic neuropsychological test battery among the many available for
use by researchers and clinicians

-Neurosensory Center Comprehensive Examination of Aphasia

(NCCEA) is a battery of tests that focuses on communication deficit

-Montreal Neurological Institute Battery is particularly useful to

trained neuropsychologists in locating specific kinds of lesions

-Southern California Sensory Integration Tests make up a battery

designed to assess sensory-integrative and motor functioning in children
4 to 9 years of age

-Severe Impairment Battery is designed for use with severely impaired

assessees who might otherwise perform at or near the floor of existing
tests

III. ASSESSMENT, CAREERS AND BUSINESS

A. Measures of Interest:
-Interest Measure an instrument designed to evaluate testtakers' likes,
dislikes, leisure activities, curiosities, and involvements in various
pursuits for the purpose of comparison with groups of members of
various occupations and professions

-Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)

-1966 VERSION
-399 items were related to 54 occupations for men. A separate form
presented 32 different occupations for women

-Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII)

-Divided into seven parts. The test, which still retains the core of the
SVIB, now has 325 items, to which a person responds "like," "dislike," or
"indifferent”
-Incorporated the theory of Holland
-most widely used

-Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS)

-Orientation scales
-seven scales describe the test taker's occupational orientation:
influencing, organizing, helping, creating, analyzing, producing, and
adventuring

-Basic scales
 -The basic scales provide an overview for categories of occupations.
Examples of basic scales include law/politics, counseling, and
mathematics.

-Occupational scales
-Sixty occupational scales describe matches with particular occupations,
including attorney, engineer, guidance counselor, and math teacher.

-Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS)

-Ranks 2nd in popularity
-The KOIS presents the test taker with 100 triads (sets of three) of
alternative activities. For each triad, the test taker selects the most
preferred and the least preferred alternatives

-Career Assessment Inventories

-1st portion: Holland's
-2nd portion: describes basic interests. Each test taker is evaluated in 22
specific areas, including carpentry, business, and food service
-3rd portion: a series of occupational scales
-good psychometric properties

B. Measures of Ability and Aptitude:

-Wonderlic Personnel Test measures mental ability in a general sense.

This brief (12-minute) test includes items that assess spatial skill, abstract
thought, and mathematical skill. The test may be useful in screening
individuals for jobs that require both fluid and crystallized intellectual
abilities
-Bennet Mechanical Comprehension Test is a widely used
paper-and-pencil measure of a testtaker's ability to understand the
relationship between physical forces and various tools (e.g. pulleys and
gears) as well as other common objects (carts, steps, and seesaws)

C. Measures of Personality Types:

-MBTI
-a test used to classify assessees by psychological type and to shed light on
"basic differences in the ways human beings take in information and make
decisions"

Screening, Selection, Classification, and Placement

-Selection refers to a process whereby each person evaluated for a position
will be either accepted or rejected for that position
-Classification does not imply acceptance or rejection but rather a rating,
categorization, or "pigeonholing" with respect to two or more criteria
-Placement is a disposition, transfer, or assignment to a group or category
that may be made on the basis of one criterion

TOOLS:
-Résumé and the Letter of Application
-Application Form
-Letters of Recommendation
-Interview
-Portfolio Assessment
-Performance Test
-Physical Test

Cognitive Ability, Productivity, and Motivation Measures

Measures of Cognitive Ability

-In general, cognitive-based tests are popular tools of selection because they
have been shown to be valid predictors of future performance However, along
with that impressive track record come a number of potential considerations
with regard to diversity issues

Productivity
-output or value yielded relative to work effort made
-Forced distribution technique - This procedure involves distributing a
predetermined number or percentage of assessees into various categories that
describe performance (such as unsatisfactory, poor, fair, average, good,
superior)
-Critical incidents technique involves the supervisor recording positive and
negative employee behavior
-Flanagan

Motivation
-Work Preference Inventory (WPI)
-The WPI contains 30 items rated on a four-point scale based on how much the
testtaker believes the item to be self-descriptive. Factor analysis indicates that
the test does appear to tap two distinct factors: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Burnout
-a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,
and reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among individuals
who work with other people in some capacity o Maslach Burnout
Inventory (MBI) - most widely used measure of burnout

Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Organizational

Culture

Attitude - a presumably learned disposition to react in some

characteristic manner to a particular stimulus

Job Satisfaction - a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the

appraisal of one's job or job experiences

Organizational Commitment - a person's feelings of loyalty to identification

with, and involvement in an organization
Organizational Culture - the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns
characteristic of a particular organization or company, including: the structure
of the organization and the roles within it: the leadership style; the prevailing
values, norms, sanctions, and support mechanisms; and the past traditions and
folklore, methods of enculturation, and characteristic ways of interacting with
people and institutions outside of the culture

Consumer Psychology
-branch of social psychology that deals primarily development, advertising, and
marketing of products and services with the