UCP 0010 – Research Methodology

30th March 2014

Module 6
Qualitative Research
Methods and
Techniques
Dr. Fatin Aliah Phang
Faculty of Education
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitative Qualitative
Number Text
Statistics Descriptions
Hypotheses In-depth inquiry
Deductive Inductive
Big sample Small sample
Objective Subjective
 Can I use numbers in
qualitative research?

Can I use descriptions in

quantitative research?
• What method do you propose to use?
• What methodology governs your choice and use
of methods?
• What theoretical perspective lies behind the
methodology in question?
• What epistemology informs this theoretical
perspective?
(Crotty, 1998)
• Methods – the techniques or procedures used to
gather and analyse data related to some research
questions or hypotheses
• Methodology – the strategy, plan of action,
process or design lying behind the choice and use
of particular methods and linking the choice and
use of method to the desired outcomes
(Crotty, 1998)
• Theoretical perspective – the philosophical
stance informing the methodology and thus
providing a context for the process and
grounding its logic and criteria
• Epistemology – the theory of knowledge
embedded in the theoretical perspective and
thereby in the methodology
(Crotty, 1998)
Epistemology

Theoretical
Perspective
Methodology
Method

(Crotty, 1998)
 Objectivism vs. Subjectivism
Objectivism
Single reality
Deductive
Relationships among
variables
Researcher is detached
Context-free generalisation
Generalisation is the
responsibility of the
researcher
Subjectivism
Multiple reality
Inductive
Descriptions of situations
Researchers is a tool
Context-bound descriptions
Generalisation /
Transferability is determined
by readers
 Methodologies

• Grounded Theory
• Ethnography
• Action Research
• Case Study
 Data Collection Methods

• Observation
• Interview
• Focus Group
 Data Analysis Methods

• Miles & Hubermen

• Constant Comparative Method
• Thematic Analysis
 Validity & Reliability?

• Trustworthiness:
– Dependability
– Credibility
– Transferability
– Confirmability
Researcher is the ONLY
Instrument / Tool in
Qualitative Research
Approach
 Grounded Theory
• Glaser and Strauss (1967) and their work on the
interactions between health care professionals
and dying patients.
• Development of new theory through the
collection and analysis of data about a
phenomenon.
• The explanations that emerge are genuinely new
knowledge and are used to develop new theories
about a phenomenon.
 Grounded Theory
• GT is one that will fit a situation being
researched, and will work when put into use.
• Fit - the categories generated through research
must be readily (not forcibly) applicable to and
indicated by the data under study.
• Work - those categories must be meaningfully
relevant to and be able to explain the behaviour
under study
 Grounded Theory
Five premises underlying GT: 
• The analysis of data is a ‘pragmatic’ one,
guidelines and rules of thumb
• Analysis  generating new concepts/theories.
• ‘grounded’ in empirical - ‘constant comparison’
• ‘open-mind’
• ‘theoretical’ sampling
 Grounded Theory
• Constant comparative method is the comparing of
(Glaser, 1978):
• different people
• data from the same individuals with themselves at
different points in time
• incident with incident
• data with category
• a category with other categories
 Grounded Theory
• There are a few stages of data coding:
– open-coding
– axial-coding
– selective-coding
(Strauss & Corbin, 2008)
 Grounded Theory
• The process of research will involve the continual
selection of units until the research arrives at the
point of theoretical saturation.
• It is only when new data seems to fit the analysis
without further modifications of the emerging
theory, rather than add anything new, that the
theory is saturated and the sample size is ‘enough’.
 Grounded Theory
• The categories developed through this process
evolve as the researcher gain more theoretical
sensitivity.
• Make memos
• Keep going back to the data & theoretical
samples
• Until hypotheses / themes / theories emerge
 Grounded Theory
• Bryant, A. & Charmaz, K. (2007). The Sage handbook of grounded theory. London: Sage.
• Charmaz, K. (2003). Grounded theory: objectivist and constructivist methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S.
Lincoln (ed.) Strategies of qualitative inquiry. (2nd ed.) (pp.249-291). Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
• Charmaz, K. (2005). Grounded theory in the 21st century: applications for advancing social justice
studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Ed.) The Sage handbook of qualitative research. (3rd ed.)
(pp.507-536). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
• Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory – Strategies for qualitative
research. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
• Glaser, B. G. (1978). Advances in the methodology of grounded theory: theoretical sensitivity. San
Francisco: Sociology Press.
• Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basic of grounded theory analysis: emergence versus forcing. Mill Valley,
California: Sociology Press.
• Glaser, B. G. (1998). Doing grounded theory: issues and discussion. California: Sociology Press.
• Strauss, A. L. & Corbin, J. M. (2008). Basic of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and
techniques. (e ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
 Ethnography
• Has a background in anthropology.
• “portrait of a people”
• for descriptive studies of cultures & peoples.
• The cultural parameter - the people under
investigation have something in common -
geographical, religious, tribal, shared experience
 Ethnography

• often interviewing individuals on several

occasions, and participant observation.
• extremely time consuming - spending long
periods of time in the field.
 Ethnography
• Analysis of data adopts an “emic” approach -
interpret data from the perspective of the
population under study.
• The results are expressed as though they were
being expressed by the subjects themselves
• often using local language and terminology to
describe phenomena – problematic if not
familiar with the social or language
 Ethnography
• Interpretation from an “etic” perspective - an
outsider perspective - may be a misinterpretation
causing confusion.
• ethnographic researcher usually returns to the
field to check the interpretations with informants
• validating the data before presenting the findings
 Ethnography
• Alexander, B. K. (2005). Performance ethnography: The reenacting and inciting of
culture. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.). The Sage handbook of qualitative
research (3rd ed.) (pp.411-442). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Atkinson, P. A. (1990). The ethnographic imagination. London: Routledge.
• Delamont, S. (2004). Ethnography and participant observation. In C. Seale, Gobo, G.,
Gubrium, J. F. & Silverman, D. (eds.) Qualitative research practice (pp.217-229). London:
Sage.
• Fetterman, D.M. (1989). Ethnography: Step by step, Newbury Park, Sage Publications.
• Hammersley, M. & Atkinson, P. A. (1995). Ethnography: Principles and practice (2nd ed.).
London: Routledge.
 Action Research
• a subset of participant observation
• the participants (practitioners) in some focused
change effort (to change something) self-reflect
on their experiences in order to improve practice
for themselves or an organization.
 Action Research
• It is a flexible spiral process which allows action
(change, improvement) and research
(understanding, knowledge) to be achieved at
the same time
• involve the individuals affected by the change,
thus allowing the understanding to be widely
shared and the change to be pursued with
commitment.
Action Research
Reflection phase  - observations are
interpreted and shared so that the
issue or problem can be better
understood.
Planning phase - actions are proposed
to address the issue or problem.
Action phase  - the plan is implemented
and the cycle starts again as outcomes
are observed, recorded, and shared.
Observation phase - the issue or
problem is monitored and described.
Useful data is recorded and kept.
 Action Research
• Elliott, J. (1991). Action research for educational change. Milton Keynes: Open
University Press.
• Greenwood, D. J. & Levin, M. (2005). Reform of the social sciences and of universities
through action research. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.) The Sage handbook of
qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp. 43-64). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Ladkin, D. (2004). Action research. In C. Seale, Gobo, G., Gubrium, J. F. & Silverman, D.
(eds.) Qualitative research practice (pp.536-548). London: Sage.
• Winter, R. (1989). Learning from experience: Principles and practice in action
research. London: Falmer Press.
 Case Study
• Emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions and their
relationships.
• The value of case study relates to the in depth
analysis of a single/small number of units.
• Case study research is used to describe an entity
that forms a single unit such as a person, an
organisation or an institution.
• Can describe a series of cases.
 Case Study
• It offers a richness and depth of information not
usually offered by other methods.
• Can identify how a complex set of circumstances
come together to produce a particular
manifestation.
• It is a highly versatile research method and
employs any and all methods of data collection
from testing to interviewing.
 Case Study
• Generalisability is not normally as issue for the
researcher
• It is an issue for the readers who want to know
whether the findings can be applied elsewhere.
• The readers must decide whether or not the case
being described is sufficiently representative or
similar to their own local situation.
 Case Study
Six steps to be used:
• Determine and define the research questions
• Select the cases and determine data gathering
and analysis techniques
• Prepare to collect the data
• Collect data in the field
• Evaluate and analyze the data
• Prepare the report
 Case Study
• Flyvbjerg, B. (2004). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. In C. Seale,
Gobo, G., Gubrium, J. F. & Silverman, D. (eds.) Qualitative research practice (pp.420-
434). London: Sage.
• Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.) The
Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp.443-466). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
 Data Collection Methods

• Observation
• Interview
• Focus Group
 Observation

OBSERVATION

Participatory observation
researcher immerses into the
research environment and
gains first hand experience
Non-participatory
observation
resaearcher as outsider
 Observation
Data collected during observation can be recorded
using the following methods:

• A checklist is prepared to tick

Checklist
observable behaviour

Field • Free hand note is used to jot

note down observable behaviour

Video • The incident is recorded using

recording digital video recorder
 Observation
Strengths Weaknesses
Allows for insight into contexts, Documentation relies on
relationships, behaviour memory, personal discipline &
diligence of researcher
Can provide information Requires conscious effort at
previously unknown to objectivity because method is
researchers that is crucial for inherently subjective
research design, data collection
and interpretation of other data

Time-consuming
 Observation
Preparing for Participant Observation
1. Determine the purpose of the participant
observation activity & research objectives
2. Determine the population(s) to be observed.
3. Consider the accessibility of the population(s)
and the venues.
4. Investigate possible sites
5. Select the site(s), time(s) and date(s)
 Observation
Preparing for Participant Observation
6. Divide researchers to cover all sites
7. Consider how you will present yourself
8. Plan how and if you will take notes during the
participant observation activity.
9. Remember to take your field notebook and a
pen.
 Observation
After Participant Observation
10.Schedule time soon after participant
observation to expand your notes.
11.Type your notes into computer files using the
standard format set for the study.
 Observation
• Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (1998). Observational techniques. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Yvonna
(eds.), Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials (pp.79-109). Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications, Inc.
• Angrosino, M. V. (2005). Recontextualizing observation. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S.
(eds.) The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp.729-745). Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
• Tedlock, B. (2005). The observation of participation and the emergence of public
ethnography. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.) The Sage handbook of qualitative
research (3rd ed.) (pp.467-482). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
 Interview
Semi-structured Unstructured
Structured interview
interview interview
• ask respondents a • a set of prepared • the interview
set of prepared questions is used starts with a
questions like during the question or topic
questionnaire in interview but can and followed by
the form of face- be modified and more questions
to-face interview. added based on as the
There is an the respondents’ conversation goes
opportunity to answers. This is on. This is usually
explain the good for used by expert
meaning of the beginners in using interviewers
questions and to interview to
clarify the collect data
meaning of the
answers
 Interview
• Should be fairly informal
• Interviewees should feel as though they are
participating in a conversation or discussion
rather than in a formal Q & A situation.
• Needs rigorous preparation, careful planning and
skills in conducting good interview.
• Consider the interviewees are the experts,
interviewer is the student who wants to learn
from the experts.
 Interview
Getting familiar with the instruments
1. Study the interview guide.
2. Study the informed consent document.
3. Practice with a partner.
 Interview
Day of the interview
4. Use a checklist to ensure that you have all the
equipment.
5. Label all data documentation materials (index)
6. Arrive early at the site to set up equipment.
7. Test your recording equipment.
 Interview
Conducting the Interview
8. Greet the participant in a friendly manner to
begin establishing positive rapport.
9. Describe the steps of the interview process.
10.Obtain informed consent.
11.Turn on the tape recorder and check that it is
working.
12.Check informed consent orally with the tape
recorder on.
 Interview
13.Conduct the interview according to the
interview guide.
14.End the interview.
15.Let the participant ask questions.
16.Reconfirm the participant’s consent while the
tape recorder is still on.
17.Thank the participant.
18.Clarify any factual errors expressed by
participants during the interview.
 Interview
After the Interview
19.Check the tape to see if the interview was
recorded. If not, expand your notes
immediately.
20.Make sure all materials are labeled with the
index number.
 Interview
After the Interview
21.Assemble all materials into one envelope.
Double-check that you have completed all forms
and that all materials are appropriately labeled.
Note and explain any missing materials on the
index sheet.
22.Expand your notes within 24 hours if possible.
 Interview
• Fontana, A. & Frey, J. H. (2005). The interview: From neutral stance to political
involvement. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.) The Sage handbook of qualitative
research (3rd ed.) (pp.695-728). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Gillham, B. (2000). The research interview. London: Continuum.
• Gubrium, J. F. & Holstein, J. A. (2001). Handbook of interview research: Context &
method. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Kvale, S. (1996). InterView: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
• Seidman, I. (1998). Interviewing as qualitative research (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers
College Press.
 Focus Group
• Similar to interview but with more than 1
interviewees at a time.
• Group interviews can be used when:
– Limited resources prevent more than a small number
of interviews being undertaken.
– Can to identify a number of individuals who share a
common factor & to collect the views of several
people within that population sub group.
– Group interaction among participants has the
potential for greater insights to be developed.
 Focus Group
• A group is of 6 – 10 people.
• More than 1 group for a study - to provide
adequate breadth and depth of information
• The members of each focus group should have
something in common - important to the topic of
investigation.
• Specially formed groups.
• Needs a few skills in facilitating, moderating,
listening, observing and analysing in groups.
 Focus Group
• Kamberelis, G. & Dimitriadis, G. (2005). Focus groups: Strategic articulations of
pedagogy, politics and inquiry. In. N. K. Denzin & Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.) The Sage handbook
of qualitative research (3rd ed.) (pp.887-908). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (2 nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
• Litoselliti, L. (2003). Using focus groups in research. London: Continuum.
• Macnaghten, P. & Myers, G. (2004). Focus groups. In C. Seale, Gobo, G., Gubrium, J. F. &
Silverman, D. (eds.) Qualitative research practice (pp.65-79). London: Sage.
• Stewart, D. W., Shamdasani, P. N. & Rook, D. W. (2007). Focus groups: Theory and
practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
 Data Analysis Methods

• Miles & Huberman (1994)

• Constant Comparative Method
• Thematic Analysis
 Data Analysis Methods
• Qualitative data is usually more fussy to analyse and
require more time to make meaning out of the piles
of data collected.
• The first skill a research needs in analysing
qualitative data is to make sure that the data is
indexed and labelled correctly.
• The date, time, location, respondent, etc. are
important to be noted clearly in the data.
• For example, an audio recording of an interview need
to be labelled with the above information.
 Data Analysis Methods
• After the data is being transcribed, indexing the data
carefully and systematically will make the data analysis
easier.
• For example, the interview transcript should have
numbering for each questions and answers, or a writing
of the respondent need to be labelled with number for
each line.
• There is a wide range of techniques to analyse qualitative
data such as content analysis, thematic analysis,
grounded theory data analysis, inter-case analysis, cross-
case analysis and so on.
• The data is coded or categorised to make meaning out of
the data in order to answer the research questions.
 Conclusion
• Stepping back to consider what the analyzed data mean and to assess their implications for the drawing &
questions at hand. verification
• Revisiting the data as many times as necessary to cross-check or verify these emergent
conclusions.
• To produce an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion
drawing.
• An extended piece of text or a Figure, chart, or matrix that provides a new way of arranging Data display
and thinking about the more textually embedded data.
• Inter-case analysis is performed to compare the cases between different respondents to find
out if there is any differences or similarities in
• For example, the difficulties faced by the lecturers in implementing PBL. The researcher can go
deeper by comparing why different lecturers faced different or similar difficulties
• The data is condensed for the sake of manageability and made intelligible in terms of the
research questions being addressed. Data reduction
• For example - What are the difficulties faced by lecturers in implementing PBL?
• Examine all the relevant data sources to extract a description of what they say about the
difficulties faced.
Miles & Huberman (1994)
 Constant Comparative Method
• Constant comparative method is the
comparing of (Glaser, 1978):
– different people;
– data from the same individuals with themselves at
different points in time;
– incident with incident;
– data with category;
– a category with other categories.
 Constant Comparative Method
• Glaser & Strauss (1967) have outlined the
constant comparative method in four stages
(p. 105), which are:
1. comparing incidents applicable to each
category
2. integrating categories and their properties
3. delimiting the theory
4. writing the theory.
 Constant Comparative Method
Codings Description

Open coding The process of breaking down, examining,

comparing, conceptualising and categorising data.
Axial coding Connections are made between categories by
using the constant comparative method
Selective The process of selecting the core category,
coding systematically relating it to other categories,
validating those relationships and filling in
categories that need further refinement and
development
 Thematic Analysis
1. To get familiarized with the data

2 To generate initial codes

3 To search for themes

4 To review the themes

5 To define and name the themes

• A tool that may help you to process the data is Nvivo.
• However, good qualitative analysts must make
themselves the sensitive tool or instrument to
measure and analyse the respondents or incidents.
• The more experience or longer a researcher dwell
with the respondents or field, the more mature the
analysis will be and the stronger the conclusion or
interpretation he/she will be able to draw.
 • How do you
know if the food
at Restaurant X
taste nice?
• How many
respondents are
enough?
Saturation - when new data seems to fit the analysis
without further modifications of the emerging theory, rather
than add anything new, that the theory is saturated and the
sample size is ‘enough’.
 Trusworthiness

Criterion Quantitative Term

Credibility Internal Validity
Transferability External Validity
Dependability Reliability
Confirmability Objectivity
 Trusworthiness
Criterion Technique Procedure
Credibility Prolonged engagement Spending enough time in the context.
Persistent observation Focusing on an issue in detail.
Triangulation Using multiple methods, sources, researchers
or theories.
Peer debriefing Exposing oneself to a disinterested peer in a
manner paralleling an analytic session.

Negative case analysis Process of revising hypotheses with hindsight.

Referential adequacy Collecting holistic data (i.e., videotaping) to

enable interpretation being tested for
adequacy.
Member-check Checking the analyses, interpretations and
conclusions with the respondents of the
research (stakeholders).
Transferability Thick description Bringing the readers to the context.
Dependability Audit Enabling auditing when required.
Confirmability Audit Enabling auditing when required.
 References
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology,
3(2), 77-101.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundation of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process.
London: Sage Publications, Ltd.
Denscombe, M. (1998). The good research guide for small-scale social research projects. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Denscombe, M. (2003). Ground rules for good research: a 10 point guide for social researchers.
Berkshire: Open University Press.
Hancock, B. (2002). An introduction to qualitative research. Nottingham: Trent Focus Group.
Howitt, D. & Duncan, C. (2007). Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology (2nd ed.). US: Prentice
Hall.
Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., Guest, G. & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative research methods:
A data collector’s field guide. North Carolina: Family Health International.
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
Strauss, A. C. & Corbin, J. M. (2008). Basics of Qualitative Research: Second Edition: Techniques and
Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage.