AC Systems With Notes PDF

AC systems
Titolo presentazione
sottotitolo
Morris Brenna Milano, XX mese 20XX
Periodic functions
Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Periodic functions

Sinusoidal functions

Sinusoidal functions: rms value of sinusoidal functions

Sinusoidal functions: rms value of sinusoidal functions
Phisical meaning of rms value of periodic function

Introduction to sinusoidal steady state
transient and steady state response

 in transient interval both natural and forced response are present
in network variable functions
 in steady state interval, which last for 4τ < t < +∝ or until some
other perturbation does not change the circuit, the network
variable dynamic coincides with the one of the forced response

Introduction to sinusoidal steady state
transient and steady state response in sinusoidal case

Phasor method: complex numbers

Phasor method: complex numbers
binomial form → exponential form
exponential form → binomial form

Rotating vector and sinusoidal functions
sinusoidal functions ⇔ complex numbers

 one point in complex plane which is rotating with a uniform
angular velocity around the origin on a circular orbit, with
starting phase position at t = 0 equal to ϕ, is described by the
equation:
j( ω⋅t +ϕ )
z ( t )= z ⋅ e rotating vector
 its projections along real and imaginary axis are:
a ( t ) = ℜe { z ( t )} = z ⋅ cos ( ωt + ϕ ) cosinusoidal function

b ( t ) = ℑm { z ( t )} = z ⋅ sin ( ωt + ϕ ) sinusoidal function

 thus a link between z ( t ) and cosinusoidal or sinusoidal function

is obtained by applying the operator
ℜe { z ( t )} or ℑm { z ( t )}

derivation rule
 the correspondence between z ( t ) and sinusoidal function f(t) is
maintained also when derivative operator is applied:

Phasor method: phasor
rotating vector
�
 previous quantity is called phasor 𝐹𝐹of
the function f (t) and can be represented
in complex plane

 Derivation rule: phasor is particularly suited to express in graphic

way the derivation rule

 phasor method is particularly suited for the computation of

the particular integral of a linear ODE with constant
coefficients subject to a sinusoidal input
 due to the linearity of the ODE and to the properties of

sinusoidal functions (the derivative of a sinusoidal function is
still a sinusoidal function with the same ω), the particular
integral has to be searched in the set of sinusoidal functions

 while angular frequency ω is imposed by the forcing term, rms

value and phase angle are unknowns to be determined
 both these information are contained in the phasor
 the use of complex numbers makes this computation easy to

perform due to the derivation rule which states that

Phasor method and steady state circuit solution
Example: RCL circuit with sinusoidal input
e ( t ) = vR ( t ) + vL ( t ) + vC ( t )

 d 1
 Ri ( t ) + L i ( t ) + ∫ i ( t ) dt =
e (t )
 dt C
differential equation
 Considering the sinusoidal input, by using the identity of phasor method:
{ }
e(t ) = 2Ecos(ωt + α ) = 2ℜe Ee jα e jωt = 2ℜe Ee jωt { }
{ } {
i( t ) = 2Icos(ωt + β ) = 2ℜe Ie jβ e jωt = 2ℜe Ie jωt }
where I and β are unknowns.

Phasor method and circuit solution
 by substituting inside differential equation

d 1
Rℜe { }
2 Ie jωt + L ℜe
dt
{
2 Ie jωt + ∫ ℜe
C
} { }
2 Ie jωt dt − ℜe { }
2 Ee jωt =0
⇓
1  1 
Rℜe { }
2 Ie jωt + Lℜe { C
}
2 jω Ie jωt +
ℜe  2
 jω
Ie jωt  − ℜe 2 Ee jωt =0

{ }
 some factors are common in equation terms and can be eliminated
jωt
as 2 and e ≠ 0 since solution must hold for every t:
  1   jωt   1 
ℜe  2   R + jω L +  I − E  e  =0 ⇒  R + jω L +  I=E
  jω C     jω C 

 final equation is an algebraic one with complex unknown I and solution

must be sought by means of some complex algebra
 1  E


R + jω L +
jω C 

I = E ⇒ I =
 1 
⇒ i (t ) = 2ℜ e {
I e jωt
}
 R + jω L + 
 jω C 
 In many application only steady state response is interesting
then phasor method can be applied in a more drastic form
 circuit equations could be time phasor

written directly in terms of 2F cos(ωt + ϕ ) Fe jϕ
phasor quantities, and the k K
d/dt jω
writing of differential equation 1/ jω
∫ ... dt
become unnecessary <xy> ℜe{X Y} = ℜe{XY}

The idea is reassumed in this figure: we have a problem in the time domain
complicated to solve, then we transform the problem in this way we use
relatively simple solution process to find the transformed solution and finally the
time solution is obtained by inverse transform.
Solutions Using Transforms
Real, or time
Problem Solution
domain
Complicated and difficult

Transform solution process
Inverse
Transform
Transformed Transformed
Complex or
Problem Relatively simple Solution
transform domain
solution process, but
using complex numbers

Phasor form of KL and constitutive relations
 by considering a linear network supplied by a sinusoidal input

at a time instant when the natural response has already died
out, all network variables are sinusoidal functions
 If the KL and the constitutive equations could be written in
terms of phasors, then a solution of the circuit for the forced
response can be obtained easily using all the method set up
(Kirchhoff, circuit Theorem, and so on) for DC steady-state
analysis
 this solution holds only if the circuit has reached its steady state
condition
 By using phasor method a solution of the circuit for the forced
response can be only obtained

Topological equations: phasor form of KL
KCL
 as an example a node with three currents is considered, so that
 Again the previous equation can be simplified to get:

Topological equations: phasor form of KL
KCL
 which states that KCL equation in time domain or in terms of
phasors (ω domain) are equivalent
sinusidal
function
∑ i j (t ) 0=
= ⇔ ∑Ij 0
j j
KVL
 KVL equation in time domain or in terms of phasors (ω domain)
are equivalent
sinusidal
function
∑ v j (t ) 0=
= ⇔ ∑V j 0
j j

Constitutive equations: phasor form






Phasor method and steady state circuit solution
Example: RCL circuit with sinusoidal input
e ( t ) = vR ( t ) + vL ( t ) + vC ( t )

 d 1
 ( )
Ri t + L
dt
i ( ) ∫ i ( t ) dt =
t +
C
e (t )

differential equation
e (t ) 2 Ecos (ωt + α
= ) ⇒ E Ee jα
E = VR + VL + VC

 1  1 
 E = R I + j ω L I + I ⇒ E = 
 R + j ω L + I

 jωC  j ωC 
algebraic equation
I = Ie jβ
⇒ i (t ) = 2 Icos (ωt + β )

Impedance

Impedance

Phasor form
Topological equations Constitutive equations
∑Ij = 0
j
Z V= Z ⋅ I
∑V j = 0
j

Canonical connections



Vector diagram

Example: RL Circuit

Example: RL Circuit

Example: RC Circuit

Example: RC Circuit

Transmission line

Transmission line

Transmission line

AC power: introduction
 in many applications sinusoidal steady state is used for

transferring power from the sources to the loads
 under sinusoidal conditions the formula for power in
components has a particular form that is useful to show how the
physical process of power transmission is taking place
 the final expression of power is obtained by some algebraic and
trigonometric manipulation of the general form

Instantaneous power
 instantaneous power in a two terminal component is expressed as:

p (=
t ) v(t ) ⋅ i (t )
 under sinusoidal conditions voltage and current

are expressed as:
v ( t )

= 2V sin (ωt + ϑV )

i ( t )
=
 2 I sin (ωt + ϑI )

Instantaneous power
 by using the properties of trigonometrical functions the

result can be elaborated:
= + ϑI ) VI cos (ϑV − ϑI ) − cos ( 2ωt + ϑV +=

p ( t ) 2VI sin (ωt + ϑV ) sin (ωt= ϑI ) 
{
= VI cos ϕ − VI cos ( 2ωt + ϑV + ϑI ) = ℜe {V I } + ℜe VIe j 2ωt }
Time constant term Double frequency term
1
NB. sin α ⋅ sin
= β cos (α − β ) − cos (α + β ) 
2

Instantaneous power and its average value
Graphics interpretation
T
1 AVERAGE POWER [W] depends on the rms
P = ∫ p ( t )dt VI cos ϕ
T0 values of v(t) and i(t) and from the phase
angle between them

Active and reactive instantaneous power
due to the importance of angle ϕ, some manipulations are made on the second
term in order to express it in terms of ϕ
( t ) VI cos ϕ − VI cos ( 2ωt + ϑV + ϑI + ϑI − ϑI )
p=
α + β)
cos(= [cos α cos β − sin α sin β ]
α ϕ
= =β 2 ( ω t + ϑI )
p ( t ) I Vcosϕ {1 − cos2 (ωt + ϑI )} + I V sin ϕ sin 2 (ωt + ϑI )
=
Voltage component in phase Voltage component with 90° angle

Vf with current
Vq phase respect to the current
p = IV f {1 − cos2 (ωt + ϑI )} + IVq sin 2 (ωt + ϑI )

pa(t)= active component of the q(t)= reactive component of the
instantaneous power >=0 instantaneous power >=<0

yes

AC power in Resistor
i (t ) = 2 I sin ωt ⇒ v ( t ) = Ri ( t ) = 2 RI sin ωt = 2V sin ωt
1) Instantaneous power
p ( t ) = v ( t ) ⋅ i ( t ) = 2 RI 2 sin 2 ωt = VI (1 − cos2ωt ) ≥0
max { p ( t )} = 2VI
pa ( t ) (t ) q (t ) 0
p=
2
2) Average power P VI
= = RI= V2 /=
R GV 2
3) energy w (t ) = 0
max {w ( t )} = 0

AC power in Resistor
 instantaneous power is always positive as required by its definition p=Ri2

 because of definition of sign convention, this fact means that power will always
flow from sources to resistor
 average power is given by product VI but it varies twice per period from zero to
the value 2VI

AC power in Capacitor
dv ( t )
v (=
t) 2V sin ωt ⇒ i (=
t) C = 2ωCVcosω
= t 2Icosωt
dt
p ( t ) = v ( t ) ⋅ i ( t ) = 2ωCV 2 sin ωtcosωt =
= ωCV 2 sin 2ωt >=<0
max { p ( t )} = ωCV 2
pa ( t ) 0=
= q (t ) p (t )
2) Average power P=0
3) Energy
w ( t ) = CV 2 sin 2 ωt
max {w ( t )} = CV 2

AC power in Capacitor
The average power in capacitor is nil: the power at the

gate is alternatively stored in the electric field (charge)
and given back to the source (discharge).
Morris Brenna – Department of Energy NB. sin

= 2α 2sin α ⋅ cos α
AC power in inductor
di ( t )
i (t ) =
− 2 Icosωt ⇒ v ( t ) =
L =2ω LI sin ωt =2V sin ωt
dt
p (t ) =
v (t ) i (t ) =
−2ω LI 2 sin ωtcosωt =
= −ω LI 2 sin 2ωt >=<0
max { p ( t )} = ω LI 2
pa ( t ) 0=
= q (t ) p (t )
2) Average power P=0
3) Energy
w ( t ) = LI 2 cos 2 ωt
max {w ( t )} = LI 2

AC power in inductor
The average power in inductor is nil: the power at the

gate is alternatively stored in the magnetic field (charge)
and given back to the source (discharge).

Active or real power: average value of pa(t)
 the value of the energy exchanged is well approximated by the time integral of
its average value VIcosϕ
 this is conceptually important because average values do not depend on t and
so this quantity can be evaluated by rms values and power factor cosϕ
 this new constant quantity is called active or real power and it is defined as:
 unit measure of active power P is watt [W]

Rective power: average value of q(t)
 in dynamic components C and L the only component of instantaneous power is

q(t)
 this power contribute has zero average value, because of conservative nature
of C and L which alternatively store and give back energy
 even if in average this contribute is zero, it technically cannot be neglected as a
whole
 to this aim a fictitious energy indicator is defined as reactive power Q
Q = VI sin ϕ
 since it has no direct physical meaning, measurement unit of reactive power Q

is not watt but volt-ampere reactive [var]

Instantaneous power:
real and reactive components
p ( t ) = pa ( t ) + q ( t ) = P {1 − cos2 (ωt + ϑI )} + Q sin 2 (ωt + ϑI )
P IV
= = f VIcos
= ϕ IV f Q IV
= = ϕ IVq
q VI sin=
ACTIVE POWER [W]: mean value of the active REACTIVE POWER [VAr]: maximum value of
instantaneous power. It is direct linked to the the reactive instantaneous power. It is a
work. measure of power that is being stored
temporarily. The sign tells us of the nature of
the storage.
 P and Q completely represents the energy balance in sinusoidal steady-state
condition: they represents the term link to the work and the term link to the
energy exchange wit electric and magnetic fields.
 P, Q are independent on the reference.

Complex and apparent power
 complex power contains information about active and reactive power then all
the information needed for power analysis of AC network.
 Phasors make the calculation of real or active and reactive power easier :
S= A= V I= Ve jϑV Ie − jϑI= VIe ( V I )= Ae jϕ= P + jQ [VA]

j ϑ −ϑ
P = ℜeV I = A cos ϕ

Q = ℑmV I = A sin ϕ

 S= A=

P2 + Q2 ϕ
cos
= ϕ P= / A P/S
 Complex power is independent on the phasor and time references

 Apparent power is the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without
reference to phase angle. Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-
Amps (VA) and is symbolized by the capital letter A or S

Power Factor
 The ratio between real power and apparent power in a circuit is called the
power factor:
cos
= ϕ P=
/ A P/S
 It's a practical measure of the efficiency of a power distribution system. For
two systems transmitting the same amount of real power, the system with
the lower power factor will have higher circulating currents due to energy
that returns to the source from energy storage in the load. These higher
currents produce higher losses and reduce overall transmission efficiency.
 A lower power factor circuit will have a higher apparent power and higher
losses for the same amount of real power
 An higher power factor allows, given V and I, to maximize the active power P.
For cosϕ = 1 we have the maximum active power:
ϕ =0
VI cos ϕ → VI

Power in an impedance
 power as function of I
V= Z ⋅ I
A =V I =Z ⋅ I 2 =( R + jX ) ⋅ I 2 =P + jQ
R⋅I2
P= X ⋅I2
Q=
 power as function of V
I =V / Z
V V2 V2 V2
A =V I =V ⋅ = Z = 2 Z = 2 ( R + jX ) = P + jQ
Z Z ⋅Z Z Z
V2 V2
P = 2
R Q 2
X
Z Z
P, Q, A for the passive elements
ϕ =0
V = RI
Resistance
2
A A V=
= I RI= V 2 /=
R P
ϕ =π /2
Inductance
V = jX L I
2
A A V=
= I jX L I= jV 2 / X=
L jQL

P, Q, A for the passive elements
ϕ = −π / 2
V = − jX C I
Capacitor
A A= − jX C I 2 =
VI = − jV 2 / X C =
− jQC
V= Z ⋅ I
Impedance
A A =V I =Z ⋅ I 2 =V 2 / Z =P + jQ

Passive sign convention
Passive convention
Q>0 if we have and inductor: inductor

"absorbs" reactive power.
Q<0 if we have a capacitor: capacitor
"generates" reactive power.

Active sign convention
Active convention
Q>0 if we have and capacitor:

capacitor "absorbs" reactive power.
Q<0 if we have a inductor: inductor
"generates" reactive power.

Boucherot corollary: conservation theorem for
complex power
 Boucherot corollary expresses the same concepts of the previously

presented Tellegen theorem, but for sinusoidal supply
 conservation theorem for complex power: given a network with Nsou
components described by the active sign convention and Nload components
described by passive sign convention, the following balance equation
holds:
 N sou
Boucherot
Nload
N sou Nload  ∑ Pk = ∑ Ph Sum of P.
=
k
k 1= h 1
∑A = ∑ A h
= k 1 =h 1
 N sou Nload
 Q =
=
 ∑ k
 k 1 =h 1
∑ Qh Sum of Q.
N sou Nload
=
k
k 1= h 1
∑ A = ∑ A NO h

Boucherot corollary: conservation theorem for
complex power
 Boucherot corollary defines that there is a power balance between

sources and loads
 the balance holds even if real power was defined as an approximation
of the average value of pa(t)
 notwithstanding its non physical definition, also reactive power Q is
conserved in the circuit
 reactive power in circuit can have positive sign (inductive) or negative
sign (capacitive)
 this fact is very important because the term
Nload
∑Q
k =1
k
could be equal to zero even if the single terms are different from zero

Boucherot corollary: power balance for circuit solution
 the balance system imposed by Boucherot corollary can be used to

solve sinusoidal circuits of simple topologies
 If are known:
• The power in a section
• Voltage or current in the same section
• And the direction of the flow of power
the circuit can be treated without phasors

Boucherot corollary: example
Ex. P, Q and V at the load are kwon, find E.
 by considering a load at the end of a transmission line and by knowing the

load data V; P; Q, the angle between V and I can be computed as:
 If ϕ is known

Boucherot corollary: example
 once the value of the load current is known, the value of complex power of
the line impedance can be computed as:
 the global complex power of the loads becomes then:

Aload = ( P + Pl ) + j ( Q + Ql )
 by exploiting Boucherot balance
 Psou= P + Pl
A
=sou Aload ⇒
Qsou= Q + Ql

Boucherot corollary: efficiency of transmission line
 a transmission line can be seen as a device which takes the power in input
from sources and gives power in output to the loads
 as any energy managing device, a value of efficiency can be defined as

Power factor correction: minimization of line losses



Power factor correction: computation of C



Power factor correction: example






Introduction to poly-phase systems
 poly-phase systems are supply and load sets that use more than
one sinusoidal sources at a time
 these systems are widely used in industrial and in civil
applications because of their intrinsic advantages on single-
phase systems
 they are based on sinusoidal supply so they will be analyzed by
means of the phasor method
 mostly used poly-phase system is the three-phase source system
but there are also example of use of exa-, four- and two-phase
systems

Introduction to poly-phase systems
source system
 a poly-phase system of voltage sources is a set of N sinusoidal
voltage sources iso-frequential which are conveniently out of
phase with an angle
 the equal difference in phase implies that source waveforms

are distributed over one period and that the last waveform EN
is equally spaced with respect to E1
 a three-phase system is made by three voltage sources which
are out of phase of 2π/3

Three-phase system: time domain
 The basic element is the three-poles characterized by:

3
∑i
• Set of line currents i1, i2 and i3: k =1 k =0
a system with a resultant of the sum equal to zero is called

"pure"
• Set of phase voltages vf1, vf2 and vf3 dependent on the
center O. Considering another center O' we have:
'
v=fk v fk + v0 k=1,2,3
• Set of line voltages v12, v23 and v31:
0
v12 + v23 + v31 =
this set is a pure one.

Three-phase system
 The instantaneous power of the three-poles is:

3
p (t )
= ∑ v (t ) ⋅ i (t )
k =1
fk k
The power is independent on the center choose for the phase

voltages
Dem.

Three-phase system: phasor analysis
 If the sources are sinusoidal the phasor method gives:
• Set of line currents: 0

I1 + I 2 + I 3 =
Vf1 − Vf2 = V12


• Set of phase voltages: Vf2 − Vf3 = V23

Vf3 − Vf1 = V31
V f1
V f2
V f3
• Set of line voltages: 0
V12 + V23 + V31 =

Three-phase system: symmetric set
 symmetric sources set: a system where all sources have the

same rms value is called symmetric.
= V V= V= V31
 12 23
V=f V=f1 V=f2 V=f3 E


V = 3V f

3-phase symmetric positive sequence

3-phase symmetric negative sequence

Three-phase system: power
 The instantaneous power is:

3
 3   3 j 2ω t 
p (t ) = ∑ v fk (t ) ⋅ ik (t ) = ℜe ∑ V fk I k  + ℜe ∑ V fk I k e 
k 1 =  k 1=  k 1 
1 T
P=
T ∫
0
p (t )dt Double frequency power

 Recalling the ac single-phase power we have:
A = P + jQ = Vf1 I1 + Vf 2 I 2 + Vf3 I 3 complex power

3 3
ℜe { A} =
P= ∑ Pk =
∑V fk I k cosφk real or active power
=k 1=k 1
3 3
ℑm { A} =
Q= ∑ Qk =
∑V fk I k sinφk reactive power
=k 1=k 1
P
cosΦ = Three-phase power factor
A

∆
j2 π / 3
 Introducing e = α where:
α 0 = α 3 = α 6 = ... = 1
 1 j2 π / 3
 α = α 4
= α 7
= ... = α = e
α 2 = α 5 = α 8 = ... = α 2 = e j4 π / 3 = e − j2 π / 3


 In the symmetrical balanced system =

I I= I = I 1 2 3
and
equal phase angle we have:
1+ α + α2 = 0
 3 
{ }
p ( t ) − P =ℜe ∑ V fk ⋅ I k  =ℜe V f ⋅ I + α 2V f ⋅ I ⋅ α 2 + α ⋅ V f ⋅ I ⋅ α =
 k =1 
{( )
ℜe 1 + α 4 + α 2 ⋅ V f ⋅ I =
= } {( )
ℜe 1 + α + α 2 ⋅ V f ⋅ I =
0 }
A = 3V f I
p (t =
) P= 3V f Icosφ= 3VIcosφ
P
Q = 3VIcosφ cosφ =
A

Three-phase system: source connection
Y source connection
 a three-phase source system can
be obtained by the connection of
three sinusoidal sources
connected in one common point:
source voltages are called phase
voltage
 phase voltage values are not
directly measurable if the
common point 0 is not
accessible; line voltage can
always be measured between
wires

Three-phase system: load connection
 three-phase loads are made by connections of two terminal

components
 if the three impedances are equal in magnitude and phase the

load system is called balanced

Three-phase system: Y-Y circuit solution
 by connecting a set of Y sources with a one of Y loads a circuit

is obtained
 the structure is made by three branches, or phase circuits,

connected in parallel between start centers O and O'

Three-phase system: Y-Y circuit solution
3 3 3 3
A =∑ E k I k =∑ Z k I =P + jQ =∑ Pk + j ∑ Qk
2
k
=k 1 =k 1 =k 1=k 1

Three-phase system: Y-D circuit solution

Three-phase + neutral with impedance
 If the network is unbalanced we have:
 If the network is symmetrical and balance

 If the impedance in the neutral became a short circuit the neutral
wire become a constraints: the two points to have the same
potential

a
 the main effect of load unbalance is the voltage difference

between star centers: this effect can be canceled by inserting a
new conductor connecting them
 the fourth conductor:
• constraints the two points to have the same potential so that
• allows a new current to flow between two star centers
• wipes-off the advantage of

1/4th of material saving in
three-phase systems

Three-phase symmetrical and balanced system
balanced Y-Y solution

 if the load system is made by three impedance equal in
magnitude and phase, the load is called balanced and in this
case:
 If then the voltage applied to

each load impedance is equal to the one
of the source
 Since then all star centers of
balanced loads are at the same potential

balanced Y-Y solution

 since the two star centers are at the same potential, the
phase branch can be redrawn:

balanced Y-2Y solution

 since 0-01' and 0-02' are at the same potential, the circuit can
be redrawn:

balanced delta connected load solution

 the three currents Ijk are called phase currents while In are
called line currents
 if the three delta connected impedances form a balanced
load, then:

3-phase advantages
why is three-phase system used?

 use of three-phase supply system is widely spread in industrial
systems where transmission and use of large power quantities
is involved:
 the reasons of this fact can be found in the following
advantages of three-phase over single phase system:
• larger efficiency in transmission of power over long lines
• active component of instantaneous power is constant
• easy of use in electro-mechanical systems

3-phase advantages
power transmission line

 one single-phase and one three-phase transmission lines are
compared in terms of the volume of conducting material to
reach a given value of efficiency
 at the end of the line a load with the same values of V, P and
cosϕ are supplied
P P
I1 = I3 =
V cos ϕ 3V cos ϕ

3-phase advantages

3-phase advantages

3-phase advantages

Power system structure




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AC systems

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Phisical meaning of rms value of periodic function

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

transient and steady state response

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

transient and steady state response in sinusoidal case

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

binomial form → exponential form

exponential form → binomial form

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

sinusoidal functions ⇔ complex numbers

a ( t ) = ℜe { z ( t )} = z ⋅ cos ( ωt + ϕ ) cosinusoidal function

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 thus a link between z ( t ) and cosinusoidal or sinusoidal function

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Derivation rule: phasor is particularly suited to express in graphic

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 phasor method is particularly suited for the computation of

 due to the linearity of the ODE and to the properties of

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 while angular frequency ω is imposed by the forcing term, rms

 the use of complex numbers makes this computation easy to

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Example: RCL circuit with sinusoidal input

 Considering the sinusoidal input, by using the identity of phasor method:

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 by substituting inside differential equation

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 final equation is an algebraic one with complex unknown I and solution

 circuit equations could be time phasor

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Complicated and difficult

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 by considering a linear network supplied by a sinusoidal input

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

 Again the previous equation can be simplified to get:

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Example: RCL circuit with sinusoidal input

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Topological equations Constitutive equations

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy

Morris Brenna – Department of Energy