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Practical Research
2
Quarter 2: Module 1-4

1 P hilippines
R epublic of the
D epartment of E ducation
N a t i o n a l C a pi t a l Re g i o n
Sc h o o l s D i v i s i o n O f f i c e o f La s Pi ñ a s C i t y
 DEVELOPMENT TEAM OF THE MODULE
WRITERS: JUDY MAE G. PANTOLLA, Master Teacher I
JOVELLANO V. ONTOG, Teacher III
MA. VICTORIA C. BALBIO, Teacher III
JOHN CARL P. CABARLES, Teacher II
GERAME H. TURA, Teacher III
RODOLFO F. BUMANGLAG, Teacher I
MARHOUF JAY T. KUSAIN, Teacher I

CONSOLIDATOR: JOVELLANO V. ONTOG, Teacher III

LANGUAGE EDITOR: MAYNERLINDA B. SALAZAR, Teacher II

CONTENT
VALIDATORS: MARK ANTHONY C. MAMON, Master Teacher I
SYLVIA L. LASALA, Teacher III
JOVILYN G. ENOLPE, Teacher I

COVER PAGE AIRA MARI CON M. AUSTERO

ILLUSTRATOR:

TEAM LEADER: DR. RAQUEL M. AUSTERO

Education Program Supervisor

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 Module 1 Basic Concepts and Nature of Quantitative Research

Most Essential Learning Competencies

● Choose Appropriate Quantitative Research Design (CS_RS12-Ila-c-1)
● Describe Sampling Procedure and Sample (CS_RS12-Ila-c-2)

What’s In

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AND NON–EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental Research is the type of research that uses a scientific approach towards
manipulating one or more control variables and measuring their defect on the dependent
variables, while Non-Experimental Research is the type of research that does not involve the
manipulation of control variables.
Experimental Research is usually quantitative, controlled, and multivariable. Non-
Experimental Research can be both quantitative and qualitative, has an uncontrolled variable,
and a cross-sectional research problem. The data used during Experimental Research is
collected through observational study, simulations, and surveys while Non-Experimental data
is collected through observations, surveys, and case studies. Experimental Research answers
the question of why something is happening. This is quite different in Non-Experimental
Research, as they are more descriptive in nature with the end goal being to describe what.
Experimental Research is mostly used to make scientific innovations and find major
solutions to problems while Non-Experimental Research is used to define subject
characteristics, measure data trends, compare situations and validate existing conditions.
Experimental Research process is usually well structured and as such produces results with
very little to no errors, while Non-Experimental Research helps to create real-life related
experiments.  
In Experimental Research, researchers can control and manipulate control variables,
while in Non-Experimental Research, researchers cannot manipulate these variables. This
cannot be done due to ethical reasons. Experimental Research is carried out in an unnatural
setting because most of the factors that influence the setting are controlled while the Non -
Experimental Research setting remains natural and uncontrolled. 
The relationship between cause and effect is established in Experimental Research
while it cannot be established in Non-Experimental Research. Rather than establish a cause-
effect relationship, Non-Experimental Research focuses on providing descriptive results.

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Experimental Research does not compare variables while Non-Experimental Research does.
Experimental Research is a quantitative research method while Non-Experimental Research
can be both quantitative and qualitative depending on the time and the situation where it is
been used. 

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Pre-Experimental Research
Pre - Experimental Research is the simplest form of research and is carried out by observing a
group or groups of dependent variables after the treatment of an independent variable which is
presumed to cause change on the group(s). It is further divided into.
● One-Shot Case Study Research - Only measures the post-Test results and does not use
a control group
● One-Group Pretest - Posttest Research - Determine the effect of a treatment or
intervention on a given sample.
● Static-Group Comparison - Two groups are chosen, one of which receives the
treatment and the other does not.

2. Quasi-Experimental Research
The Quasi type of experimental research is similar to true experimental research but uses
carefully selected rather than randomized subjects. The following are examples of quasi-
experimental research:
Time Series - Dependent variable is measured at many different points in time in one group
before and after a treatment that is manipulated by the researcher.
● No Equivalent Control Group Design - The assignment of participants to groups is
not controlled by the investigator
● Counterbalanced Design - Allows a researcher to control the effects of nuisance
variables in designs where the same participants are repeatedly subjected to
conditions, treatments, or stimuli.

3. True Experimental Research

True experimental research is the most accurate type and may simply be called experimental
research. It manipulates a control group towards a group of randomly selected subjects and
records the effect of this manipulation.
True experimental research can be further classified into the following groups:
● The Posttest - Only Control Group - Data are collected on the outcome measure after
the treatment or intervention.
● The Pretest - Posttest Control Group - Measurements are taken both before and after a
treatment.
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 ● Solomon Four - Group - Attempts to take into account the influence of pretesting on
subsequent posttest results.

TYPES OF NON - EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Descriptive Research Design - Scientific method which involves observing and

describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way.
2. Retrospect Research Design - The outcome of interest has already occurred (or not
occurred – e.g., in controls) in each individual by the time s/he is enrolled, and the data are
collected either from records or by asking participants to recall exposures. Manipulation
of Independent Variables are not possible.
3. Cross – Sectional Research Design - Involves the comparison of two or more pre-
existing groups of people under the same criteria. 
4. Evaluative Research Design - Structure that provides the information needed to answer
each of your evaluation questions.
5. Correlational Research Design - compares the statistical relationship between two
variables.
6. Longitudinal Research Design - Involves repeated observations of the same variables
(e.g., people) over short or long periods of time. Requires much greater investment on the
researcher.
7. Comparative Research Design - Compares two different groups.

DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher chooses samples from
a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be
considered as a Probability Sample, he/she must be selected using a random selection. The
most critical requirement of Probability Sampling is that everyone in your population has a
known and equal chance of getting selected. Probability Sampling uses statistical theory to
randomly select a small group of people (sample) from an existing large population and then
predict that all their responses will match the overall population.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple Random Sampling - An entirely random method of selecting the sample. This
sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then
randomly choosing from those numbers through an automated process. Finally, the
numbers that are chosen are the members that are included in the sample. There are two
ways in which researchers choose the samples in this method of sampling: The lottery
system and using number generating software/ random number table.
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2. Stratified Random Sampling - A method where the researcher divides a more extensive
population into smaller groups that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, organize these groups and then draw a sample from each
group separately. A standard method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity, and
similar ways. Splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and then using simple
random sampling to choose members from groups.

3. Cluster Sampling - A way to select participants randomly that are spread out
geographically. It is likely impossible to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the
researcher randomly selects areas and randomly selects from within those boundaries. 

4. Systematic Sampling - A Researcher chooses every “nth” individual to be a part of the

sample. For example, you can select every 5th person to be in the sample. Systematic
sampling is an extended implementation of the same old probability technique in which
each member of the group is selected at regular periods to form a sample.

5. Multistage Sampling - Divides large populations into stages to make the sampling
process more practical. A combination of stratified sampling or cluster
sampling and simple random sampling is usually used.

Non - Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples
based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. It is a less
stringent method. This sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers.
It is carried out by observation. In Non - Probability Sampling, not all members of the
population have an equal chance of participating in the study.

TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Convenience Sampling - Samples are selected from the population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because
they are easy to recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that
represents the entire population.

2. Snowball Sampling - Helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This
sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers find suitable
subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably good
size sample.

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3. Judgmental Sampling - Researchers select the samples based purely on the researcher’s
knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those people who they
deem fit to participate in the research study. 

4. Quota Sampling - Researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent a

population. Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities.

5. Self - Selection Sampling - Based on the judgement of the researcher. This is a useful
tool for researchers, who want people or organizations (units), to participate (or volunteer)
as part of a study on their own accord.

What’s More
Activity 1: Experimental Research Design vs. Non–Experimental Research
Design

PART 1
Directions: Identify whether the situation is an Experimental Research Design or a Non–
Experimental Research Design. Write your answer on the blank space provided after the
statement.
______________ 1. During the First Semester of the School Year, the Grade 12 Senior
High School Students were lectured on a particular subject and First and
Second Quarter Examinations were administered respectively at the end
of each quarter period of the First Semester.

______________ 2. A researcher wants to compare the memory test performance of a

group of coffee drinkers with a group of non – coffee users.

______________ 3. In the course of employment, organizations carry out employee

training to improve employee productivity and generally grow
organization. Further evaluation is carried out at the end of each training
to test the impact of the training on employee skills, and test for

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 improvement.

______________ 4. Hypothetical Study on whether People who make Daily to – Do List

Experience Less Stress than people who do not make such List

______________ 5.Testing students’ knowledge on different topics, coming up with better

teaching methods, and the implementation of other programs that will aid
student learning.

PART 2
Directions: On the space provided, write ERD if the description pertains to Experimental
Research Design and NERD if the description pertains to Non–Experimental Research
Design.
_____1. It is based on comparison between two or more groups.
_____2. Researchers collect data without making changes or introducing treatments.
_____3. It means creating a set of procedures to test a hypothesis.
_____4. Describes a relationship between two or more variables, all without any interference
from the researcher.
_____5. Refers to how participants are allocated to the different groups in an experiment.
_____6. Researcher has no specific research question about a causal relationship between two
different variables.
_____7. A classical scientific experiment which is the most familiar type of Research Design.
_____8. Lacks the manipulation of an independent variable.
_____9. Centrally concerned with constructing research that is high in causal validity.
_____10. Researcher relies on interpretation, observation, or interactions to come up with a
conclusion.

Activity 2. Probability Sampling and Non–Probability Sampling Technique

Directions: Identify what TYPE of Probability Sampling and Non–Probability Sampling

Technique is employed in the following situation and/or research. Write your answers on the
space provided.

______________1. Startups and Non – Government Organizations distribute leaflets of

upcoming events or promotion of a cause by standing at the mall entrance and giving out
pamphlets randomly.
______________2. A researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to
different annual income divisions will create groups according to the annual family income.
______________3. Survey researchers may put a questionnaire online and subsequently
invite anyone within a particular organization to take part.
______________4. A researcher intends to collect a sample of 500 people in a population of
5000.
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______________5. Surveys to gather information about HIV Aids.
______________6. The government of the Philippines wishes to evaluate the number of
foreigners living in the National Capital Region.
______________7. The researcher is investigating views on the death penalty and wants to
make sure minorities are included in the survey.
______________8. In an organization of 500 employees, if the Human Resource team
decides on conducting team building activities, it is most likely that they would prefer picking
chits out of a bowl.
______________9. A TV reporter stopping certain individuals on the street in order to ask
their opinions about certain political changes.
_____________10. A survey on drug use in high schools used three stage sampling:
geographic areas, followed by high schools within those areas, followed by Senior students in
those schools.

What I Have Learned

Research Design refers to how the study was conducted and outlines detailed plans
and procedures for how the study will be conducted. Different designs control for different
potential threats to the validity of the study. There are many different specific research
designs, all of which have their own weaknesses. Reading studies by other researchers gives
you a sense of the basic designs and some of their challenges. Remember that the goal of
research is to use a research design that will result in drawing the most valid and credible
conclusions and interpretations. The goal is to minimize alternative plausible explanations for
the findings.

In Probability (Random) Sampling, you start with a complete sampling frame of all
eligible individuals from which you select your sample. In this way, all eligible individuals
have a chance of being chosen for the sample, and you will be able to generalize the results
from your study. Probability Sampling methods tend to be more time - consuming and
expensive than Non - Probability Sampling. In Non - Probability (Non - Random) Sampling,
you do not start with a complete sampling frame, so some individuals have no chance of being
selected. Consequently, you cannot estimate the effect of sampling error and there is a
significant risk of ending up with a non -representative sample which produces non -
generalizable results. However, Non - Probability Sampling methods tend to be cheaper and
more convenient, and they are useful for exploratory research and hypothesis generation.
 
What I Can Do

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 Why is it Important for a Researcher to choose an appropriate Quantitative Research
Design?
 As a Student – Researcher, how do you write a Sampling Procedure in Research?

Validity and Reliability

Module 2
Intervention

Most Essential Learning Competencies

● Constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability
(CS_RS12-IIa-c-3)
● Describes an intervention (if applicable) (CS_RS12-IIa-c-4)

What’s In
What do you mean by a research instrument?
Instrument is another term that researchers use for a questionnaire. In the conduct of
the study, it is used to gather information from the subjects or samples to answer the research
questions.
Research instruments are tools which are designed to help researchers collect data on
their topic of interest. There are many forms of instruments which include questionnaires,
interviews, observations, focus group discussion and experiment. It is important that
instruments are carefully designed to ensure that reliable data are collected which may lead to
sound conclusions.

Characteristics of Good Research Instrument

Validity. A valid instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. To achieve this, the
researchers should submit their instrument for review to the content experts. Any uncertainties
must be clarified before the administration of the instrument to the participants of the study.
There are three types of validity:
Content Validity. Does the instrument accurately assess what the researchers want to
know? Content validity looks at whether the instrument covers all the content that it

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 should with respect to the variable. Part of content validity is face validity wherein the
opinion of the content experts is asked whether the instrument measures the concept
intended.
Construct Validity. Construct validity refers to whether the operational definition of a
variable actually reflect the true theoretical meaning of a concept. It assesses whether the
variable that you are testing for is addressed by the study. It is usually verified by
comparing the instrument to other instrument that measure similar qualities to see how
highly correlated the two measures are.
Criterion Validity. Criterion validity evaluates how closely the result of a particular test
corresponds to the results of the other tests. To do this, the researcher should calculate the
correlation between the results of their measurement and the results of the criterion
measurement. There are different ways to measure criterion validity.
Convergent Validity. Convergent validity is when an instrument is highly
correlated on conceptually similar instruments.
Divergent Validity. Divergent validity is when an instrument is poorly correlated
with instruments that measure different variables.
Predictive Validity. In predictive validity, instrument should have high
correlations with future criterions.
Reliability. Reliability refers to how consistently an instrument measure something. If the
same result can be achieved consistently by using the same instrument under the same
circumstances, then the instrument is considered reliable. The three attributes of reliability
are homogeneity, stability, and equivalence.
Homogeneity. It is assessed using item-to-total correlation, split-half reliability, Kuder-
Richardson coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha ().
Item-to-total correlation. It is a correlation between the question score and the
overall assessment score.
Split-half reliability. It reflects the correlations between two halves instruments.
Kuder-Richardson coefficient. It is the measure of internal consistency for
dichotomous variables.

Cronbach’s alpha (). It reflects how closely related a set of items are as a group.
It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability.
Stability. The degree to which two scores on the same instrument are consistent
overtime. It is tested using test-retest and parallel or alternate-form reliability testing.

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 Test-retest reliability. The reliability coefficient obtained with repetition of an
identical measure on a second occasion.
Parallel-form reliability. The reliability coefficient obtained by two comparable
sets of measures.
Equivalence. The degree to which identical instruments yield identical scores. It is
assessed through inter-rater reliability.
Inter-rater reliability. The consistency of the judgement of several raters on how
they see a phenomenon or interpret some responses

Illustration of SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY

Number of students = 10; Number of items = 30
1. Split the test into two halves. One possible way is to place all the odd number items in
one set (Set A) and all the even number items to another set (Set B).
2. Administer the test. Remember that each student has 2 sets of tests. (Set A for odd
number items and Set B for even number items)
3. Tabulate students’ scores and compute the correlation coefficient as shown below.

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4. Since the computed r is significant, then apply the Spearman-Brown formula.

The reliability is thus established at 0.874 which indicates a good degree of reliability.

General Guidelines in Interpreting Reliability Coefficient Values

Reliability Coefficient Value Interpretation

0.90 and above Excellent
0.80 – 0.89 Good
0.70 – 0.79 Adequate
Below 0.70 may have Limited Applicability
Reference:
https://hr-guide.com/Testing_and_Assessment/Reliability_and_Validity.htm

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What is an Intervention in Research?
An intervention in research is a systematic process of assessing and planning to resolve or
prevent specific problem. Intervention allows the researchers to manipulate intensity, dose, or
frequency of exercise to determine the minimal and practical effort to solve a problem.
An intervention includes the following steps:
1. Make a plan - Failing to plan means planning to fail. Without a doubt that planning is
one of the crucial parts in conducting research. By making a plan, it makes your
intervention less prone to errors.
2. Gather information - Remember that you are trying to solve a problem, therefore, it
requires a lot of information to fully understand it so that you can device several ways to
systematically solve it.
3. Form the intervention team - Truly two heads are better than one. Working alone is
not bad at all. But sometimes, you came to a point that you don’t know what to do next
that lead you to stop. Additionally, working with a team, makes the work easy.
4. Decide on specific consequences - If the participant in your intervention don’t accept
the treatment, you should decide together with your team what action he/she needs to
take. It is like doing a reward and punishment, but you have to make sure that the
consequence should still help your participant learn something from it.
5. Make notes what to say - Like disciplining a child, you must be prepared on what to
say why you as the researcher gave that consequence to your participant so that he/she
will understand it.
6. Hold the intervention meeting - It is very important that your team talk with your
observations on a daily basis. This will help your team what needs to improve with your
intervention.
7. Follow up - An intervention has a set timeline, but it is important to follow up your
respondent even after the research so that you can see the extent of the effectiveness and
efficiency of your intervention.

What’s More
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Activity 1: Crossword

Directions: Use the clues provided to complete the crossword puzzle.

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Activity 2: True or False
Directions: Carefully read each statement. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and
FALSE if incorrect.
1. Research instrument is a tool that can be used to collect or obtain, measure, and
analyze data that is relevant to your research.
2. A good research instrument is one that has been validated and has proven
reliability.
3. Validity can be achieved by using Cronbach’s alpha.
4. Reliability is about a method's consistency, and validity is about its accuracy.

5. The researchers should submit their instrument for review to the content experts
to increase its reliability.

Activity 3. My Ideas!
How do you validate and establish the reliability of your research instrument?

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What I Have Learned

INTERVENTION

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 What I Can Do
Directions: Find and interpret the reliability coefficient of a research instrument with the
given data using split-half method.

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 Module 3 Plans Data Collection Procedure

Most Essential Learning Competencies

 Plans data collection procedure (CS_RS12-IIa-c-5)
 Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate) (CS_RS12-
IIa-c-6)

What’s In

I. Data analysis is broad and complex, but when we take a step back and attempt to simplify
data analysis, we can reduce the broad concept into two distinct components: qualitative
and quantitative data.

Qualitative Data - are non-statistical and typically unstructured or semi-structured in nature.

These data aren’t necessarily measured using hard numbers used to develop graphs and
charts. Instead, it is categorized based on properties, attributes, labels, and other identifiers.

Quantitative Data – are statistical and typically structured in nature, which means these are
more rigid and defined. This type of data is measured using numbers and values, which makes
it a more suitable candidate for data analysis.

Primary Data - new information collected specifically for your purposes, directly from
people in the know. Methods of primary data collection vary based upon the goals of the
research, as well as the type and depth of information being sought.

Secondary Data - public information that has been collected by others. It is typically free or
inexpensive to obtain and can act as a strong foundation to any research project, provided you
know where to find it and how to judge its worth and relevance.

TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA

1. Probability sampling - definitive method of sampling carried out by utilizing some form
of random selection and enabling researchers to make a probability statement based on data
collected at random from the targeted demographic.

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2. Interviews - is a standard method used for data collection. However, the interviews
conducted to collect quantitative data are more structured, wherein the researchers ask only a
standard set of questionnaires and nothing more than that. 

3. Surveys - are designed in a manner to legitimize the behavior and trust of the respondents.
More often, checklists and rating scale type of questions make the bulk of quantitative surveys
as it helps in simplifying and quantifying the attitude or behavior of the respondents. 

4. Observation - is a simple and straightforward method of collecting quantitative data. In

this method, researchers collect quantitative data through systematic observations by using
techniques like counting the number of people present in the specific event at a particular time
and a particular venue or number of people attending the event in a designated place.

5. Document Review - process used to collect data after reviewing the existing documents. It
is an efficient and effective way of gathering data as documents are manageable and are the
practical resource to get qualified data from the past.

II. Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with
the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions and supporting decision-
making. Hypothesis analysis helps researchers attain deeper insight about their data.
Consequently, it allows them to make better decisions which is backed by a set of
mathematically calculated measures.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND INFERRING DECISION

1. Stating the hypothesis

Null Hypothesis- assumption that’s believed to be true
Alternative Hypothesis- assumption that is known to be false.

2. Identifying valid level of significance (Alpha value)

Alpha is the range of values which can be accepted before Null Hypothesis is
rejected. It is the lower threshold. The level of significance can be 1% or 5% for example.

3. Identifying test tail

Alternative Hypothesis can take two forms: One tail or Two tail. One Tail Alternative
Hypothesis are unidirectional tests meaning it only aims to test one possibility. Two tail
alternative hypothesis tests are bidirectional tests, and a statistician is interested in checking
equality of data. The results of the test can move in either direction testing two possibilities.

4. Selecting appropriate Statistics: T, Z, CHI and F

A set of questions can be asked to figure out an appropriate test statistics:
•Is data frequency known? If it is known, then use chi squares test.
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 •Is data variance known? If the answer is yes then use Z statistics, otherwise use
Student T statistics.

5. Calculating Statistics
Based on the chosen test statistics in step 4, apply the formula and calculate the value.
Compare the value with the level of significance.

6. Inferring or Stating Decision

Based on the results of the calculation in step 5, whether the hypothesis analysis is accepted or
rejected is stated.

These set of steps are dependent on the sample that was chosen and how good the tests were.
This implies that there is always a chance that an error was made. For example, the tests could
end up proving Null Hypothesis wrong when it is right or could end up proving Alternative
Hypothesis wrong when it is right.

What’s More

Activity 1. Check for Understanding!

Directions: Identify which type of data can be extracted from the sources of data below. 
WRITE QT for QUANTITATIVE or QL for QUALITATIVE on the space provided
before each item.
___1. Observations and notes
___2. Tests
___3. Texts and documents
___4. Metrics
___5. Experiments
___6. Images and symbols
___7. Interview scripts and focus groups
___8. Market reports
___9. Audio and video recordings
___10. Surveys

Activity 2: Group Them!

Directions: Below are examples of primary and secondary data. Write the examples inside
the circle to where they belong.

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What I Have Learned

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 Briefly define the following terms:

What I Can Do

Module 4 Data collection using appropriate instruments

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Collects data using appropriate instruments (CS_RS12-IId-g-1)

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 What’s In
Quantitative research will entail the use of research instrument to obtain data. A research
instrument is a tool used to gather, quantify, and evaluate data related to your topic. Different
kinds of Research instruments in obtaining data can be:
a. Questionnaire method
b. Interview method
c. Observation method

I. Questionnaire is a set of methodically arranged questions, carefully organized to answer

the specific problems of the study.
It is a list of questions to be answered by the respondents especially designed to obtain
facts or information. It is also a list of written questions related to your research topic. This is
the most appropriate instrument of data collection in quantitative research especially with
bigger number of respondents.

In preparing your questionnaire, include the following guidelines:

1. The questions are clear and easy to understand.
2. The design of a questionnaire should be easy to read and pleasing to the eye.
3. The style should be developed interactively.
4. The delicate question or a question that respondents may feel uncertain about
answering should be prefaced by an interactive statement explaining the significance
of the question.

General rules can be stated on question wording:

• Be concise and unambiguous - be exact on your wordings and be clear.
• Avoid double questions - make sure that questions should have one focus to express.
• Avoid questions involving negatives - avoid using words that negate the questions.
• Ask for precise answers - wordings should be exact on what you want to elicit.
• Avoid leading questions - never give hints that may not be their answer.

Types of Questions
1. Open-ended questions - this questionnaire does not provide answers to choose from.
The respondents may freely answer and record verbatim. Since it is a spontaneous
answer being sought, respondents might give little information. In this type of
question, code or categories may be used to quantify the same answers.
2. Closed-ended questions - a set of answers may be provided. Easy to ask, to answer
and to record, however this may limit or lead the respondents to the options provided
in the questionnaire.
3. Contingency questions - these questions are asked after a certain question is
answered in a particular way.

Question Format
You can arrange the questions in different ways.

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1. Open-ended questions - used when there are many plausible answers to a particular
question.
Example: What is the effect of a certain pandemic to the economic status in the Philippines?

2. Closed-ended questions - used when responses are predetermined, difficult to construct

however easy to answer by the respondents, and quick to tabulate and analyze by the
researcher.

a. Dichotomous questions - there are only two possible answer like yes or no, agree
or disagree.
Example: Do you agree on the use of vaccine against flu? ____YES _____NO

b. Multiple choice questions - used when the respondents are to choose one from
different list of answers that best approximate his or her own.
Example: What is your music GENRE?
(A) POP (B) Rock (C) RAP

c. Rank order questions - requires the respondent to indicate the order of preference,
degree of priority or importance to the answers from the items listed.
Example: What fruits are the most preferred to be included in a regular meal? (From 1-
5, 1 being the most preferred)
Apple ( )
Banana ( )
Guyabano ( )
Lychees ( )
Mango ( )

d. Rating Scale - the answers to the questions are in the form of a scale -meaning, rate
of agreement or disagreement with a particular statement, a hierarchy or gradation
of the intensity of response or according to sets of ordered categories.
Example: Respondents indicate their answers as:
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree
Very good, Good, Just okay, Poor
Good, Fair, Poor, Very poor

e. Semantic differential scale - requires respondents to check their responses

between two contrasting adjectives at the opposite ends of the scale. It measures
the respondent reaction to some objects or concepts in terms of rating on bipolar
scales.
Example: Put a check in the space above the number that best describe your
feelings.
Good ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ _____ _____ Bad
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

f. Checklist - a form of multiple choice questions from which the respondents may
choose multiple answers.

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 Example: Which of the following do you observe during typhoon?
( ) Flash flood
( ) Landslides
( ) Traffic
( ) Panic buying

Questionnaire Pretest/Validation - find an expert who will validate the content of your
instrument.
1. Undergoes content validation to check the content of the instrument.
2. Undergoes face validation to check the structure and language used in the study.
3. Pilot test the questionnaire on a sample of respondents to check their
understanding of the questions.
4. Identify the problems and gaps in content, layout, words, and grammar used.

Questionnaire Administration

1. Face to Face- the questionnaires are administered directly with the presence of the
researcher together with the respondents.
2. Mailed questionnaire - wherein the researcher will send the questionnaire via email
and other social media platform to the intended respondents.

II.Interview Method - a form of data gathering, interaction where verbal questions are posed
by an interviewer to elicit verbal responses from an interviewee.

Instruments for Interview

a. Scheduled Interview-Structured Interview - A formal set of questions posed to each
interviewee and recorded using a standardized procedure like video camera, pen and
paper, voice recorder and other recording devices. A set of fixed questions the same
for all persons to be interviewed is used. Using the same wording and order of
questions as specified in the interview schedule.
b. Non-structured Interview - A less formal set of questions; the interviewer modifies
the sequence and wording of questions. The respondents can answer freely and
spontaneously.
c. Non-Scheduled Interview- there is no pre-specified questions that are employed; nor
the questions asked in a specific order.

Guidelines in Formulating Interview Questions

1. Wording should be open-ended. This will ensure the spontaneous answers from the
respondents.
2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid leading questions and be sensitive,
Express your point in exact, specific, bias-free, and gender-free language.
3. Questions should be asked in an orderly manner and sequential manner.
4. Questions should be worded clearly avoid jargons, abbreviations and complex terms.
5. Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question concludes a cause-effect
connection that may not actually exist. These questions may also reason the

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 respondents to feel self-justifying, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which
may prevent their responses to the present and future questions.

Tips on Conducting an Interview

1. Inform the interviewee who you are.
2. Explain why the interview is taking place and tell the importance of the interview to
your research.
3. Before you begin with your questions, ask the interviewee if he/she has any questions
about the research.
4. If you intend to take notes, video record, audio record and use other recording devices
during the interview, ask the interviewee’s permission first and explain how data will
be used and accorded to data privacy act.
5. It is often useful to share the main points you have noted with the interviewee at the end
of the interview. This allows the interviewee to clarify points or make further comment.

III.Observation Method - it involves the researcher watching what people do. The
researcher is concerned with the direct description of the situation and observes ongoing
behavior. Used in descriptive or experimental investigations.

Ways of Doing Observation

1. Naturalistic Observation: the natural behavior of participants in natural
surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they see
it. Observer maintains distance from the observed.
2. Participant Observation: the researcher becomes part, or gets involved, a variation
on natural observations where the researcher immersed in a group they are studying to
get a deeper insight into their lives.

Factors that affect Observation

1. Perception, values, biases, skills, expectations, and previous experiences of the
researchers.
2. Situations and events
3. The angle, positions, or locations where the researcher is observing.

What’s More

Activity 1: Rank Order Questions

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 Construct at least five examples of Rank Order Questions

Activity 2: Semantic Differential Scale

Construct at least five examples of Semantic Differential Scale

Activity 3: Rating Scale

Construct at least five examples of Rating Scale

What I Have Learned

Quantitative research will entail the use of research instrument/s to obtain data from
your study. A research instrument is a tool used to gather, quantify, and evaluate data related
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to your topic. Different kinds of Research instruments in obtaining data can be a
Questionnaire, Interview, and Observation Method.

What I Can Do

In your own household and or community, how can you obtain useful data or
information in relation to the vaccine roll out?

Answer Key

MODULE 1 MODULE 2

Activity 1
Part 1
1. Experimental Research Design
2. Non – Experimental Research Design
3. Experimental Research Design
4. Non – Experimental Research Design
5. Experimental Research Design

Part 2
1. ERD
2. NERD
3. ERD
4. NERD
5. ERD
6. NERD
7. ERD
8. NERD
9. ERD
10 NERD 29
Activity 2
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Stratified Random Sampling
3. Self - Selection Sampling
Answer Key

MODULE 3
Activity 1 MODULE 4
1. QL
2. QT Activity 1
3. QL
4. QT Answer may vary
5. QT Activity 2
6. QL
7. QL Answer may vary
8. QT
9. QL Activity 3
10. QT
Answer may vary

Activity 2
Primary
Surveys
Focus Groups
In-depth interviews
Secondary
Government statistics
Company websites
Industry associations
Trade publications
Social Media Monitoring
Market Research Reports
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Activity 3
1. Probability Sampling - D
2. Interviews -E
3. Surveys- C
4. Observations - A
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