Design and Planning Phase

Step 2
 Design and Planning Phase
Step 2
Step 6: Selecting a Research
Design
Research Design
 overall plan, or the blue
print created by the
researcher to answer the
research questions.
 Guides the researcher in
conducting the study
 Design and Planning Phase
Research Design
 how often data will be
collected
Types o comparison
Where the study will take
place
Minimizing bias
 Design and Planning Phase
(Method section)
 describe the research design
 sampling plan
 methods of data collection and
specific instrument
 study procedure (ethical
safeguard)
Analytic procedure and methods
Research Design- method section

Identifies the procedures by which the

study population will be selected

It includes the subjects, the data

collection and the data analysis
Major components of Research Design
1. Research setting
2. Sample and method of selection
3. Type of data to be collected and
instruments for data collection
Major components of Research Design

4. Strategies to control extraneous

variables
5. Description of tools and statistical
treatment of data
Purposes of Research Design
• To provide maximum control over
extraneous variables and other
phenomena that can influence the
results of the study and affects
its validity
Quantitative Research Design
Three major types of Quantitative
research design
1. Experimental
2. Quasi-experimental
3. Non-experimental
Quantitative Research Design
1. Experimental
- strongest test in the scientific
method; two groups are formed
 control group- representing the

subjects under study

 no experiment is conducted
 experimental group- represents
the subject or group in which one
variable is altered
Experimental
Is there a difference in behavior
between group A who received
counseling treatment and group B
who did not receive X treatment.
Randomized Experiment or True
experiment
-if performance of control and
experiment group are measured
before and after the experiment
and when random assignment is
used.
 True experiment
4 Properties of
1. manipulation-the investigator
manipulates or “does something” to
the independent variable by
introducing an experimental
treatment to some subjects while
withholding it from others
 True experiment
4 Properties of
2. Control-researchers exert control
over the setting and the situation
and imposes certain restrictions on
the situation with the use of 2
groups
- does not receive any experimental
treatment
- perform under normal and usual
condition
4 Properties ofTrue experiment
3. randomization- investigator assigns
subjects to the 2 groups
- giving the subjects an equal
chance of being selected as
member of either group known as
random assignment
4 Properties of True experiment

Random selection- selection of a

sample from a population in which
each individual is given an equal
chance of being chosen and part of
the sample
 True experiment
4 Properties of
4. Validity- investigators ensures that
the study measures what it claims to
measure
- gives valid, objective answers to all
research questions
- controls extraneous variable
- eliminates biases to ensure its
validity
Internal validity- extent to which it is
possible to make an inference that
changes in the dependent (effect) can
be truly be attributed to the
dependent (cause) variable
External validity- degree which study
results can be generalized to other
settings and samples or the
generalizability of the findings to
other sample
Quantitative Research Design
2. Quasi-experimental
- involves manipulation of the
independent variable, but it may lack
one or two of the properties of the
true experiment
- often lacks a comparison group or
randomization to treatment groups
but statistical controls are used
- subjects are not randomly
assigned, they are randomly
selected or sampled
Quantitative Research Design
3. Non-experimental
- does not use manipulation or
control of the independent variable
and conducted mostly in natural
setting under natural condition
- subject are neither randomly
assigned nor randomly selected
- generally considered the weakest
in establishing internal validity or
cause-effect of relationship
between IV and DV
2 Types of Non-experimental Designs
1. Descriptive research design
2. Correlational research design

Descriptive studies – summarize the

status of phenomena observed
within the natural environment and
without any manipulation of the IV
Descriptive Study:
Example: Is there a difference
in Y between people in the
population with X characteristics
and those who do not have X
characteristics.
Descriptive Research Design
1. Typical descriptive design
- examines or explore aspects of
phenomena of interest of a single
sample
2. Comparative descriptive design
- compares two or more groups that
occur naturally in a setting or
explores for differences
Descriptive Research Designs
3. cross-sectional descriptive design
- Examines subject at a given point in
time after the research design is
completed and then gathers data on
events occurring at that present
time
4. Descriptive longitudinal design
-studies a sample of individual over
time to examine patterns of growth,
changes, or trends across time
Descriptive longitudinal design
-collects data from samples about
phenomena over weeks, months or
even years as in developmental
studies of the subject who are
enrolled
• Retrospective design
-data being analyzed was either
collected in the past or data
collection focuses on the past
Descriptive longitudinal design
• Prospective design
-data was collected after the study
was collected after the study was
designed, but the study is pursued
over along period of time, continuing
into the future
2 Types of Non-experimental Designs
2. Correlational research studies
- Examine relationship among
variables but does not involve
manipulation or control of the
independent variable, which has
already occurred
- Also referred as ex post facto
research
Ex post facto (from after the fact)-
attempts to understand
relationships among phenomena as
they naturally occur without any
intervention
Problem Statement Format:
A. Correlational Statement :
Is there a correlation between X and Y in the population?
Example: Is there a relationship between anxiety levels (X) and test
performance (Y) among graduating nursing students
(Population).

Example: Is there a relationship between eating

fast food (X) and obesity (Y) among graduating
nursing students (Population)?
Qualitative Research Design
Qualitative design
- elastic and flexible and is
concerned with the subjective
meaning of one’s experience.
- focuses on insight or perceptions
of individuals of the phenomenon
under investigation
Six types of Qualitative Research Studies
1. Phenomenological research
2. Ethnographic research
3. Grounded theory research
4. Historical research
5. Case study
6. Narrative analysis
Phenomenological Research
1. Phenomenological research: Focusing
on “Lived experiences”
- Discovering the meaning of people’s
life experiences, giving perception
of particular phenomena
Eg: people suffering from chronic
illnesses
stress, or those who have lost their
loved ones
Main data source of Phenomenological
research: In- depth conversation
Steps in Phenomenological study
1. Bracketing
2. Intuiting
3. Analyzing
4. Describing
 NR: Qualitative Research
Focuses on gaining insights and understanding of
events.
A. Phenomenological Studies
• “Lived experiences”. ”
• Examines human experiences through descriptions
provided by the people involved.
• Bracketing – the researcher releases expectations
and biases prior to doing the research
• End purpose: to determine themes and patterns of
behavior, etc.
Phenomenological

“The life experiences of an obese person.”

Bracketing – obese persons are: jolly, funny,

sensitive, inferior, etc
Ethnographic Research
2. Ethnographic research: Focuses on
Culture
- labor-intesive endeavor requiring
long periods of stay in the field to
describe and interpret cultural
behavior , to understand the view of
their world
Aspects of information
1. Cultural behavior
2. Cultural artifacts
3. cultural speech
Ethnographic research:
• Rich and holistic description of
culture
• Access health beliefs & practices
• Undesrtanding behavior affecting
health and illnesses
Data sources:
- Observation,
- In – depth interview
- Charts, records, photograph,
diaries, and letters
-
NR: Qualitative Research

B. Ethnographic Studies
Collection and analysis of data about
cultural groups
• End purpose – to develop cultural theories
• Method – participant observation and interviews
with “key informants
Grounded Theory Research
3. Grounded Theory Research: Focusing
on development evolution of social
experiences
- Study of social processes, social
structure, evolution of social
experience, psychological stages and
phases that characterize a
particular event or episode
Features:
- Data collection, data analysis, sampling
of data
3. Grounded Theory Research:
Features:
- Data collection, data analysis, sampling
of study participants

Sources of data:
- Observation
- In-depth interview
- Existing documents
3. Grounded Theory Research: Focusing
on development evolution of social
experiences
- Study of social processes, social
structure, evolution of social
experience, psychological stages and
phases that characterize a
particular event or episode
Grounded theory Features:
- Data collection, data analysis,
sampling of study participants
occur simultaneously

Sources of Data:
• observation
• in-depth interviews
D. Grounded Theory Studies
• Data are collected and analyzed and then a theory is
developed that is grounded on the data.
• Method : purposeful sampling, done in field/naturalistic
setting
• Concerned with theory generation rather than testing of
hypothesis. Uses purposeful sampling
Grounded Theory
• Eating burger – obesity
• Eating French fries – obesity
• Eating pizza – obesity
Therefore: eating fast food =
obesity
Historical Research
4. Historical Research: Focusing on the
past
- Attempts to answer questions about
cause, effects or trends related to
past events, issues or condition that
may explain current behavioral
practices
4. Historical Research: Involves
systematic collection, critical
evaluation, and interpretation of
historical evidence, with end goal of
discovering new knowledge
Forms of historical research
1. social histories
2. biographical histories
3. intellectual histories
Types of evaluation of historical data
1. external criticism- evaluates the
authenticity of the data
2. internal criticism- evaluates the
worth of the data focusing on the
truth and accuracy of the content
of the evidence
Sources of data of historical
research:
• written records such as letters,
diaries, newspaper, legal
documents, photograph, film &
tapes, physical remains, sometimes
interviews
e. Historical studies
•Identification, location, evaluation,
&synthesis of data from the past
•End purpose: to relate the past to the present
and the future
Case Studies
5. Case Studies: Focusing on single case
or entity
- in-depth investigation for a single
entity or social unit – the individual,
family, group, institution,
organization, community in which the
core of inquiry is the case itself
Case Studies
The greatest strength is its depth of
investigation, which makes available
an abundance of intimate knowledge
of a person’s condition, thoughts,
feelings, and behavior.
MAJOR CRITICISM
difficulty of attaining generaliability
because collected data and evidence
pertain only to a single entity
Narrative Analysis
6. Narrative analysis: Focusing on story
in studies
- in-depth investigation for a single
entity or social unit – the individual,
family, group, institution,
organization, community in which the
core of inquiry is the case itself
Premise of Narrative research: belief
that make people make sense of
their world and communicate these
meaning by constructing,
reconstructing, and narrating
stories.
3 Category typology of narrative
analysis:
1. First set of models: focuses on
the temporal order of events
2. second set of models: focuses on
the structure and coherence of
narratives
3. third set of models: focuses on
the cultural, social and psychological
contexts and functions of narrative
5 Primary dimensions of narrative
approach
1. people organize significant events
in terms of stories and make
meaning out of life experiences
through telling of these stories
2. time and plot are structural
properties of narrative with events
following sequences
3. narrative have a cultural contextual,
which means that they do not occur
by themselves
4. Narrative are relational with stories
told to other people
5. Narratives have the power to shape
human behavior and may be used to
produce a moral story of how people
are supposed to behave
Step #7 Developing Protocols for
the Intervention
• In Experimental research, researchers create the
independent variable
• Participants need to be exposed to different treatment
or conditions
Research Population
 STEP #8 Identification of the Research
Population
Population- entire aggregation of cases in which a
researcher is interested
Universe/target population- aggregate of cases
about which the researcher would like to
generalize
accessible population-aggregate of cases that
conforms with designated criteria and are
accessible for a study
Research Population
Parametric- refers to the total population or total
universe being studied which can be assumed to
be normal
Non-Parametric- refers to something less than the
total population, it is just part of the population
Identification of the Research Population

Target Population Universe

Accessible Population Population

Subjects of research drawn Sample

from Population
Steps in Developing an Acceptable Description of
Population

Brainstorming with
Be clear about the “Who” you want to
colleagues of “Who”
study problem study
you want to study

Improve the
Draft the pop. from the
population description Evaluate the tentative target and narrow
to maintain clarity, population down to accessible
precision,
pop.
thoroughness

Note: the best method to use in obtaining a representative

sample is random selection. Random sampling is the best
method to employ if the population is large.
 STEP #9 Designing a Sampling Plan
Sampling- is the process of selecting cases to represent an
entire population so that inferences about the population
can be made
Sample- is drawn from population and subject of research
- is a subset of the population.
- it is taken because it is not feasible to study the
whole population.
Elements- most basic unit about which data are collected
Sampling Frame- the list of all members of the
population of interest, which are chosen from the
sample
Sampling variation- process by which sampling is
done
Sampling design- sampling scheme that specifies the
number of samples drawn from the population, the criteria
for their selection, and the type of sampling method
Note: the single most important characteristics of the
sample in quantitative research is representativeness
Strata- population consist of sub population
Stratum- mutually exclusive segment of population,
defined by one or more characteristics
Example:
2 strata= Gender (Male or female)
3 strata= groupings (Group A, B, C)
Purposes and Advantages of Sampling

Sampling makes
possible the study of a Sampling is for
Sampling is for speed
large, heterogeneous economy
population

Sampling saves the

Sampling is for
sources of data from
accuracy
being all consumed
Relationship among Population

Population: All students enrolled in the college

of nursing

Sampling Frame: Registrar’s list of

currently enrolled nursing students

Sample: 100 students

Element:
Students
2 kinds of Bias
1. selection bias occurs when the results is
in either overrepresentation
2. response bias or underrepresentation

eg. 100% of Total respondents

75% are female nurses
25% are male nurses
therefore:
Females are over represented as compare to
male nurses
 Types of Sampling Design
1. Probability sampling
2. Non-probability sampling
Probability Sampling
• involves random selection in choosing the subjects or
elements
Randomization or random choice – is the hallmark of
probability sampling
 Sampling Design

Probability Sampling
• Involves random selection of elements
• The sample is a proportion of the population and such sample
is selected from the population by means of some systematic
way in which every element of the population has a chance of
being included in the sample
Non-Probability Sampling
• Elements are selected by nonrandom methods
• The sample is not a proportion of the population and there is
no system in selecting the sample. The selection depends upon
the situation
• No guarantee that each elements has a chance of being
included in the sample
• Popular among researchers because of its convenience and
economy use
 Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
• All elements are enumerated and listed in a sampling frame
• The selection of sample is done by chance
• Lottery draws or a table of random numbers, roulette are the
best examples of this method

2. Stratified Random Sampling

• The researcher divides the population into two or more
homogenous strata or subsets from which an appropriate
number of elements are selected at random
• The population is subdivided into areas, sections, then random
samples are taken from each
Eg. Demographic profile, age, gender, educ. Attainment, income
 Types of Probability Sampling
3. Cluster or multistage Sampling
• The researcher selects random samples from larger to
successively smaller units using either the simple random or
stratified random method
• It is more practical, particularly with a large and widely dispersed
population
• A small sample is taken from various sections of the total
population

E.g. In studying the attitudes of nurses in Metro Manila to ward

their work, a small sample from each hospital will be taken
 Types of Probability Sampling
4. Systematic Sampling
• The researcher selects arbitrarily every nth number in a list, from
telephone directory, beds in a hospital cubicle, school,
community
• Eg. Researchers includes the grade III pupil in the study, they
decided to do systematic sampling method by taking every 5th
student in the class
• Eg. 1,000 population and researcher needs 100 samples,
then: (k interval = N/n)
1,000/100 = 10

*Every 10th person in the list will be taken as sample

 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Accidental, haphazard or convenience
• The researcher chooses subjects who are readily available or
most convenient to include in the study
• Also called as incidental sampling
• Most commonly used sampling method , but the weakest form
of sampling and will result in biased sample unless the
researcher has a strong evidence of confirming the
representativeness of the sample

Eg. People in the cafeteria, bookstore, drugs store, on the street

are possible sample
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
2. Purposive or judgmental sampling
• The researcher handpick subjects who are judged to be typical
of the population or represent each type of the desired
characteristics that best serve the purpose of the study
• The researcher selects purposely subjects who are judged to be
typical of the population or particularly knowledgeable about
the issues under study
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
3. Quota sampling
• The researcher divides the population into two or more
homogenous strata or sub-population in order to ensure
representative proportions of the various strata in the sample,
and then determines how many subjects are needed for each
stratum.
• Procedurally similar to convenience sampling, but with
identification of the strata and the desired representation for
each stratum
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
4. Snowball/network /chain sampling
• The researcher few subjects which meet the required
characteristics of the study and who in turn need to bigger
number of subjects who can be included in the study
• Is a variant of convenience sampling
• Early sample members (called seeds) are asked to refer
other people who meet the eligibility criteria
• Also called as network sampling or chain sampling
• subjects who are difficult to identify
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
5. Consecutive sampling
• Recruiting all of the people from an accessible population who
meet the eligibility criteria over a specific time interval or
specified sample size
• Can be selected retrospectively or prospectively
Example:
20 Pregnant clients with gestational diabetes within the
period of the third trimester
Retrospective/perspective
Example:
20 Pregnant clients with gestational diabetes admitted in the
hospital or 20 pregnant clients who will be visiting the clinic
within the last term of pregnancy
Quantitative study
Time frame for studying the sample

1. Longitudinal study – follows the subject over a period of time (6

months or more). More accurate study of changes that occur over
time.

a. cohort study – persons are studied who have been

born during a particular time period.

2. Cross-sectional study – examines the subjects at one

point in time. Less expensive and easier to conduct.

Selecting the Sample
Eligibility criteria or inclusion criteria
- the criteria that specify the characteristics of the
population needed in the study
Exclusion criteria
- characteristics that are not necessary, or need not be
possessed by population

Factors that affects eligibility criteria:

2. practical concerns
3. subject’s Practical
ability to participate in the
Subjects study
ability Design
Cost 4. design considerations
concerns to participate consideration
Determination of Sample size in Quantitative Study

Recommended Sample in Quantitative:

 use the largest sample possible

Sampling from a small and finite population of N individuals,

the sample size n may be obtained from the Slovin formula

 Slovin formula n= N__

1+Ne 2
Legend: n = the required sample size
N = the size of the finite population
e = error tolerance for the mean
Determination of Sample size in Quantitative Study

Slovin’s formula n= N__

1+Ne²
Example:
 n= 1000__
1+(1000) (0.05)²
1(1000) (0.05 x 0.05)
1000_
1+1000 (0.0025)
1000
1+2.5
1000
3.5
n= 285.7
Note: e = 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%
Determination of Sample size in Qualitative Study

Recommended Sample in Qualitative:

 phenomenological studies:
10 or fewer subjects who have experienced the phenomena
under study

 ethnographic studies:
25-50 key informants chosen purposively

 grounded theory studies:

20-30 subjects
Sampling Size Selection: Guiding Principles
Quantitative Studies Qualitative Studies

•Use the largest sample No criteria or rules for sample size

•Use power analysis (PA) to identify sample Observe the principle of data saturation
size Sample size should be based on information
needs

•Consider important factor when having a Sampling plan should be evaluated in terms
small sample size of:
•Homogeneity of sample • adequacy
•Effect size •appropriateness
•Sensitivity and accuracy of
measures/instrument
Identification of Sample
USE OF SPECIAL CODES

TIME, EVENT AND SITUATION SAMPLING

• TIME SAMPLING
• EVENT SAMPLING
• SITUATION SAMPLING
STEP #10 Specifying Methods
to Measure Variables
STEP #11 Developing Methods
to Safeguard Human/Animal
Rights
 STEP #12 Reviewing and
Finalizing Research Plan
Conduct Pretesting and a Pilot Study

Pretesting and pilot study are the last of preliminary

activities that precede data collection for the
research project

Pretest serves as a trial run of the instrument

developed for testing the hypotheses
Pretesting is a process of measuring effectiveness
of the instrument or tools used to gather data