Understanding Data and

Systematically Collect Data

Presented by: Group 4 HUMSS 12-1
Research Design
 It is used to form a systematic structure
of the research procedure and elucidates
all of the major parts of the research.
 A framework for planning your research
and answering your research questions
 Provides insights about “how” to conduct
research using a particular methodology.
How to create a strong Research
Design
STEP 1: Consider your priorities and
practicalities.
 Consider the time, availability of data,
resources, and research skills.

STEP 2: Determine the type of data you

need.
 Primary Data vs. Secondary Data
 Qualitative Data vs. Quantitative Data
How to create a strong Research
Design
STEP 3: Decide how you will collect the
data.
 How, when, and where to collect it.
 Determine the research methods.

STEP 4: Decide how you will analyze the

data.
 Quantitative data analysis
 Qualitative data analysis
How to create a strong Research
Design
STEP 5: Write your research proposal.
 Describes what you will investigate, why
it’s important, and how you will do the
research.
 The steps of your research that have yet
to be completed must be written in the
future tense.
 The research design or methodology
section of the paper describes the
research in the past tense.
Quantitative Research
 Aims to determine the relationship
between one thing (an independent
variable) and another (a dependent
variable) in a population.
 It is all about quantifying relationships
between variables.
Types of Research Designs
1.Descriptive Research
 establishes only associations between
variables.
 also called observational because you
observe the subjects without intervening.
Some kinds of descriptive research design:
a. Case – it reports data on only one
subject.
b. Case-series – a group of case studies.
 Kinds of Descriptive Research
Design
c. Cross-sectional
studies/Prevalence studies
 The data collected in this
study is from people who
are similar in all variables
except the one variable
that is under study.
 It involves looking at
people who differ on one
characteristic at one point
in time.
 Kinds of Descriptive Research
Design
d. Cohort studies/Prospective studies
 Some variables are analyzed at the start of a study
and then after period of time, the outcomes are
determined.
 Kinds of Descriptive Research
Design
d. Case-
control/Retrospective
studies
 compare cases
(subjects with a
particular attribute)
with controls (subjects
without the attribute);
comparison is made of
the exposure to
something suspected of
causing the cases.
Types of Research Designs
2. Experimental Research
 Is any research conducted with a scientific approach
where a set of variables are kept constant while the
other set of variables are being measured as the
subject of the experiment.
 It is also known as longitudinal or repeated
measures studies. They are also referred to as
interventions, because you do more than just
observe.
 Most appropriate method for testing cause-and-
effect relationships.
 Kinds of Experimental Research Designs
1. Time-Series Experiment
 Simplest experiment
 Measurements are taken on all subjects before and
after a treatment.

Kinds of Time-Series Experiments:

a. Single-Subject Design
 A special case of time-series
 Measurements are taken repeatedly before and
after an intervention on one or few more subjects.
Kinds of Time-Series Experiment
b. Cross-over Design
 half the subjects receive the real
treatment first, while the other half is the
control. After a period of time sufficient
to allow any treatment effect to wash out,
the treatments are crossed over.
c. Multiple Cross-over Design
 involves several treatments.
Control Group – a group of subjects that
do not get the treatment being studied in
the study.
Experimental Group – a group of
subjects that receives the treatment in the
experiment.
Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) –
subjects are assigned randomly to
experimental and control group
treatments.
 Single-blind Controlled Trial – the
subjects are blind (or masked) to the
identity of the treatment. On the other
hand, the control or reference treatments in
the study is called the placebo.
 Double-blind Study – the experimenter
also does not know which treatments the
subject receive until all measurements are
taken.
Writing the Research Methodology
Methodology
 a system of methods and principles for
carrying out a research.
 Is the specific procedures or techniques
used to identify, select, process, and
analyze information about a topic.
Steps in writing the Research
Methodology
STEP 1: Explain your methodological approach.

STEP 2: Describe methods of data collection.

 Outline the tools, procedures, and materials
you used to gather data, and the criteria used
to select participants/sources.
 Example
The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice
questions that the respondents had to
answer with a 7-point Lickert scale. The aim
was to conduct the survey with 350
customers of Company X on the company
premises in The Hague from 4-8 July 2017
between 11:00 and 15:00. A customer was
defined as a person who had a purchased a
product from Company X on the day of
questioning. Participants were given 5
minutes to fill in the survey anonymously, and
408 customers responded. Because not all
surveys were fully completed, 371 survey
results were included in the analysis.
 Steps in writing the Research
Methodology
STEP 3:Describe your methods of data and analysis.
 How you processed and analyzed the data.

Example:
Before analysis the gathered data was prepared. The
dataset was checked for missing the data and
outliers. For this the “outlier labeling rule” was used.
All values outside the calculated range were
considered outliers (Hoaglin & Iglewicz, 1987). The
data was then analyzed using statistical software.
Steps in writing the Research
Methodology
STEP 4: Evaluate and justify your
methodological choices.
 Discuss why you chose these particular
methods.
 You can acknowledge limitations or
weaknesses in the approach you chose,
but justify why these were outweighed by
the strengths.
Example:
Lab-based experiments can’t always
accurately simulate real-life situations and
behaviors, but they are effective for
testing causal relationships between
variables.
Tips for writing a strong Research
Methodology
 Focus on your objectives and
research questions.
 Cite relevant sources.
 Write for your audience.
 Discuss obstacles.
Example of a Research
Methodology
This study used the descriptive survey method of
research which obtained information concerning the present
situation of the respondents with respect to the variables (Key,
1997). The descriptive research method describes the nature of
a condition as it takes pl ace during the tine of the study and
to explore the cause and causes of a particular condition. The
researchers opted to use this kind of research considering the
desire to acquire first hand data from the respondents so as to
formulate rational and sound conclusions and
recommendations for the study. According to Creswell (1994),
the descriptive method of research is to gather information
about the present existing conditions.
Since study is focused on the study of financial lifestyle
of the employees at Central Luzon College of Science and
Technology, Olongapo City, the descriptive method is the most
appropriate method to use.
Description of Sample
Determining your respondents, characteristics,
and circumstances under which they are selected.

1. Determine the total number of respondents

referred to as the population.
 Sample – is a subset of population that is used to
represent the entire group as a whole.
 Selection Bias – this is a possibility when the
sample is not a representative of the population.
 If the total population is below 100, it is advised
that you take the totality as your subjects.
Description of Sample
 Margin of error
- refers to the degree by which you are
allowing an error in making a decision.
This also determines your confidence
level in arriving at such a decision.
- They are usually set from 0.01 to .10 or
a 99% to 90% confidence level.
- A 0.5 margin of the error is the safest
being used by researchers.
Determining the Sample Size
Slovin’s formula
 Is used to calculate the sample size (n) given
the population size (N) and a margin of
error (e).
 It’s a random sampling technique formula to
estimate sampling size.

When it is used?
If you have no idea about a population’s
behavior.
Determining the Sample Size
2. Determine the sampling technique.
 To avoid bias in the selection of actual
respondents.
 Fishbowl technique – names of
respondent are written on a piece of
paper and put on a bowl and respondents
are picked until the desired number of
respondents are attained.
 Sampling techniques
1. Non-probability sampling – does not rely
on randomization techniques.
2. Probability sampling – uses randomization
and takes steps to ensure all members of
a population have a chance of being
selected.
 Instrument Development
1. Determine the
appropriate
collection method.

Qualitative research
commonly uses:
 Observation
 Interview
 Focus group discussion
Validity
In general, Validity is an indication of how
sound your research is. More specifically,
Validity applies to both the design and the
methods of your research.
 Internal Validity- is affected by flaws within
the study itself such as not controlling some of
the major variables (a design problem), or
problems with the research instrument (a data
collection problem).
Here are some factors which can affect internal
validity:
 Subject variability
 Size of subject population
 Time given for the data collection or
experimental treatment
 History
 Attrition
 Maturation
 Instrument/task sensitivity
 External Validity- is the extent to which you
can generalize your findings to a larger group
or other contexts.

Here are seven factors affect external validity:

 Population characteristics (subjects)
 Interaction of subject selection and research
 Descriptive explicitness of the independent
variable
 The effect of the research environment
 Researcher or experiment effects
 Data collection methodology
 The effect of time
Reliability of Instrument
 Inter-Rater/Observed Reliability
 Test-Retest Reliability
 Parallel-Form Reliability
 Internal Consistency Reliability
Instrument Development
1. Determine the appropriate collection
method.
Qualitative Quantitative
Research Research
 Observation  Test
 Interview administration
 Focus group  Observation
discussion  Questionnaire
 Instrument Development
2. Write the instrument.
Instrument
•Is the general term that researchers use for
a measurement device
There are 2 broad categories of
instruments
 Researchers-completed
 Subject-completed
Instrument Development
 Usability – refers to the ease with which an
instrument can be administered, interpreted
by the participant, and scored /interpreted by
the researcher.

Examples of usability problems include:

1. Students are asked to rate a lesson
immediately after class, but there are only a
few minutes before the next class begins
(problem with the administration).
Instrument Development
2. Students are asked to keep self-checklists of
their after school activities, but the
directions are complicated and the item
descriptions confusing (problem with
interpretation).

3. Teachers are asked about their attitudes

regarding school policy, but some questions
are worded poorly which results in low
completion rates (problem with
scoring/interpretation).
Data Analysis Procedure
Descriptive Inferential Analysis:
Analysis: • Correlation
 Mean • Regression
 Median • Analysis of variance
 Mode
 Percentage
 Frequency
 Range
Data Encoding

Categorization of Data

 To categorize data each variable in the

questionnaires must be analyzed.
Design principles to produce a
creative artwork
 Contrast  Rhythm
 Balance  Pattern
 Emphasis  White space
 Proportion  Movement
 Hierarchy  Variety
 Repetition  Unity