The

Quantitative
Research
Process
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
1. Identification of the research
problem to be studied
As you have seen numerous times, clearly identifying a
research topic is the first step in any study. Quantitative
research studies tend to be narrow in scope, focusing in a
handful of key variables. As has been previously noted,
the purpose of any given study will often guide choices
and decisions about the methodology to be employed in
that study.
2. Statement of one, or several, pertinent
research questions and or/ hypothesis

The researcher must ensure that research questions and

hypotheses are stated clearly and precisely, as they will
guide the remainder of the study. Failure to do so at the
outset of the study can lead to problems – that is,
misalignment research questions and necessary data or
between collected data and proposed analytical
techniques – as the study progresses.
3. Review of related literature
Reviewing related literature provides a great deal of
guidance in quantitative studies. Learning what
others have done previously can inform decisions
regarding research design, sampling,
instrumentation, data collection procedures, and
data analysis.
4. Development of a written
literature review
Once the related literature has been collected
and thoroughly reviewed, the researcher must
synthesize the pertinent body of literature for
a prospective reader of the final research
report.
5. Development of a research
plan
Taking what has been gleaned from the literature review,
alongside the goals of the researcher, a complete research
plan is developed. Included in the plan are strategies for
selecting a sample of respondents, an appropriate research
design based on the nature of the research questions or
hypotheses, and strategies for data collection (including
procedures, instrumentation, informed consent forms, and a
realistic time frame) and data analysis.
6. Collection of data
Data collection in a quantitative study tends not to
take a great deal of time, depending on the
particular design. Data are typically collected
directly from participants through the use of
instruments, such as surveys, inventories,
checklists, tests, and other tools that will generate
numerical data.
7. Analysis of data
Quantitative data are analyzed statistically,
focusing on numerical descriptions, comparisons
of groups, or measures of relationships among
variables. Because samples tend to be large, data
analysis is typically conducted through the use of
statistical analysis software programs.
8. Development of conclusions
and recommendations
Conclusions are drawn directly from the
interpretation of the results from the statistical
analysis. The conclusions, as well as the
recommendations for practice and future research,
are typically connected back to the body of
literature that served as the basis for the earlier
literature review.
9. Preparation of a final
research report
The final step in conducting a quantitative
research is to prepare the final research
report. This report summarizes all aspects of
the study; in other words, each of the
previous eight steps are clearly and
thoroughly described in the report.
Types and
Designs of
Quantitative
Research
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Misconceptions in Quantitative
Types
There is a general misconception around research
that once the research is non-experimental, then
it is non-scientific, making it more important to
understand what experimental and experimental
research entails. Experimental research is the
most common type of research, which a lot of
people refer to as scientific research.
Misconceptions in Quantitative
Types

Non experimental research, on the other

hand, is easily used to classify research
that is not experimental. It clearly differs
from experimental research, and as such
has different use cases.
1. Experimental Research
Experimental research is the type of research that
uses a scientific approach towards manipulating
one or more control variables of the research
subjects and measuring the effect of this
manipulation on the subject. It is known for the
fact that it allows the manipulation of control
variables.
1. Experimental Research
This research method is widely used in various
physical and social science fields, even though it
may be quite difficult to execute. Within the
information field, they are much more common in
information systems research than in library and
information management research.
1. Experimental Research
Experimental research is usually undertaken
when the goal of the research is to trace cause-
and-effect relationships between defined
variables. However, the type of experimental
research chosen has a significant influence on the
results of the experiment.
 1.a. Pre-experimental Research
Pre-experimental research is the simplest form of research, and is carried
out by observing a group or groups of dependent variables after the
treatment of an independent variable which is presumed to cause change
on the group(s). It is further divided into three types.
• One-shot case study research;
• One-group pretest-posttest research
• Static-group comparison
 1.b. Quasi-experimental
Research
The Quasi type of experimental research is similar to true
experimental research, but uses carefully selected rather
than randomized subjects. The following are examples of
quasi-experimental research:
• Time series;
• No equivalent control group design;
• Counterbalanced design
 1.c. True Experimental
Research
True experimental research is the most accurate type, and may simply be
called experimental research. It manipulates a control group towards a
group of randomly selected subjects and records the effect of this
manipulation. True experimental research can be further classified into the
following groups:
• The posttest-only control group;
• The pretest-posttest control group;
• Solomon four-group
 Pros of True Experimental
Research
❖ Researchers can have control over variables.
❖ It can be combined with other research methods.
❖ The research process is usually well structured.
❖ It provides specific conclusions.
❖The results of experimental research can be easily
duplicated.
 Cons of True Experimental
Research
❖ It is highly prone to human error.
❖ Exerting control over extraneous variables may lead to the
personal bias of the researcher.
❖ It is time-consuming.
❖ It is expensive.
❖ Manipulating control variables may have ethical implications.
❖ It produces artificial results.
 2. Non-experimental Research
Non-experimental research is the type of research
that does not involve the manipulation of control
or independent variable. In non-experimental
research, researchers measure variables as they
naturally occur without any further manipulation.
 2. Non-experimental Research
This type of research is used when the researcher has
no specific research question about a causal
relationship between 2 different variables, and
manipulation of the independent variable is impossible.
They are also used when:
❖ subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions;
 2. Non-experimental Research
❖ the research subject is about a causal relationship but the
independent variable cannot be manipulated;
❖ the research is broad and exploratory;
❖ the research pertains to a non-causal relationship
between variables; and
❖ limited information can be accessed about the research
subject.
 2.a. Cross-sectional Research
Cross-sectional research involves the comparison
of two or more pre-existing groups of people under
the same criteria. This approach is classified as
non-experimental because the groups are not
randomly selected and the independent variable is
not manipulated.
 2.a. Cross-sectional Research
For example, an academic institution may want to
reward its first-class students with a scholarship for
their academic excellence. Therefore, each faculty
places students in the eligible and ineligible group
according to their class of degree.
 2.a. Cross-sectional Research

In this case, the student's class of degree

cannot be manipulated to qualify him or her
for a scholarship because it is an unethical
thing to do. Therefore, the placement is
cross-sectional.
 2.b. Correlational Research

Correlational type of research compares the

statistical relationship between two variables.
Correlational research is classified as non-
experimental because it does not manipulate
the independent variables.
 2.b. Correlational Research
For example, a researcher may wish to investigate
the relationship between the class of family
students come from and their grades in school. A
questionnaire may be given to students to know
the average income of their family, then compare
it with CGPAs.
 2.b. Correlational Research

The researcher will discover whether these

two factors are positively correlated, negatively
corrected, or have zero correlation at the end
of the research.
 2.c. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a quantitative research
method that attempts to collect quantifiable
information for statistical analysis of the
population sample. It is a popular market
research tool that allows us to collect and
describe the demographic segment’s nature.
 Applications of Descriptive
Research
1. Define respondent characteristics
2. Measure data trends
3. Conduct Comparisons
4. Validate existing conditions
5. Conduct research at different times
 2.d. Observational Research

Observational research focuses on observing

the behavior of a research subject in a natural
or laboratory setting. It is classified as non-
experimental because it does not involve the
manipulation of independent variables.
 2.d. Observational Research
A good example of observational research is an
investigation of the crowd effect or psychology in a
particular group of people. Imagine a situation where
there are 2 ATMs at a place, and only one of the ATMs is
filled with a queue, while the other is abandoned. The
crowd effect infers that the majority of newcomers will
also abandon the other ATM.
 2.d. Observational Research

You will notice that each of these non-

experimental researches is descriptive in
nature. It then suffices to say that descriptive
research is an example of non-experimental
research.
 Pros of Observational Research
❖ The research process is very close to a real-life
situation.
❖ It does not allow for the manipulation of
variables due to ethical reasons.
❖ Human characteristics are not subject to
experimental manipulation.
 Cons of Observational Research
❖The groups may be dissimilar and
nonhomogeneous because they are not randomly
selected, affecting the authenticity and
generalizability of the study results.
❖The results obtained cannot be absolutely clear
and error-free.
 2.e. Survey Research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or
questionnaires or polls. They are a popular market research
tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather
useful data should have the right survey questions. It should
be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-
questions. The survey method can be conducted online or
offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research
where the sample size is enormous.
 2.f. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research, also known as program
evaluation, refers to research purpose instead of a
specific method. Evaluation research is the
systematic assessment of the worth or merit of
time, money, effort and resources spent in order to
achieve a goal.
 2.f. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is closely related to but slightly different
from more conventional social research. It uses many of the
same methods used in traditional social research, but
because it takes place within an organizational context, it
requires team skills, interpersonal skills, management skills,
political smartness, and other skills that social research does
not need much. Evaluation research also requires one to keep
in mind the interests of the stakeholders.
 2.f. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is a type of applied research, and so it is
intended to have some real-world effect. Many methods like surveys
and experiments can be used to do evaluation research. The process
of evaluation research consisting of data analysis and reporting is a
rigorous, systematic process that involves collecting data about
organizations, processes, projects, services, and/or resources.
Evaluation research enhances knowledge and decision-making, and
leads to practical applications.
 3. Causal-Comparative
Research
A causal-comparative design is a research design that seeks to find
relationships between independent and dependent variables after an action
or event has already occurred. The researcher's goal is to determine
whether the independent variable affected the outcome, or dependent
variable, by comparing two or more groups of individuals. There are
similarities and differences between causal-comparative research, also
referred to as ex post facto research, and both correlational and
experimental research. This entry discusses these differences, as well as
the benefits, process, limitations, and criticism of this type of research
design.
Your best quote that reflects
your approach… “It’s one
small step for man, one giant
leap for mankind.”

- NEIL ARMSTRONG