CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY
Research Design
is a plan of what data to gather, from
whom, how and when to collect data and
how to analyze the data obtained. It also
presents how the researcher intends to
study an empirical question (Johnson and
Reynold 2012).The research design that
may be employed are as follows:
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
1.True Experimental Design
2. Quasi-experimental Design

 NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Descriptive
2. Comparative
3. Correlative
4. Survey
5. Ex Post Facto
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
-Is a quantitative research design that bases
its research method on a scientific activity
called experiment, in which a thing under a
manipulated or controlled environment is done
to determine its validity or truthfulness.
-this design involves two groups of subjects:

Experimental group
the condition,treatment,or intervention is
applied
Control group
not given any treatment or condition.
Two Types of Experimental Research

1.True experimental design

-random selection of participants. It is
a bias free selection that ensures
objectivity of results. This design is
the best way to examine causal
relationships.
 The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are
randomly selected and assigned to the 2 groups (control and
experimental), and only the experimental group is treated. After
close observation, both groups are post-tested, and a conclusion is
drawn from the difference between these groups.
 The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group
design, subjects are randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are
presented, but only the experimental group is treated. After close
observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of
change in each group.
 Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-
only and the pretest-posttest control groups. In this case, the
randomly selected subjects are placed into 4 groups.
 The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only
method, while the other two are tested using the pretest-posttest
method.
2. Quasi-experimental design
-the term quasi means
partly,partially,pseudo,or almost. The
non-adherence of this research design
to no random selection of participants
is the reason got the name,quasi-
experimental research,which means a
research with the capacity to yield
findings that are seemingly or more or
less true.
Matched-comparison group design – is a study type
in which groups who will be compared are created by a
non-random method, but where participants in
each group are assigned so that they are similar in
important characteristics such as ethnic or
socioeconomic status, assessment scores, or other
variables that might affect study outcomes.

For example, by matching two groups of teachers on

the previous year's teacher evaluation rating (the
outcome measure at baseline), those two groups
become more similar in terms of other confounders
such as years of experience, advanced degrees, and
skills and motivation, among others.
 Time-series quasi-experimental design – is
useful when the researcher intends to measure the
effects of a treatment over a long period of time. The
researcher would continue to administer the
treatment and measure the effects a number of times
during the course of the experiment.
In a single - subject research, in which the researcher
carries out an experiment on an individual or on a small
number of individuals by alternating between
administering and then withdrawing the treatment to
determine the effectiveness of the intervention.

EXAMPLE: Measurement of a learner’s performance in a

college on weekly basis and then introducing a new
teaching technique. Then, again measuring on weekly
basis.
 Counter-balanced quasi-experimental
design – this design is good for reducing
subject characteristic threats, but is vulnerable
to multiple-treatment interference.
For example, you might want to test whether
people react positively or negatively to a series
of images.
 Single-subject quasi-experimental design
– is a research design most often used in
applied fields of psychology, education, and
human behavior in which the subject serves as
his/her own control, rather than using another
individual/group; also known as single-
case research design.
Experimental Research Design

The true experimental and quasi-

experimental designs follow the same
stages in research designing. Their
difference lies only in the participant-
selection process, where the first is
randomized and second is purposive
(Lapan et al., 2012;Walliman,2014)
Non-Experimental Research Design
Is a quantitative research design that is
capable of giving qualitative and
quantitative data, but more on qualitative
data.Hence,this is often used in the field of
social sciences. Unlike the experimental
design that allows manipulation or control
of some aspects of the research, on
experimental research designs shuns
controlling variables.Instead,it involves
variables the way they naturally exist on
earth.
Descriptive – a design used to describe a certain condition or
phenomenon in a given sample using quantifiable descriptors. It
involves the use frequency count, percentage, Likert scale,
mean, and standard deviation in answering the research
questions.

Example: (1) A teacher wants to determine the number of her

students, grouped according to their sex, who are still non-
readers. (2) A teacher wants to determine the general academic
performance of her students in mathematics.

Examples of descriptive research questions include:

– How much do college students exercise?
– What do teachers think about merit pay?
– How do students spend their time during independent study?
Comparative – involves comparing and contrasting two or
more samples of study subjects on one or more variables such
as level knowledge, perceptions, attitude and physical or
psychological symptoms often a single point of time.

Example: A comparative study on health problems among

rural and urban people in district area.

Example of comparative research question include:

- Is there a difference between second- and third graders’
scores on a measure of self-concept?
 Correlative – a design used to seek significant relationship
between identified variables.
Example: (1) A teacher wants to find out if sex can be a
predictor of performance in English in his class. (2) A teacher
wants to determine if belonging to a broken family has a
relationship to the students’ attitude towards attending
classes.
 Survey – a design wherein the investigators administer
a survey to a sample or to the entire population of people to
describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics of the population.
Surveys are used to increase knowledge in fields such as
social research and demography. Survey research is often
used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Surveys can
be specific and limited, or they can have more global,
widespread goals
Survey Design
The key idea behind this design is to use as a
standardized instrument to collect standardized
data from large numbers of respondents.
Researchers can use telephone-based surveys,
internet-based surveys, or questionnaire-
based surveys. But regardless of what medium
or channel the researcher uses the idea here is to
collect standardized data from a larger group of
people. Survey studies are usually performed for
descriptive purposes. In other words, we would
typically survey people to describe something.
The implication of this process can be exploratory
or even causal, but the process itself is descriptive
by nature.
Example of survey research questions include:
 Descriptive Studies – What is the average length of time
teachers use to prepare lessons?
 Relationship Studies – Is there a relationship between
teacher attitudes toward discipline and student satisfaction
with the class?
 Explanatory Studies – Why are students in one school
achieving better than similar students in another school?
Ex Post Facto – also known as after-the-
fact research which is a category of research design in which
the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without
interference from the researcher.

Example of ex post facto research questions include:

- What is the effect of day care on the social skills of children?
- What is the relationship between participation in
extracurricular activities and self-concept?
Research Design
 The purpose of the study
 Methods employed in the study may be qualitative,
quantitative, or a mixture of both. If quantitative, state what
method (e.g. survey, experimental).
 Choose a qualitative research methodology. It is imperative
to consider the philosophical foundation of quantitative
research.
Example
Research Design
The researcher used mixed methods in determining the
perception of the school administrators regarding labor
relations. Mixed method is an approach in research that
combines both qualitative (verbal data) and quantitative
(numerical data) in answering the research questions. Phase I
of the study will use descriptive survey method while the phase
II will use interview method.
ACTIVITY

OPEN YOUR BOOK ON PAGE 94 ANSWER

ACTIVITY 1
DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
 Quantitative research involves the use of empirical
methods to investigate a particular social and the
phenomenon or research question, the data of which will be
amenable to the use of numerical and statistical techniques
in the analysis. The data that is collected is either numerical,
or can be converted to numerical values. The data is
analyzed through the use of relevant statistical techniques.
 Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements
and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of
data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or
by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using
computational techniques.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data
Research data can be placed into two broad
categories: quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative data are used when a researcher is trying to
quantify a problem, or address the "what" or "how many"
aspects of a research question. It is data that can either be
counted or compared on a numeric scale.

For example, it could be the number of first year students at

Macalester, or the ratings on a scale of 1-4 of the quality of
food served at Cafe Mac.

This data are usually gathered using instruments, such as a

questionnaire which includes a ratings scale or a thermometer
to collect weather data. Statistical analysis software, such as
SPSS, is often used to analyze quantitative data.
Qualitative data describes qualities or characteristics. It is
collected using questionnaires, interviews, or observation, and
frequently appears in narrative form.
For example, it could be notes taken during a focus group on
the quality of the food at Cafe Mac, or responses from an open-
ended questionnaire. Qualitative data may be difficult to
precisely measure and analyze.
The data may be in the form of descriptive words that
can be examined for patterns or meaning, sometimes through
the use of coding. Coding allows the researcher to categorize
qualitative data to identify themes that correspond with the
research questions and to perform quantitative analysis.
RESPONDENTS
In research sampling is a word that refers to your
method or process of selecting respondents or
people to answers questions meant to yield data for
a research study. The chosen one constitute the
sample through which you will derive facts and
evidence to support the claims or conclusions
propounded by your research problem.
population-the bigger group where you
choose the sample.
sampling frame-term used to mean the list
of the members of such population from where you
will get the sample (Paris,2013)
Research Problem: The Effects of LMS on the
Mathematical Performance of Grade 7 Student of
San Ruiz High School

Target Population: All Grade 7 students of San

Ruiz High School

Sample: Ten Percent of the Grade 7 students in San

Ruiz High School
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
-best type of probability sampling through which you can
choose a sample from a population. Using a pure chance
selection, you assure every member the same opportunity to
be in the sample. Here, the only basis of including or
excluding a member is by chance or opportunity, not by any
occurrence accounted for by cause-effect relationships.
Simple random sampling happens through any of these two
methods (Burns,2012):
2. Systematic Sampling
For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are
the ones to determine who should compose the sample. For
instance, if you want to have a sample of 150,you may select
a set of numbers like 1 to 15,and out of a list of 1,500
students, take every 15th name on the list until you complete
the total number of respondents to constitute your sample.
3. Stratified Sampling
The group compromising the sample is chosen in a
way that such group is liable to subdivision during
the data analysis stage. A study needing group by
group analysis finds stratified sampling the right
probability sampling to use.

4.Cluster Sampling
This is a probability sampling that makes you
isolate a set of persons instead of individual
members to serve as sample members. For
example, if you want to have a sample of 120 out
of 1,000 students, you can randomly select three
sections with 40 students each to constitute the
sample.
Non-probability sampling
Disregards random selection of subjects.
The subjects are chosen based on their
availability or the purpose of the study, and
in some cases, on the sole discretion of the
researcher. This is not a scientific way of
selecting respondents. Neither does it offer
a valid or an objective way of detecting
sampling errors (Edmond,2013)
Types of Non-probability sampling
1.Quota Sampling
You think you know the characteristics of the target population very
well. In this case, you tend to choose sample members possessing
or indicating the characteristics of the target population. Using a
quota or a specific set of persons, whom you believe to have the
characteristics of the target population involved in the study, is
your showing that the sample you have chosen closely represents
the target population as regards such characteristics.
2.Voluntary Sampling
Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection
are the ones volunteering to constitute the sample, there is no need
for you to do any selection process.

3.Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

You choose people whom you are sure could respond to the
objectives of your study, like selecting those with rich experience or
interest in your study.
4. Availability Sampling
The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you
counts a lot in this non-probability sampling method. If during the
data-collection time, you encounter people walking on a school
campus, along corridors, and along the park or employees lining
up at an office, and these people show willingness to respond to
your questions, then you automatically consider them as your
respondents.

5. Snowball sampling
Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling
method does not give a specific set of samples. This is true for
study involving unspecified group of people.
Participants / Respondents
 Describes the group from which the sample is drawn and/or
how the sample or subjects were drawn.
 What sampling method – probability or non-probability?
And what sampling techniques were used?
 Techniques under probability method are simple random,
systematic, stratified, and cluster,
 Under non-probability method, the techniques are quota,
voluntary,purposive,availability,snowball sampling.
 Be sure to include the criteria you intend to use to define
your sample or subjects.
Example:
Participants /Respondents
The respondents of this study are the study eighteen (18)
elementary students of Grade 6 – St. Anne and St. Joachim in Holy
Cross College Grade School Department. The respondents are
chosen through both probability and non-probability sampling. For
probability, wherein the selection of respondents is based on pure
chance, the researchers made use of stratified sampling in which it is
defined by (Baraceros, 2016) as a way in which such group is liable
to subdivision during the data analysis stage. With this, the
researchers chose the Grade 6 St. Anne and St. Joachim students
and later on divided them into control group and experimental
group. For the non-probability, wherein the respondents are chosen
randomly but purposefully, the researchers incorporated the
availability sampling for they pick out the elementary students of
Holy Cross in which they were able to locate easily and establish
contact with.
Instruments
The following are the most used quantitative data-
gathering techniques along with the data-gathering
instruments for each technique:

 Observation - is a systematic data collection

approach. Researchers use all of their senses
(sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell) to examine
people in natural settings or naturally occurring
situations.
Participant Observation
-actual participation of the researcher.

Non-Participant Observation
-advantageous for any kind of study that the respondents are
not aware that they are being observed so that they will
behave naturally.

Structured Observation
-make us of observation guide that limit the focus of his
observations to aspects of behavior and activities or events
relevant to the research problem and activities.

Unstructured observation
Open and flexible because the researcher does not restrict his
activity within an observation guide.
 Survey – involves the collection of information
from a sample of individuals through their
responses to questions.
-researcher can use different kinds of survey:
telephone-based surveys, internet-based
surveys and online surveys. But regardless of
what medium or channel the researcher uses, the
idea is to collect data from large number of
respondents in a short period of time.

Surveys contain mostly closed questions, yes or no

questions, multiple choice or Likert scale questions.
 Questionnaire –measurement instrument used in
various data collection methods
particularly,surveys.

 Two types:
Self-administered questionnaire
-respondent himself reads the questions and records
his answer.

Interview schedule
-interviewer asks the questions and records the
answers of the respondents.
Types of Questions
Closed-ended question
-list of response categories from which respondents
select their answer from among the alternatives provided
in the question. The following are types of close-ended
questions:
 Likert Scale
 Rating scale
 Checklist
 Rank order
 Two-way questions
 Interview - One-on-one (or face-to-face)
interviews are one of the most common types of
data collection methods. Here, the interviewer
collects data directly from the interviewee. Due to
it being a very personal approach, this data
collection technique is perfect when you need to
gather highly-personalized data.
 Depending on your specific needs, the interview
can be informal, unstructured, conversational, and
even spontaneous (as if you were talking to your
friend) – in which case it’s more difficult and time-
consuming to process the obtained data – or it can
be semi-structured and standardized to a certain
extent (if you, for example, ask the same series of
open-ended questions).
 Experiment - is a procedure carried out
to support, refute, or validate a
hypothesis.
 Content Analysis - is a research tool
used to determine the presence of certain
words, themes, or concepts within some
given qualitative data (i.e. text).
Using content analysis, researchers can
quantify and analyze the presence,
meanings and relationships of such
certain words, themes, or concepts.
Measurement Scales for Quantitative
Data
Nominal Scale
 assigns responses to different categories
 no numerical difference between
categories
Please select the degree of discomfort of the disease:
1-Mild
2-Moderate
3-Severe
How would you describe your behavioral pattern?
E-Extroverted
I-Introverted
A-Ambivert
What is your gender?
M-Male
F-Female
Could you please select an option from below to describe
your hair color.
1-Black
2-Brown
3-Burgundy
4-Auburn
5-Other
Ordinal Scale
 “Ordinal” indicates “order”
 set of categories that are ordered from
least to most
 doesn’t know numerical distance from
each category to the next.
“How satisfied are you with “How happy are you with
our products?” the customer service?”

•1- Totally Satisfied •1- Very Unhappy

•2- Satisfied •2- Unhappy
•3- Neutral •3- Neutral
•4- Dissatisfied •4- happy
•5- Totally Dissatisfied •5- Very happy
Interval Scale
 scale with values, and there is the same
numerical distance between each value
 this scale has an arbitrary zero point (no
true meaningful zero point)

Examples How appealing is this cereal

box to children?
Not at all very -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The Net Promoter® Score (NPS) question
measures how likely the respondent is to
recommend a company, product, or service. Like
any good interval scale question, this one makes
it obvious which response corresponds with which
end of the scale:
Instruments
 Describe the kind of instrument you will use for gathering
data in the study. Is it an interview schedule (for a
survey), a questionnaire, an interview guide, observation
guide, FGD guide or case study guide?
 How did you construct the instrument?
 Did you pretest the instrument? If yes, state with whom,
how and what the results were in general especially in
terms of changes made in the instrument.
 If you did not, say with whom, how & when you would do
it.
 Indicate the measures of validity
 Validity tells us how successful and accurately the
measuring instrument measures the phenomenon;
reliability refers to the consistency of the measurement.
Example
Instrument
The study used a survey questionnaire in
gathering the data necessary in answering the
research questions. Part I focused on
gathering information to describe the profile of
the respondents. Part II used a four-point
Likert scale in determining the perception of
the respondents regarding labor relations. Part
III and IV utilized interview questions to
gather the statements of the respondents
regarding conflict and grievance management
and professional development.
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA
So, why do we collect data?

Data collection is defined as the “process of gathering and

measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
queries, stated research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes.”

-extremely important part of any research, for the conclusions

of a study are based on the data show,
Data Gathering Procedure
 Explains the details entailed in data
gathering, from how you intend to
contact the subjects to how the method
(e.g. survey, interview, or observation)
will be done.
 Includes what ethical procedures you will
observe during the conduct of research.
Example
 Data Gathering Procedure
The researcher asked permission to
conduct the study from the office of the
Vice President for Academic Affairs. After
securing the approval letter, the researcher
distributed questionnaire to the selected
respondents. After which, the researcher
collected the questionnaire and gather the
information, which will be subjected to
data analysis and statistical treatment.